informatics

Review
Navigating Governmental Choices: A Comprehensive Review
of Artificial Intelligence’s Impact on Decision-Making
Gustavo Caiza 1 , Verónica Sanguña 2 , Natalia Tusa 2 , Violeta Masaquiza 2 , Alexandra Ortiz 3
and Marcelo V. Garcia 2,4, *

1 Electronics and Automation Department, Universidad Politecnica Salesiana, UPS, Quito 170146, Ecuador;
[email protected]
2 Faculty of Systems, Electronics and Industrial Engineering, Universidad Tecnica de Ambato, UTA,
Ambato 180206, Ecuador; [email protected] (V.S.); [email protected] (N.T.);
[email protected] (V.M.)
3 Unidad Educativa Mitad del Mundo, Ecuador Ministry of Education, Quito 170308, Ecuador;
[email protected]
4 Departamento de Ingeniería de Sistemas y Automática, University of the Basque Country, EHU/UPV,
48013 Bilbao, Spain
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +593-998-267-906

Abstract: The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into government decision-making is rapidly
gaining traction in public administration and politics. This scoping review, guided by PRISMA
protocols, examines 50 articles from reputable sources like Scopus and SpringerLink to analyze the
trends, benefits, and challenges of AI in governance. While AI offers substantial potential to enhance
government efficiency and service delivery, significant barriers remain, including concerns about bias,
transparency, public acceptance, and accountability. This review underscores the need for ongoing
research and dialogue on the ethical, social, and practical implications of AI in government to ensure
the responsible and inclusive adoption of AI-driven public services.

Keywords: artificial intelligence (AI); PRISMA; government decision-making; public administration;

development goals ODS
Citation: Caiza, G.; Sanguña, V.; Tusa,
N.; Masaquiza, V.; Ortiz, A.; Garcia,
M.V. Navigating Governmental
Choices: A Comprehensive Review of
Artificial Intelligence’s Impact on 1. Introduction
Decision-Making. Informatics 2024, 11, In recent years, there has been a transformative shift in the landscape of government
64. https://doi.org/10.3390/ management, moving away from traditional paradigms towards a more comprehensive
informatics11030064 and diverse approach. This departure from conventional systems is characterized by a
Academic Editor: Manuel Pedro meticulous analysis of various facets requiring updates to ensure the effective provision of
Rodríguez Bolívar public services [1]. The resulting changes, while necessitating increased investment, are
aimed at achieving heightened efficiency and effectiveness in administration, leveraging
Received: 17 May 2024 available financial resources. One pivotal driver of this transformation is the integration
Revised: 5 July 2024
of technology, particularly artificial intelligence (AI), which not only facilitates timely
Accepted: 15 July 2024
decision-making but also challenges both governmental bodies and the public to assimilate
Published: 4 September 2024
the evolving reality. The application of AI in public services involves the deployment
of automation techniques, streamlining routine tasks that are cumbersome for human
processing, and freeing up human resources for critical decision-making. This paradigm
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
shift enhances administrative efficiency across sectors such as healthcare, agriculture,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. security, education, and food sovereignty.
This article is an open access article The comprehensive and diverse approach to proper government management has
distributed under the terms and led to the breaking of mental paradigms from traditional theories applied in countries
conditions of the Creative Commons seeking to depart from the conventional public system. This involves a detailed analysis of
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// areas requiring updates for the proper provision of public services. Unfortunately, these
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ changes necessitate increased investment and aim to achieve efficiency and effectiveness in
4.0/). administration with the available financial resources [2].

Informatics 2024, 11, 64. https://doi.org/10.3390/informatics11030064 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/informatics

Informatics 2024, 11, 64 2 of 28

Technology enables timely and necessary action to make decisions in each innovation
that entities will implement. With the development of artificial intelligence, it poses a
challenge for both governments and the public in assimilating the reality we face [3]. Its
objective is to meet the unmet basic needs concerning the provision of public services,
which is the responsibility of central governments.
Artificial intelligence brings forth numerous benefits in the realm of public services.
By automating time-consuming and repetitive tasks, AI allows for rapid and accurate
execution, empowering human workers to focus on decision-making based on the gen-
erated results [4]. Furthermore, AI’s capacity to identify patterns and trends within data
is instrumental in predicting and preventing issues before they escalate, particularly in
areas such as natural disaster management, national security, and public health. Traditional
methods often demand a considerable amount of time, and the swiftness of AI-driven
analyses enables a more proactive approach. This strategic redirection of resources to-
wards high-level matters ensures more efficient governance and fosters transparency and
traceability, thereby strengthening public trust and accountability.
With the application of artificial intelligence in public services, automation techniques
are deployed to handle routine tasks that are difficult for human hands to process manually
in large amounts of data. Using appropriate techniques, time-consuming and tedious
tasks can be performed quickly and accurately, without disregarding the human workforce,
which can then be dedicated to decision-making based on the results, thereby improving
administrative efficiency in sectors such as healthcare, agriculture, security, education, and
food sovereignty [5].
Another significant aspect is that AI identifies patterns and trends in data that can
help predict and prevent problems before they occur [6]. This is valuable in areas such
as natural disaster management, national security, and public health, where traditional
methods would take a considerable amount of time. This allows resources to be directed
towards strategic and high-level matters, and the results obtained can be made more
transparent, making processes clearer and more traceable, thus strengthening public trust
and enhancing accountability.
The availability of information on the subject under study is significant and continues
to grow, as many governments have published reports and policies related to the adoption
of AI in their operations and decision-making [7]. These documents provide valuable
insights into the strategies, challenges, and approaches implemented in the integration
of AI. With the entire bibliography at hand, the aim of this review was to identify recent
trends and advancements in the application of artificial intelligence in the design and
implementation of public policies. Furthermore, this review sought to assess AI’s impact on
government decision-making, benefiting a wide range of stakeholders, from governments
and citizens to the academic sector. These studies contribute to the development of more
effective policies, transparent systems, and the improved delivery of public services.
Consequently, the application of artificial intelligence to government decision-making
has the potential to enhance efficiency, transparency, and the quality of public services,
but it also presents significant challenges that must be responsibly addressed. Therefore,
research in this field is essential to fully comprehend its implications and to maximize the
benefits while mitigating the associated risks [8].
The primary goal of this article is to conduct a comprehensive literature review utiliz-
ing the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses)
methodology. Building upon the insights provided in the preceding paragraphs, the review
aims to systematically analyze and synthesize existing research on the integration of ar-
tificial intelligence (AI) in government decision-making and public service provision. By
adhering to the PRISMA methodology, this review ensures a rigorous and transparent pro-
cess, incorporating a detailed analysis of relevant studies, reports, and policies published
by various governments. Through this systematic approach, the article seeks to identify
and highlight recent trends, advancements, challenges, and impacts associated with the ap-
plication of AI in the design and implementation of public policies. Furthermore, it aims to
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 3 of 28

contribute valuable insights that can benefit governments, citizens, and the academic sector,
fostering the development of more effective policies, transparent systems, and improved
public service delivery.
Through this exploration, we aim to shed light on the potential benefits and challenges
of AI integration, fostering discussions that can shape more effective policies, transparent
systems, and improved public service delivery. The highlights of the review are as follows:
• Methodological precision through PRISMA: The paper aims to uphold methodological
rigor by employing the PRISMA methodology, ensuring a systematic and transparent
approach to the literature review. This methodology guided the selection, screening,
and inclusion of relevant studies, reports, and policies related to the integration of
artificial intelligence (AI) in government decision-making and public service provision.
• Synthesis of insights and trends: The primary goal was to systematically analyze and
synthesize existing research to identify recent trends, advancements, challenges, and
impacts associated with the application of AI in the formulation and execution of pub-
lic policies. By doing so, the paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the
current state of knowledge in this domain, offering valuable insights for policymakers,
researchers, and stakeholders.
• Contribution to effective governance: Ultimately, the review seeks to contribute to the
development of more effective policies, transparent systems, and improved public
service delivery. By distilling key findings and lessons from the literature, the paper
aims to inform governmental bodies, citizens, and the academic sector, fostering a
better understanding of the implications of AI in government decision-making and
enhancing the overall quality of public services.
The present research work consists of five sections. Section 1 contains the introduction.
Section 2 presents the methodology. The subsequent Section 3 displays the results. Section 4
addresses and discusses the questions posed in the research methodology, and finally,
Section 5 presents the conclusions.

2. Methodology
This study involved conducting a comprehensive literature review focusing on the
intersection of artificial intelligence (AI) and governmental decision-making. To ensure
methodological rigor, the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and
Meta-Analyses) methodology was employed. Recognized for its importance in system-
atic reviews, PRISMA emphasizes standardization, transparency, bias minimization, and
quality enhancement, contributing to the credibility and utility of the review within the
scientific community.
In adherence to the principles of open and transparent science, we have pre-registered
our study protocol on the Open Science Framework (OSF). The complete methodology,
including detailed hypotheses, study design, data collection procedures, sample size
justification, and planned statistical analyses, is publicly available at https://osf.io/bsgx5
(accessed on 10 May 2024). This pre-registration serves as a transparent roadmap for our
research, enabling an independent evaluation of our methodological approach and helping
mitigate potential biases in the research process. The OSF registry provides comprehensive
information about our manipulated and measured variables, as well as the specific statistical
models we intend to employ for hypothesis testing. We encourage readers to review this
pre-registration for a thorough understanding of our approach. In the interest of full
transparency, any deviations from this pre-registered plan that may occur during the course
of the study will be explicitly noted and justified in our final analysis and reporting. This
commitment to open science practices underscores our dedication to conducting robust,
replicable research on the critical topic of artificial intelligence in government decision-
making.
To advance the research, various reputable sources, including Scopus, were accessed
to gather substantial information on the subject. Scopus underscores the significance of
artificial intelligence in the contemporary economy, highlighting challenges faced by tradi-
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 4 of 28

tional models [9]. In addition to this, the bibliographic–documentary research methodology

was utilized, conducting an analysis of previously researched information and data per-
taining to AI and government decision-making. This analysis delves into the innovative
techniques adopted by countries in this domain. A systematic approach was established
for the literature review, involving the identification, interpretation, and evaluation of
existing information. This process commenced with the use of carefully chosen keywords
to facilitate a targeted search.
The search criteria were refined by segmenting the publication timeline, relevance
to the research questions, and publications that reference these citations. By employing
keywords such as “artificial intelligence” and “governmental decisions”, pertinent bibli-
ographic information was uncovered [10]. Through this methodological framework, the
aim was to accurately summarize all collected bibliographic data, providing a guide for
assessing the quality of the systematic review. Given this context, the present review
concentrated on extracting information from diverse and esteemed databases accessible
to the authors. These include renowned platforms such as SpringerLink, MDPI, Scopus,
Web of Science (WoS), ACM, and IEEEXplore. It is essential to note that, although Google
Scholar, Scopus, and WoS stand out as widely utilized academic tools, Google Scholar was
excluded from consideration due to its inclusion of theses and reports that do not align
with the selection criteria for this research. Additionally, the review followed a structured
approach comprising three key steps: (i) defining research questions, (ii) conducting a
meticulous document search, and (iii) systematically selecting relevant papers.

2.1. Review Protocol

In accordance with academic studies published in reputable journals, a comprehensive
array of scientific article search tools was identified to enhance our understanding of the
subject matter. A meticulous review of these tools was conducted, prioritizing those that
make substantial contributions to ensure the quality and transparency of the review process.
This rigorous selection process aimed to furnish valuable insights for informed decision-
making within the governmental context and pinpoint areas warranting future research
endeavors.
Once the topic under investigation was clearly defined, we meticulously curated the
final bibliography, ensuring that it aligned with the research focus. This curated bibliogra-
phy served as a foundational resource for an in-depth understanding and documentation
in subsequent stages of the review.
Following the review of the bibliography, a nuanced assessment became imperative.
It was crucial to establish a clear focus for examination, aligning it with the study’s objec-
tives. This focused approach guided the collection of data and information, ensuring a
harmonious integration with the overarching goals of the research.

2.2. Research Questions

Each research question was carefully formulated in alignment with the central issue
under consideration. The objective was that, upon concluding this research endeavor, each
question would be addressed with clarity and precision. This endeavor was positioned
to make a positive impact on the economic and political development of our nation. The
current state of underdevelopment at the national level underscores the critical need
for a thorough examination, as there is a discernible absence of research conducted by
Ecuadorian authors dedicated to this crucial issue.
The multifaceted inquiry into how artificial intelligence influences governmental
decision-making, particularly in enhancing public confidence, serves as a pivotal focus
of this study. The research aims to discern how AI, through improved efficiency and
effectiveness, contributes to governmental decision-making by expediting data analysis,
identifying patterns, and furnishing recommendations grounded in accurate, real-time
information. This contribution, in turn, fortifies a government’s capacity to wield this
technological tool for the advancement of the country.
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 5 of 28

Additionally, a detailed exploration is intended to illuminate the evolution of poli-

cies and regulations in response to the escalating integration of artificial intelligence in
governmental decision-making, elucidating their practical impact. This nuanced inves-
tigation seeks to enhance the management of AI, ensuring the acquisition of more pre-
cise and accurate data. The research structure encompasses four core questions, strategi-
cally designed to encapsulate the spectrum of artificial intelligence’s role in governmental
decision-making (Table 1).

Table 1. Formulation of research questions.

Code Research Question Aim

How does the integration of arti- To examine the specific ways in
ficial intelligence in governmen- which AI improves government op-
RQ1 tal decision-making enhance effi- erations, including data processing
ciency and effectiveness in pub- capabilities, service delivery, and
lic administration? policy formulation.
What are the recent trends and To identify the latest innovations and ap-
advancements in the application proaches in the use of artificial intelligence
RQ2 of artificial intelligence to the de- in the field of public policies, assessing the
sign and implementation of pub- current state of research and policy imple-
lic policies? mentation based on AI.
How have policies and regula-
To analyze the regulatory frameworks being
tions been developed in different
established globally to govern AI use in pub-
RQ3 countries to oversee and regulate
lic administration, identifying best practices
the use of artificial intelligence in
and potential areas for improvement.
governmental decision-making?
What are the primary challenges To explore the technical, social, and ethi-
and ethical considerations in cal obstacles faced when integrating AI into
RQ4 implementing artificial intelli- public sector operations, including issues of
gence systems for government transparency, accountability, and potential
decision-making? biases.

AI systems can streamline administrative processes and enhance the efficiency of de-
livering public services. This can lead to increased accessibility and swiftness in addressing
the needs of citizens, which, in turn, can boost satisfaction.

2.3. Document Search

This section involves a meticulous search for relevant documents across esteemed
academic databases, aligning with the defined research questions. The PRISMA method-
ology, known for its emphasis on standardization and quality enhancement, provided a
robust foundation for this document search, contributing to the rigor and credibility of
our systematic review. This sub-section is integral to the overall research process, serving
as a critical step in identifying, screening, and selecting pertinent studies that contributed
substantively to our understanding of the intersection between artificial intelligence and
governmental decision-making.

List of Databases Used

In the pursuit of comprehensive and current insights into the subject under study,
information was diligently gathered from various database platforms, including Scopus,
Google Scholar, Web of Science, and others. The temporal scope of this database search
was specifically focused on the last five years, spanning from 2019 to 2023. This strategic
timeframe ensured that the research drew upon the most recent and relevant literature,
capturing developments and advancements within the dynamic landscape of artificial
intelligence and governmental decision-making. By limiting the search to this five-year
window, the aim was to provide a nuanced understanding that reflects the contemporary
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 6 of 28

state of the field, acknowledging the rapid evolution of technology and its applications
within the specified timeframe. This temporal specificity enhances the relevance and
timeliness of the gathered information, aligning with the overarching goal of conducting a
thorough and up-to-date literature review. See Table 2.
Prior to initiating the exploration of studies delineating the influence of artificial
intelligence on governmental decision-making, a methodically structured and succinct
search design was adopted. This preliminary phase aimed at ensuring the availability of
research papers directly pertinent to our subject of study. The employment of connectors,
including AND, OR, and NOT, along with judiciously applied filters, played a crucial role
in streamlining the search process. This strategic approach not only enhanced the precision
of our search but also contributed to the enrichment of the bibliography with studies most
germane to our research objectives.

Table 2. Search terms and justification of research questions.

RQ Key Concepts Search Terms Justification

These terms capture studies
- “artificial intelligence“,
discussing AI applications in
- Artificial “machine learning“,
government that lead to
intelligence “deep learning“
improved operations and service
RQ1 - Government - “government“, “public
delivery. The combination
- Efficiency administration“, “public sector“
allows for the identification of
- Effectiveness - “efficiency“, “effectiveness“,
research on AI’s impact on
“optimization“
governmental efficiency.
- “trends“, “advancements“,
This combination of terms,
- Recent “innovations“
coupled with the date range filter
developments - “artificial intelligence“,
RQ2 (2019–2023), ensured the capture
- AI applications “machine learning“
of the most recent innovations in
- Public policy - “public policy“, “policy design“,
AI applications for public policy.
“policy implementation“
These terms were designed to
- AI regulation
- “regulation“, “policy“, identify studies discussing the
- Policy
“governance“ development of regulatory
RQ3 development
- “artificial intelligence“, “AI“ frameworks for AI in
- Governmental
- “government“, “public sector“ government across
oversight
different countries.
- “challenges“, “barriers“,
This set of terms allows for the
- Challenges “obstacles“
identification of studies
- Ethical - “ethics“, “ethical
discussing both technical and
RQ4 considerations considerations“, “moral
ethical challenges in
- AI implications“
implementing AI in
implementation - “artificial intelligence“, “AI
governmental contexts.
systems“, “machine learning“

Our search strategy was meticulously crafted to align with the research questions
and encompass the full spectrum of the literature on artificial intelligence in government
decision-making. We employed a comprehensive set of key terms, strategically chosen
to capture the multifaceted nature of this field. The core of our search revolved around
artificial intelligence-related terms such as “artificial intelligence”, “machine learning”, and
“deep learning”. These terms were selected to ensure coverage of the wide array of AI
technologies relevant to governmental applications, from basic automation to sophisticated
predictive models.
To focus our search on the governmental context, we incorporated terms like “gov-
ernment”, “public administration”, and “public sector”. This approach allowed us to filter
out studies that might discuss AI applications in other domains, ensuring that our review
remained centered on the public sector. Additionally, we included decision-making related
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 7 of 28

terms such as “decision making”, “policy making”, and “governance” to align with our
research focus on how AI impacts governmental decision processes. This combination
of terms enabled us to capture studies that specifically addressed the intersection of AI
technologies and governmental decision-making mechanisms.
Our search query was carefully designed to address each of our research questions
comprehensively. For RQ1, which focuses on how AI enhances efficiency and effectiveness
in government, we combined AI terms with government and decision-making terms. This
approach allowed us to identify studies discussing the practical improvements AI brings
to governmental operations and service delivery. RQ2, concerned with recent trends
and advancements, was addressed by limiting our search to the years 2019–2023 and
including broad AI terms. This strategy ensured that we captured the latest innovations
and approaches in AI applications to public policy, providing a current snapshot of the
field.
To address RQ3, which examines policy and regulation development, we included
terms like “policy” and “governance” in our search. This inclusion helped us identify
studies discussing the evolving regulatory frameworks for AI in government across differ-
ent jurisdictions. Finally, for RQ4, which explores challenges and ethical considerations,
our broad search terms allowed for the inclusion of studies discussing both technical and
ethical challenges of AI implementation in government. This comprehensive approach
ensured that our review captured not only the potential benefits of AI in government but
also the critical discussions surrounding its responsible and ethical implementation.
Leveraging important document databases facilitates the affirmation that the latest re-
search pertaining to artificial intelligence and governmental decisions is contemporaneous.
Notably, numerous authors have contributed to this field within the current year, thereby
offering valuable insights and an up-to-date perspective on the research topic, supported
by recent bibliographic references.
The systematic search strategy employed in this study was designed to ensure compre-
hensive coverage of the literature relevant to artificial intelligence in government decision-
making. We utilized multiple databases to capture a wide range of academic publications,
recognizing that different databases may have varying strengths in coverage across disci-
plines. This approach allowed us to minimize bias and ensure a thorough representation of
the current state of research in this field.
Our search queries were tailored to each database’s specific syntax and capabilities
while maintaining consistency in the core concepts being explored. The following table
presents the exact search queries used for each of the primary databases consulted in this
study. These queries were constructed to balance specificity and sensitivity with the aim of
capturing all relevant literature while minimizing the inclusion of irrelevant studies.
The search queries presented in Table 3 were carefully constructed to capture the inter-
section of artificial intelligence and government decision-making across various contexts.
Each query was adapted to the specific syntax requirements of its respective database while
maintaining conceptual consistency. This approach ensured that we captured a comprehen-
sive set of the relevant literature, regardless of database-specific indexing practices.

Table 3. Search queries by database.

Database Search Query

TITLE-ABS-KEY((“artificial intelligence“ or “machine learning“ or “deep
Scopus learning“) and (“government“ or “public administration“ or “public sector“)
and (“decision making“ or “policy making“ or “governance“))
(“artificial intelligence“ or “machine learning“) and (“government
SpringerLink
decision-making“ or “public administration“ or “public policy“)
TS=((“artificial intelligence“ or “machine learning“) and (“government“ or
Web of Science
“public administration“) and (“decision making“ or “policy“))
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 8 of 28

In the Scopus database, we utilized the TITLE-ABS-KEY field code to search within
titles, abstracts, and keywords. This broad search scope allowed us to capture articles that
may not explicitly mention all terms in their titles but discuss relevant concepts in their
abstracts or keywords. For SpringerLink, which has a simpler search interface, we used a
more streamlined query that still encompassed the core concepts of our research. The Web
of Science query used the TS field tag to search in titles, abstracts, author keywords, and
Keywords Plus®.
These carefully crafted search strategies resulted in an initial pool of studies that
comprehensively represented the current state of research on AI in government decision-
making. The results from these searches were then subjected to our rigorous screening and
eligibility assessment process, as outlined in our PRISMA flow diagram. This meticulous
approach ensured that our final selection of studies for review was both comprehensive
and highly relevant to our research questions.

2.4. Study Selection

Our meticulous study selection process, grounded in the PRISMA (Preferred Report-
ing Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) methodology, was driven by the
recognition that artificial intelligence (AI), beyond serving as a systematic tool, holds the
potential to shape strategies for the economic development of a territory. The intersection
of politics and technological dependence in the public sphere implies an increasing reliance
on technological tools for political decision-making, dissemination, and propaganda.
Within this broader landscape, AI offers the promise of a more nuanced understanding
of global issues on a large scale, paving the way for enhanced and alternative solutions.
Addressing the pervasive issue of corruption in global politics while acknowledging the
absence of a foolproof formula, AI might contribute to transparency by creating oversight
mechanisms within public organizations.
In Figure 1, a PRISMA flowchart [11] illustrates our meticulous selection process. Fifty
articles underwent rigorous review by our research group, ensuring the meticulous selec-
tion of the most relevant ones contributing to our central research topic. This methodical
application of the PRISMA methodology added a layer of rigor and transparency to our
study, aligning with best practices in systematic reviews and enhancing the reliability of
our findings.

Figure 1. PRISMA flow chart.

The PRISMA flow chart generated from our systematic review process provides a
comprehensive visual representation of our literature search and selection methodology.
In the identification phase, we initially identified 1243 records through database searches,
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 9 of 28

specifically 543 from Scopus, 412 from SpringerLink, and 288 from Web of Science. This
diverse range of databases ensured a broad coverage of the literature on artificial intelli-
gence in government decision-making. We supplemented this with 10 additional records
identified through other methods: 1 from website searches and 9 from citation searching,
demonstrating our commitment to a thorough and multifaceted search strategy.
The identification of new studies via other methods, while yielding a smaller number
of records compared to database searches, played a crucial role in ensuring the compre-
hensiveness of our review. This approach allowed us to capture relevant literature that
might not have been indexed in the primary databases, including recent publications,
gray literature, or studies from interdisciplinary sources. The inclusion of these additional
sources enhanced the robustness of our review by mitigating potential biases inherent to
relying solely on traditional database searches.
During the screening phase, we first removed 213 duplicate records, leaving 1030
unique records for initial screening. This step is crucial for maintaining the integrity
of the review process and avoiding redundant evaluations. Of these, 800 records were
excluded based on title and abstract screening, leaving 230 full-text articles to be assessed
for eligibility. This substantial reduction demonstrates the rigorous application of our
inclusion and exclusion criteria, ensuring that only the most relevant studies progressed to
full-text review.
The full-text assessment stage resulted in the exclusion of 187 articles, with reasons
categorized into three main groups: 73 for not focusing specifically on government decision-
making (Reason1), 52 for lacking empirical data or being purely theoretical (Reason2),
and 62 for not addressing AI applications directly (Reason3). This detailed breakdown
of exclusion reasons provides transparency in our decision-making process and allows
readers to understand the specific criteria applied in our final selection. It is worth noting
that all 10 records identified through other methods were assessed, with 9 excluded for not
focusing on government decision-making and 1 for lacking empirical data, highlighting
the rigorous evaluation applied to all sources, regardless of their origin.
Ultimately, our systematic review process culminated in the inclusion of 43 studies,
representing the most relevant and high-quality research addressing our research questions
on artificial intelligence in government decision-making. This final selection reflects a
careful balance between comprehensiveness and specificity, ensuring that our review
captures the current state of knowledge in the field while maintaining a focused and
manageable scope.
Our search queries were meticulously crafted to balance sensitivity and specificity,
using a combination of controlled vocabulary and free-text terms relevant to artificial
intelligence and government decision-making. We tailored these queries to each database’s
specific syntax and capabilities while maintaining conceptual consistency across all searches.
The data selection process involved a multi-stage screening approach, with clearly defined
inclusion and exclusion criteria applied at each stage. The initial screening of titles and
abstracts was conducted independently by two reviewers, with disagreements resolved
through discussion or by a third reviewer. The full-text assessment similarly involved a
dual review, with a standardized form used to record reasons for exclusion.
Our data analysis process involved both quantitative and qualitative elements. We
extracted predefined data from the included studies using a standardized form, capturing
key information on study characteristics, methodologies, and findings. Thematic analysis
was then employed to synthesize the findings, identifying recurring themes and patterns
across the included studies. This approach allowed us to generate meaningful insights
while maintaining the nuance and complexity inherent to the diverse body of literature on
AI in government decision-making.

2.4.1. Quality Assessment and Risk of Bias Evaluation

In the pursuit of methodological rigor and the credibility of our systematic review, the
ensuing subsection delves into the crucial aspects of quality assessment and the risk of bias
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 10 of 28

evaluation. This stage is pivotal in ensuring the reliability and robustness of the selected
studies, as we systematically evaluated their quality and potential biases. Adhering to
established criteria and employing transparent methodologies, this assessment aimed to
discern the internal validity of each study, providing a comprehensive understanding of the
strengths and limitations inherent to the body of literature under review. This meticulous
evaluation process enhanced the trustworthiness of our findings and contributed to the
overarching goal of providing a nuanced and well-founded perspective on the intersection
of artificial intelligence and governmental decision-making.

2.4.2. Methods Used to Assess the Quality of the Included Studies

The comprehensive evaluation of methodological and informational quality consti-
tutes a pivotal step in scrutinizing the conduct and application of research, particularly
in the realm of how artificial intelligence influences governmental decision-making. The
objective is to establish a robust connection by meticulously assessing the methodological
quality of the cited scientific articles. This assessment is facilitated through the utilization
of a checklist specifically designed for evaluating information quality in research within the
economic, political, and social fields. The criteria encompass basic characteristics related to
the number of items, validity and reliability, applicability, and limitations.
To ensure a thorough examination, each study was scrutinized against these criteria,
providing a nuanced understanding of its methodological soundness and the reliability
of the information that it contributes. The emphasis on validity and reliability ensured
that the research under review met stringent scientific standards, bolstering the credibility
of our systematic review. Applicability and limitations were also carefully considered,
offering insights into the practical implications of the findings and acknowledging any
inherent constraints. This methodological scrutiny enhanced the discernment of the overall
quality of the included studies, contributing to the robustness of our systematic review.
The evaluation criteria employed in this subsection harmoniously converged with
the broader objectives of our systematic review. The assessment of methodological quality
ensured that the selected studies upheld rigorous scientific standards, fostering confidence
in the reliability and validity of the insights derived from them. By integrating a checklist
tailored to the economic, political, and social contexts, we aligned the evaluation process
with the specific nuances of our research domain. This meticulous integration allowed for
a nuanced understanding of the methodological rigor of each study, contributing to the
overall integrity of our systematic review.
Moreover, the evaluation process served to highlight the relevance of the selected
studies to the economic, political, and social aspects of governmental decision-making
influenced by artificial intelligence. By systematically applying the checklist, we discerned
not only the strengths of the research but also its limitations and applicability. This holistic
approach ensured that our systematic review went beyond a mere enumeration of findings,
offering a critical appraisal that enhances the scholarly value of the included studies.

2.4.3. Consideration of Bias Risk in the Included Studies

In addition to assessing methodological quality, our evaluation process diligently
considered potential biases inherent to the selected studies. Recognizing that bias can
impact the objectivity and generalizability of research findings, we systematically examined
each study for indications of bias. This included a critical assessment of factors such as
sampling bias, publication bias, and researcher bias. By conscientiously considering these
elements, our systematic review aimed to provide a balanced and objective synthesis of the
existing literature, acknowledging and mitigating potential sources of bias to bolster the
credibility of our findings.
To sort and analyze the gathered information, the following criteria detailed in Table 4
were considered:
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 11 of 28

Table 4. Criteria guiding the selection of studies in the systematic review, emphasizing aspects such
as publication type, research theme, geographical scope, and methodology.

Inclusion Criteria Description

Peer-reviewed journal articles and conference papers, government
Publication type
reports, and books.
Studies had to focus on the application of artificial intelligence in
Research theme
governmental decision-making.
No geographical restrictions; studies from local, regional, national, and
Geographic scope
international levels were included.
Studies that present clear methodologies and approaches in the
Methodology
application of artificial intelligence in governmental decision-making.

The criteria for analyzing the collected information were as follows: Selection was
based on a meticulous evaluation of publication types, limiting the inclusion to peer-
reviewed journal articles, conference papers, government reports, and books. The research
theme centered on the application of artificial intelligence to governmental decision-making,
emphasizing studies’ relevance. The geographical scope imposed no restrictions, encom-
passing studies from local to international levels. Methodology was a critical criterion,
ensuring that the selected studies present clear methodologies and approaches in applying
artificial intelligence to governmental decision-making.
For prioritization, considerations included relevance to the topic, recentness, language
usage (Spanish and English), and methodologies aligned with expected results. Addition-
ally, a thorough review ensured that references aligned with the information presented in
each paragraph. Systematic biases in participant sampling, occurring during selection and
data collection, can impact sample representativeness, affecting validity and generalizability.
The research sampling cycle denotes instances when a sample was not randomly selected or
lacked careful consideration to ensure that all population elements had an equal probability
of inclusion.

3. Results
In this section, a summary of the works selected from the review source is provided
as follows:
Technology is causing a disruption at an unprecedented speed and magnitude in
history. Technological innovations, large-scale data analytics, machine learning, and arti-
ficial intelligence are bringing about profound changes in our lives, both personally and
professionally. We are entering a context where many current occupations will disappear,
while new ones will emerge, demanding different skill sets. Government officials are
unprepared for the challenges they must encounter in the face of this rapid and disruptive
change, which is not gradual. Many of the governmental structures and processes that have
evolved over the past centuries will likely become irrelevant in the near future. There is an
urgent need to lay the groundwork for governments to reconsider how they can provide
more efficient services [12].
Ref. [13] provided evidence that the implementation of this mechanism is on the rise
in the public sector. However, there are shortcomings in understanding and acceptability
among the public, which depend on various factors. One of the main factors is the percep-
tion of utility. In other words, if the population perceives that this application enhances the
efficiency and effectiveness of public services by making responses to their needs quicker
and simplifying existing bureaucratic processes, the public’s response will be swifter. This
is because they will agree that AI can optimize various resources.
Although there is a growing consensus about the potential of analytical and cognitive
artificial intelligence (AI) tools to positively transform government, it is also evident that
AI poses challenges to traditional government decision-making processes and threatens the
democratic values in which they are framed. These conditions support cautious approaches
to AI that focus on cultivating and maintaining public trust. There are tools that illustrate
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 12 of 28

the differences between policy analysis and decision-making, as traditionally practiced,

and how they are evolving in the current context of AI, along with the challenges this poses
for using reliable AI. Ref. [10] provided a set of recommendations for practices, processes,
and governance structures in government that foster trust in AI and suggested lines of
research to support them.
Several countries have implemented national policies and guidelines to balance the
inherent benefits and challenges of innovative technologies. The aim of [14] was to identify
the most prominent issues addressed in national artificial intelligence (AI) policies and
assess their relative relevance across different countries. This study combined the results of
a thematic modeling analysis of 30 national AI policies with a qualitative content analysis
of policy documents. As a result of the analysis conducted, it identified fourteen common
key themes in national AI policies, focusing on areas related to education, technology,
and governance ethics and legality, and social welfare was then examined. The authors
analyzed the coexistence of these issues in all countries to determine the degree of emphasis
on each theme in each nation.
AI plays a fundamental role in the public domain, from understanding societal needs
to managing traffic flow in both large and small cities, as well as overseeing public trans-
portation systems and assisting the police in data management and citizen-government
communication. Ref. [15] argued that, in the context of a slowing global economy, the de-
velopment of AI could be crucial in boosting labor productivity, stimulating gross domestic
product (GDP) growth and enhancing federal, regional, and local communication. This
creates opportunities for new digital business strategies. To pursue this initiative, reliable
measurement tools aligned with each nation’s strategic AI goals are essential.
Ethics, applicability, responsibility, and accountability are crucial concepts for address-
ing the social implications of artificial intelligence and machine learning (AI), according
to [16]. However, they are insufficient to guide public entities in effectively regulating and
implementing AI. Recent designs for AI governance have contributed to its implementation
by identifying the processes and governance levels where they should be considered, but
they do not provide clear guidance on their implementation and understanding by public
sector professionals.
The results of the research conducted by [17] are relevant for local authorities, as they
indicate that smart cities must incorporate social innovation into their decision-making
processes. This is because smart decision-making involves sharing data collected with
entrepreneurs, businesses, and industries, benefiting society as a whole and all relevant
stakeholders, including actors in social innovation.
As the pressure to implement automated decision-making systems in the public
sector grows, the article by [18] proposed exploring how the use of AI in government,
in relation to existing data governance frameworks and national regulatory practices,
may be exacerbating preexisting balances. To this end, they investigated legal and policy
instruments related to the use of AI to strengthen the control over immigration processes in
various countries to personalize the experience of digital services, taking as an example
other countries that have already implemented this. They analyzed the specific effects of
automated decision support systems in public services and the increasing expectations
that governments play a more prominent role in digital society, ensuring that technological
potential is achieved while negative effects are controlled and minimized.
It is widely acknowledged that artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential to signifi-
cantly enhance the management of internal activities and the delivery of services in the
public sector. However, realizing this potential depends on the effective implementation of
the technology, influenced by unique factors that can either facilitate or hinder its adoption.
Despite its importance, there is still a limited understanding of these factors and how they
influence the implementation of AI. This has led to [19] investigating various contributions
that empirically and practically enrich the existing knowledge on these subjects.
Research conducted by [20] stemmed from the reality of applying artificial intelligence
(AI) in the public sector, generating knowledge from real-world experiences. The cited
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 13 of 28

article aimed to analyze the obstacles that government organizations face when adopting
AI. It was based on eight comprehensive case studies of AI solutions.
The public sector is moving towards the digital era, and it aims to capitalize on
past innovations in information technology (IT). A more systematic approach is needed
to anticipate the strategic potential of IT and promote ongoing innovation. This digital
transformation impacts every aspect of the public sector, from data collection and analysis
to service delivery. A clear example of this is evident in the statements made by [21],
discussing big data that enables faster, smarter, personalized government services; with
AI automating and optimizing government functions. Furthermore, it examined how the
public sector leverages IT innovations to maintain productivity, enhance cross-functional
collaboration, and improve the delivery of personalized e-services.
For ref. [22], the aim of the article was to enrich the theoretical discussion concerning
the relationships between digital governance and social innovation and their impact on
policy formulation to generate and harness the value of effective solutions addressing
social challenges. It encompassed the strengths and obstacles involved, with particular
attention to the increasing number of national strategies focused on innovation supported
via artificial intelligence (AI) and the resulting influx of investments in this field. To achieve
this, the article presented a conceptual framework that sought to connect, on the one hand,
the fundamental aspects and value drivers in digital governance for social innovation and
methods derived from the theory of complex systems for policy development. On the
other hand, it aimed to position national AI initiatives in relation to each nation’s welfare
initiatives.
Ref. [23] addressed perceived exclusivity and paternalism by setting goals and stan-
dards in the context of explainable artificial intelligence (AI). It also explored implications
for public AI governance. The authors argued that the increasing use of AI-based decisions,
including the development of autonomous systems, not only poses risks to human auton-
omy but also defines standards characterized by their lack of openness to effective public
participation. As several countries progress in AI governance, one of the essential tasks lies
in ensuring not only the technical “explainability“ of AI systems but also the questionability
of relevant standards and regulations, as well as the openness of government institutions
and processes to relevant accountability in each entity, year by year.
The technologies of artificial intelligence (AI) in public administration are gaining
increasing attention due to the potential benefits they can offer in improving government
operations. However, there are still difficulties in translating these technological opportuni-
ties into tangible public value for government institutions. One of the factors hindering this
progress is the lack of AI capacity within public organizations. This was analyzed by [20],
who identified various essential elements in the development and successful utilization
of AI technologies, including tangible, intangible, and human-related aspects. Among the
most significant challenges are the capacity for AI development and implementation, the
absence of internal technical expertise to maintain and update AI systems, legal barriers to
implementing developed systems, and the ability to incorporate organizational changes
to ensure that the system remains functional and is used by relevant end users. These
factors are critical obstacles to the long-term adoption of AI by public administrations.
It was emphasized that both technical and non-technical human skills are crucial for the
successful implementation of AI in the field of public administration.
Ref. [24] investigated the impact of introducing artificial intelligence in public entities
at a micro level, which implies examining how it influences the roles, competencies, and
responsibilities of the individuals involved, the focus of organizational design theory, and a
specific AI solution. In this case, the article mentioned how a chatbot could be implemented
in a customer service department to collect data, which is one of the common challenges
faced by organizations. The results confirmed that the implementation of AI is a highly
complex organizational challenge and suggest that teams operate similarly to institutional
personnel.
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 14 of 28

In several already developed countries, the use of artificial intelligence (AI) is preva-
lent. Machine learning (ML) has become crucial for addressing data management and
protection in the context of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). These SMEs
have established their own AI- and ML-based cybersecurity strategies, which are assessed
daily in their operations management and threat identification. The effectiveness of these
strategies depends on the support structure of each country. Ref. [25] employed a method-
ology involving quantitative and qualitative survey questionnaires directed at SME senior
management and both technical and non-technical professionals. The results suggested
that SMEs have the appropriate cybersecurity tools, although they may not always be
aware of their potential.
Artificial intelligence (AI) has garnered significant interest in society, and it is expected
that these technologies will offer significant benefits to public administrations if adopted.
Ref. [22] conducted an initial analysis aimed at identifying, categorizing, and understanding
current implementations of artificial intelligence in government services. This was done
through a documentary research approach, examining available documents describing
AI-related projects. The study identified and reviewed 85 AI applications in the public
sector of selected European countries. The results provided insights into various landscapes
and laid the groundwork for more in-depth research and the formulation of future policy
recommendations.
The United Nations (UN) has set forth 17 “Sustainable Development Goals” (SDGs),
one of which is SDG 11, focused on developing sustainable cities and communities. In this
context, local governments face the challenge of aligning themselves with this goal, and,
as a result, they are expanding their efforts to engage citizens in policy formulation and
strategy development, often by listening to the public through social media. In the same
context, ref. [26] identified that the data analysis process comprises three primary proce-
dures: (1) participation analysis, (2) trend-based analysis, and (3) data collection. The results
obtained indicate the following: (1) The COVID-19 pandemic has negatively impacted
user participation related to SDG 11. (2) New technologies such as artificial intelligence
(AI) are gaining more relevance in assisting cities in achieving SDG 11. And (3) there is an
interconnection between the different SDGs, such that progress in one of these goals can
influence the advancement of other SDGs.
The application of AI to public administration encompasses two key aspects [27].
Firstly, it enhances the efficiency of administrative machinery. By expanding the capabilities
of a public administration to resolve various problems, AI implementation increases the
efficiency of the public sector [28]. This can be observed through the establishment of virtual
agents in different policy domains such as healthcare and immigration, security control
and monitoring utilizing facial recognition to identify criminals, autonomous vehicles for
public transportation, chatbots for public service delivery, and image diagnosis to expedite
medical care. In all of these scenarios, AI alters the cost–benefit ratio within the public
sector, ultimately boosting the efficiency of public administration across various societal
sectors [29].
Furthermore, digital tools are transforming both the policy and organizational aspects
of public administration [30]. AI is reshaping administrative culture and modifying the ide-
ologies inherent to public management [31]. While sometimes reaffirming traditional values
like meritocracy and political neutrality, it also introduces new values such as efficiency and
control. Digital transformation within public organizations goes beyond simply reducing
the financial costs of public services; it fundamentally changes the institutional functioning
of public administration, driven by concerns related to control, costs, convenience, and
connectivity.
This disruptive organizational process is precisely what digital governance must ad-
dress to effectively harness the potential of digital technologies for governance purposes.
The disruptive potential offered by digital tools is immense. Digital transformation rep-
resents a significant phenomenon for research on public administration, as well as for
practitioners. It views technology as a component of a complex innovation process involv-
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 15 of 28

ing organizations, institutions, citizens, and businesses, all working together to transform
the value chain of public administration.
A crucial aspect to consider is the adoption of algorithms that fuel the increasing
automation and learning within public administration [32]. Algorithms, sequences of
instructions for problem-solving or task execution, have been employed in public admin-
istration processes for decades to aid decision-making. However, the major disruption
today stems from big data analytics, enabling AI systems to learn from massive datasets
and make autonomous governance decisions. Machine learning algorithms have been
developed to address complex issues by leveraging large volumes of data, and they can
operate under supervised or unsupervised learning models to generate predictions for the
problems at hand.
Ref. [33] focused on examining the current and emerging applications of AI that will
have an impact on most, if not all, functions of human resource management and their
prospects for enhancing human capital in the public sector. In particular, the following
aspects were addressed: (a) the current status of AI in relation to human resource man-
agement was analyzed; (b) the present and future impact of AI on core areas of human
resource management was evaluated; (c) the main challenges posed by AI in matters
such as public values, equity, and traditional merit system principles are identified; and
(d) the article concluded by highlighting research needs that underscore the growing role
and influence of AI applications in the workplace. These applications promise increased
efficiency, savings, and effectiveness in public administration and aim to better adapt to the
constantly changing current job landscape. For this reason, it is not surprising that these
advanced technologies are present in proposals aimed at enhancing human capital in the
government sector.
The approach of [34] aimed to measure the constructive outcome of the proposed
architecture, addressing issues such as the perceived risk and trust in citizens’ behavioral
intentions when using these cognitive AI communication channels. To assess the practical
applicability of this design’s science paradigm, action research was conducted, involving the
development of an application as a concrete example. In other words, this article combined
design theory and methods with behavioral sciences to create an effective communication
model, providing valuable insights into the implementation of AI in the public sector.
Ref. [35] proposed a conceptual framework that connects citizens’ perceptions, trust,
and intention to follow government-backed, AI-enabled recommendation system sugges-
tions. However, privacy concerns diminished trust, especially when the system requested
confidential information from citizens. Additionally, citizens familiar with technology
tended to have more trust in recommendations when a function-based communication
strategy was employed.
Governments can establish regulations for social media companies, which, in turn,
regulate the spread of disinformation on their platforms. Ref. [36] investigated the impacts
of initiatives against disinformation, many of which rely on automated decision-making
systems using artificial intelligence (AI) to handle the vast amount of content being shared.
These impacts were examined from a broader perspective that addressed both illegal
online content and the concern for requesting proactive (automated) actions from online
intermediaries to enable legal and policy measures.
Regarding security, [37] addressed various topics related to security, architecture,
robotics, detection, policies, and operations in the context of the Internet of Things (IoT).
This work included information on the latest advances in IoT research from the U.S. De-
partment of Defense, particularly the “Internet of Battle Things“ project. Additionally, it
examined the challenges associated with transitioning defense industrial operations to the
IoT and provided policy recommendations for regulating IoT use in government settings
within free societies.
The unprecedented speed and scope of technological disruption are transforming our
personal and professional lives. Public officials are not adequately prepared to address the
challenges posed by this exponential change. Many government structures and procedures
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 16 of 28

that have evolved over centuries could become obsolete in the near future. It is essential
to lay the groundwork for governments to reevaluate how they can better serve their
citizens [38].
Ref. [39] found that, from business applications to everyday situations, artificial
intelligence is having a significant impact on how we assess, analyze, and make decisions.
AI systems can quickly and accurately analyze large volumes of data, aiding in making
decisions based on accurate and relevant information. AI can identify hidden patterns and
trends in complex datasets. AI algorithms can process data in real time, enabling faster and
more efficient decision-making compared to traditional approaches. These systems can
adapt to individual preferences and needs, making decision-making more personalized
and tailored to each user or specific situation. They can handle repetitive and routine
tasks, freeing up time and resources for humans to focus on more strategic and high-value
tasks. As mentioned earlier, artificial intelligence has the ability to learn from previous
experiences and continually improve as more information and data become available.
By automating certain aspects of decision-making, AI can help reduce human error and
increase consistency in decision-making.
Ref. [40] mentioned that the analysis of artificial intelligence methods as a tool to
support government decision-making on specific functions is still insufficient. For example,
government budgeting can be considered one of the most crucial internal functions of
administration, and it is necessary to understand how artificial intelligence can affect this
function. This article explores the potential of artificial intelligence techniques to categorize
government budget allocations for various programs and policies. Based on the results of
this study, we argue that the use of artificial intelligence techniques in government as a
data analysis tool can contribute to more effective decision-making in government.
Governments like the government of Egypt have implemented strategies that acceler-
ate and support socioeconomic progress. For this, [41] discussed a significant information
infrastructure and decision support systems in various parts of this country, which in
turn led towards radical changes in information systems for citizens. These activities are
proposed to enable the government to make informed decisions for their proper implemen-
tation.
Ref. [42] demonstrated the economic and environmental problems arising from ur-
banization and water quality degradation in Southeastern California. They identified
and evaluated various specific watershed and site-level solutions, considering their ef-
fects on basin flooding, recreational opportunities, water quality, and ecological resources.
They even proposed alternatives borne from artificial intelligence with the sole purpose of
addressing this challenging environmental situation with limited economic resources.
The aim is to enrich the understanding of the role played by AI in knowledge man-
agement. Both the possibilities and inherent constraints of fundamental AI technologies
are examined and analyzed concerning their capacity to support the knowledge manage-
ment process. Additionally, ideas and estimations about future research focused on the
development of next-generation decision-support environments are shared. Within this
context, [43] sought to enrich the understanding of the role played by AI in knowledge
management. Both the possibilities and inherent constraints of fundamental AI technolo-
gies were examined and analyzed concerning their capacity to support the knowledge
management process. Additionally, ideas and estimations about future research focused on
the development of next-generation decision support environments were shared.
The use of Big Data (large volumes of data and how they are used) has modernized
societies because significant volumes of data are generated daily, and this is expected to
increase significantly in the coming years. Faced with the challenge of turning this vast
amount of data into useful information, the importance of using advanced technologies
such as machine learning has been recognized. Ref. [44] highlights that machine learning
is a technology capable of addressing Big Data classification for statistical purposes and
even more complex tasks such as decision-making. This aligns perfectly with the vision of
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 17 of 28

Government 3.0, which explores new opportunities to address contemporary challenges by

leveraging innovative data-based technologies for decision-making.
The effectiveness of municipal solid waste (MSW) management services is a key
indicator of a city’s sustainability. The sustainable development goals (SDGs) have been
established as a global roadmap to promote sustainability in various situations, including
normal and disaster situations, according to Goal 11, which aims to create sustainable cities
and communities through comprehensive disaster risk management. Local governments
play a crucial role in the adoption and implementation of local disaster risk reduction
strategies. In this context, [45] present findings that can contribute to the development
of an appropriate mitigation plan for waste management systems in flood-prone areas,
promoting practices that encourage the sustainable development of cities and communities
and the achievement of the SDGs.
Ref. [46] examined the impact of public spending in a capital accumulation model
based on an adaptation of optimization models. The cited models allow for the identifi-
cation of the optimal size of the public sector and the composition of state spending that
maximizes the growth rate in the transition to a steady state and the long-term per-capita
income level. Different allocations of public resources lead to different growth rates during
the transition phase, depending on the variables involved. However, it is important to
note that the effects of fiscal policy are essentially temporary. Ultimately, we argue that not
taking into account the nonlinear nature of the relationship between public spending and
growth could distort the results in empirically conducted studies.
Due to fiscal constraints and the increasing demand for transparency, government offi-
cials are reviewing the structure and reporting practices of local administrations. However,
these efforts are often incomplete, as they do not consider special government levels that
are part of the nation. These governments increase government costs, redirect the allocation
of limited resources, conceal debt and spending practices from public scrutiny, and reduce
the democratic oversight of elected officials. Ref. [47] highlighted public interest concerns
regarding these entities with the aim of informing future research focused on this area for
improvement and effective development.
Ref. [48] mentioned that social media is replacing traditional media, and being active
on them has become an obligation for many organizations. Besides allowing people to
express their ideas freely and independently, even though they can create tension, they serve
as an uncensored means of expression, enabling institutions to make strategic decisions
based on available data analysis. Moreover, the more complex the data, the more valuable it
is for the company. According to available data, artificial intelligence can play a significant
role as machines replace the need for humans in decision-making and make decisions
accordingly. While the European General Data Protection Regulation is beginning to
regulate stored data from European citizens, companies continue to store and control vast
amounts of user data.
Ref. [49] focused on the relationship between the documentation of social program
goals and their execution within the budgetary context. This article emphasized the
importance of considering fiscal policy as an instrument for achieving government program
goals to assess the level of compliance with social goals using information derived from
the experience of results-based budgeting in countries that have implemented it.
Ref. [50] explained that social networks are replacing traditional media. How-
ever, recent research often emphasizes the combination of large-scale datasets and high-
performance computing technologies, which is often far from the reality for many govern-
ment agencies that still heavily rely on their legacy systems and time-consuming methods.
To overcome this limitation, in this study, we attempt to bridge the gap between cutting-
edge artificial intelligence technologies and current government practice by exploring the
potential of artificial intelligence and comparing the performance of linear probability,
random forest, and deep learning.
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 18 of 28

Summary of Key Findings from Included Studies

The VOSviewer-generated co-occurrence network of keywords presented in Figure 2
offers a comprehensive visual representation of the key themes and their interconnections
within the field of artificial intelligence in government decision-making. This visualization
not only confirms the multidisciplinary nature of research in this area but also highlights
the complex relationships between various concepts that are central to the discourse on AI
in public administration.

Figure 2. Co-occurrence network of keywords.

At the heart of the network, ”artificial intelligence” emerges as the dominant node,
underscoring its pivotal role in the analyzed literature. This central position is closely
orbited by ”machine learning” and ”big data,” indicating the technical foundations upon
which AI applications in government are built. The prominence of these nodes suggests
that much of the current research focuses on the practical implementation of AI technolo-
gies, leveraging machine learning algorithms and large-scale data analysis to enhance
governmental decision-making processes.
The network reveals a significant cluster formed by ”government,” ”public administra-
tion,” and ”decision-making,” highlighting the specific context in which AI is being studied
and applied. This cluster’s strong connections to ”artificial intelligence” demonstrate the
growing integration of AI technologies into core governmental functions. Additionally, the
presence of ”governance,” ”policy,” and ”public policy” as interconnected nodes reflects
the broader implications of AI adoption, suggesting that research is not limited to technical
implementation but also encompasses the strategic and policy-level considerations of AI in
the public sector.
An important theme that emerges from the visualization is the focus on ethical and
governance principles, as evidenced by the cluster containing ”accountability,” ”trans-
parency,” and ”discretion.” The prominence of these terms indicates a significant concern
within the research community regarding the responsible implementation of AI in govern-
ment. This cluster’s connections to both technical and administrative nodes suggest that
ethical considerations are being integrated into discussions of AI across various aspects of
public administration.
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 19 of 28

The network also highlights the technical aspects of AI implementation through the
close association of “automated decision-making” and “algorithms”. This pairing, along
with its connections to other key terms, implies a substantial focus on the mechanisms by
which AI systems make or support decisions in governmental contexts. The presence of
“challenges” as a notable keyword, linked to various other terms, suggests that the literature
critically examines the obstacles and potential drawbacks of AI integration in government
processes.
Lastly, the appearance of “digital government” and “e-government” in the network
illustrates how AI is being conceptualized within the broader context of digital transforma-
tion in the public sector. These terms’ connections to other nodes indicate that AI is not
viewed in isolation but as part of a larger technological shift in how governments operate
and interact with citizens.
Figure 3 presents a network visualization of international collaboration and the re-
search focus in the field of artificial intelligence in government decision-making, generated
using VOSviewer (https://www.vosviewer.com/). This graph offers valuable insights into
the global landscape of research in this domain, highlighting key players and evolving
trends from 2020 to 2023. The nodes represent countries, with their size indicating the
volume of research output, while the connecting lines demonstrate collaborative relation-
ships between nations. The color spectrum, ranging from purple (2020) to yellow (2023),
illustrates the temporal evolution of research activities.

Figure 3. Co-authorship network countries.

The United States emerges as the central hub in this network, represented by the
largest node with numerous connections to other countries. This positioning underscores
the USA’s significant contribution to the field and its pivotal role in fostering international
collaborations. Strong links are visible between the USA and other major research centers
such as England, Australia, and Brazil, indicating robust collaborative efforts among these
nations. The prominence of these connections suggests a concentration of research expertise
and resources in these countries, potentially driving the global research agenda in AI for
government decision-making.
Interestingly, the visualization reveals an evolving landscape of the research focus over
time. Countries like South Korea and India are represented in lighter shades, suggesting
more recent and growing contributions to the field. This trend may indicate an increasing
global interest in AI applications for governance, with emerging economies playing an
increasingly significant role. In contrast, nodes representing countries like England and
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 20 of 28

Australia appear in darker shades, implying their established and ongoing involvement in
this research area over the examined period.
The network also highlights some unexpected patterns. For instance, despite its
significant technological advancements, Japan is notably absent from this visualization.
This could suggest either a focus on domestic research or a potential gap in international
collaboration in this specific field. Similarly, the presence of countries like Mexico and
South Africa, albeit with smaller nodes, indicates a broadening geographical spread of
the research interest in AI for government decision-making, extending beyond traditional
tech hubs.
This visualization not only maps the current state of international collaboration in
the field but also hints at future trends. The varying node sizes and connection strengths
suggest disparities in research output and collaborative intensity among different countries.
As the color spectrum indicates a progression towards more recent years, it is evident
that the field is dynamic, with new players emerging and established ones continuing
to evolve their research focus. This global perspective is crucial for understanding the
diverse approaches and priorities in implementing AI in government decision-making
across different national contexts.
Figure 4 presents a bibliometric network visualization of author collaborations and
research influences in the field of artificial intelligence in government decision-making,
generated using VOSviewer. This network map offers valuable insights into the key
contributors and evolving research trends from 2017 to 2024. The nodes represent individual
authors, with their size indicating the volume and impact of their publications. The
connecting lines demonstrate collaborative relationships between researchers, while the
color spectrum, ranging from dark blue (2019) to yellow (2024), illustrates the temporal
progression of research activities.

Figure 4. Citation density map.

At the center of the network, we observe several prominent nodes representing highly
influential authors in the field. Dwivedi (2021) and Zhang (2021b) stand out as major
contributors, indicated by their large node sizes and central positions. Their prominence
suggests that these researchers have produced significant work that has shaped the dis-
course on AI in government decision-making. The strong connections between these central
nodes and other researchers indicate a high degree of collaboration and knowledge-sharing
within the field.
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 21 of 28

The visualization reveals an interesting temporal evolution of the research focus. Au-
thors such as Coglianese (2017) and Berman (2018), represented by darker-colored nodes,
appear to have laid foundational work in the field. In contrast, authors like Lamaysek (2023)
and Robles (2023), depicted in lighter shades, represent more recent contributions, poten-
tially bringing new perspectives or addressing emerging challenges in the application of AI
in governance.
The network structure also highlights several distinct clusters of researchers, suggest-
ing the existence of specialized subfields or research groups within the broader domain
of AI in government decision-making. For instance, the cluster around Busuioc (2021)
and De Bruijn (2022) might represent a focus on specific aspects of AI implementation in
public administration, while the group including Valle-Cruz (2020) and Liu (2019) could be
exploring different dimensions of the topic.
This bibliometric analysis not only maps the current state of research collaboration in
the field but also hints at future trends. The varying node sizes and connection strengths
suggest disparities in the research output and collaborative intensity among different
researchers. The presence of nodes dated to 2024, such as those of Gaozhao (2024) and
O’Connor (2024), indicates ongoing and future research directions, highlighting the dy-
namic and evolving nature of this field.
The visualization provides a comprehensive overview of the research landscape,
demonstrating the interdisciplinary nature of AI in government decision-making. It shows
how the field has evolved from earlier works focusing on foundational concepts to more re-
cent studies that likely address specific applications, challenges, and ethical considerations
of AI in governance. This network analysis is crucial for understanding the intellectual
structure of the field, identifying key influencers, and recognizing emerging research fronts
in the rapidly advancing domain of AI in public sector decision-making.

4. Discussion
After reviewing the 50 selected articles, it is possible to provide a scientific assessment
of artificial intelligence and government decision-making. Subsequently, the questions
posed in Section 2 are addressed. (Table 1).

4.1. Answer to Question 1—RQ1

Currently, the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in administrative decision-making
in the governmental context is steadily increasing. Despite this upward trend, research
that has explicitly explored its relationship with good management is scarce. There is a
possibility that the full implementation of automated administrative decision-making may
be seen as a form of ”robotic governance,” which could entail risks to good management.
Therefore, it is essential not to marginalize the contribution of the human workforce but,
rather, to promote their collaboration. Relying too heavily on AI in decision-making could
reduce human productivity.
However, the introduction of artificial intelligence into government decision-making
has proven to be beneficial in several aspects. It has allowed for the reduction in bu-
reaucratic processes and more efficient access to services, increasing the perception of
effectiveness and efficiency among the public. AI systems have empowered governments
to process large volumes of data accurately and swiftly, resulting in more informed and
equitable decisions and strengthening the perception of impartiality.
However, the implementation of AI in government decision-making also presents
challenges. The lack of understanding about how AI algorithms work, as well as the
possibility of bias in the data used to train these systems, raises concerns. Consequently, it
is imperative for governments to address these challenges and commit to using AI in an
ethical and responsible manner, ensuring that the public’s trust does not diminish but, on
the contrary, is strengthened.
The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into governmental decision-making pro-
cesses presents a significant opportunity to enhance public confidence in the government’s
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 22 of 28

ability to address complex challenges. By leveraging AI technologies to expedite data

analysis, identify intricate patterns, and offer recommendations grounded in real-time and
accurate information, governments can optimize the efficiency and effectiveness of their
decision-making mechanisms. This transformative shift towards data-driven governance
not only streamlines administrative processes but also fosters a sense of trust and reliability
among the public, as they perceive the government’s capacity to address complex societal
issues promptly and effectively.
Furthermore, the utilization of AI in governmental decision-making not only enhances
operational efficiency but also promotes a culture of transparency and accountability.
AI systems’ ability to process vast amounts of data swiftly and accurately empowers
governments to make informed decisions based on evidence and insights derived from
complex datasets. This data-driven approach optimizes resource allocation and ensures
that public services are managed efficiently, meeting the diverse needs of citizens in a
timely manner. Consequently, the integration of AI technologies in governmental decision-
making processes can lead to improved service delivery, increased public satisfaction, and
ultimately, strengthened confidence in the government’s problem-solving capabilities.
The adoption of artificial intelligence in governmental decision-making represents
a paradigm shift towards more effective and responsive governance. By harnessing the
power of AI to enhance decision-making processes, governments can not only improve
operational efficiency but also strengthen public trust and confidence in their ability to
tackle pressing issues. The strategic implementation of AI technologies holds the promise
of fostering a more transparent, accountable, and citizen-centric approach to governance,
ultimately contributing to a more resilient and adaptive government machinery.

4.2. Answer to Question 2—RQ2

Although artificial intelligence is more commonly applied in the healthcare sector, it is
currently being implemented in various relevant sectors, leading to the creation of public
policies for environmental preservation due to the evident gradual depletion of natural
resources. One of the most notable advantages of these tools is their capacity to analyze
and process large volumes of data.
Recently, the European Union has launched a program aimed at promoting the Euro-
pean supercomputing ecosystem to boost scientific research and enhance the quality of life
for its citizens. Nine of these projects focused on objectives related to the environment and
sustainability. However, despite the evident benefits of artificial intelligence, it is crucial to
highlight that this technology is in its early stages of development, raising concerns in the
environmental domain. The significant energy consumption and time required to train AI
models can have a substantial impact on carbon emissions, exacerbating challenges related
to climate change.
Currently, efforts are being made to develop environmentally sustainable artificial
intelligence technologies, minimizing energy usage and reducing the carbon footprint.
Choosing the appropriate AI model architecture can reduce energy consumption by up to
90%, which is a positive step towards environmental conservation, one of the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs).
In addition to the environmental domain, artificial intelligence is finding its way into
a wide range of public policy areas, demonstrating its versatility and potential to address
complex societal challenges. In the realm of social policy, for instance, AI-powered tools are
being employed to enhance the delivery of social services, such as identifying individuals
in need of assistance, automating benefit applications, and optimizing resource allocation.
This is particularly crucial in addressing issues like poverty, inequality, and social exclusion.
Furthermore, artificial intelligence is proving instrumental in the development of more
efficient and effective transportation systems, contributing to the creation of smart cities. By
analyzing real-time traffic data, AI algorithms can optimize traffic flow, reduce congestion,
and enhance public transportation efficiency. This not only reduces travel time but also
minimizes environmental impact through reduced emissions.
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 23 of 28

The application of AI in public policy extends beyond specific sectors, encompassing

the development of more effective and efficient governance structures. For example,
AI-powered chatbots are being deployed to provide citizens with streamlined access to
information and services, enhancing government transparency and accountability. The
use of AI in public procurement processes is also gaining traction, with the potential to
optimize resource allocation, identify potential fraud, and improve overall efficiency.
It is important to note that, while the potential of AI in public policy is immense, its
implementation requires a careful consideration of ethical, legal, and societal implications.
The development of appropriate regulatory frameworks and ethical guidelines is essential
to ensure the responsible and equitable use of AI in policymaking. Transparency and
accountability in the use of AI algorithms are paramount to building public trust and
ensuring the technology’s long-term viability in the public sphere.

4.3. Answer to Question 3—RQ3

Artificial intelligence (AI) is currently one of the most widely used mechanisms
worldwide. Several countries have implemented national policies and guidelines to address
AI, balancing its advantages and challenges in international efforts to regulate cutting-edge
technologies. AI, along with its associated advanced technologies, has the potential to
provide benefits to society as a whole, including individuals, businesses, and governments.
However, this promising landscape also raises ethical, legal, social, and political issues of
great relevance.
In response to recent and concerning incidents related to deep learning algorithms,
the spread of fake news and AI-based political misinformation, as well as ethical dilemmas
associated with autonomous systems and challenges in algorithmic decision-making, both
national and international organizations have developed policies, strategies, and action
plans to address the risks and benefits of AI. According to the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) AI Observatory, more than 60 countries have
created their own national AI policies to oversee and regulate this double-edged technology,
and this number continues to grow.
Due to differences in economic, social, and political conditions among countries,
these AI policies and initiatives have been developed with the consideration of national
regulations and international standards. Most previous research has focused on various
perspectives and narratives in various regions of the world, especially in Europe and
developed nations.
The European Union (EU) has been at the forefront of AI regulation, adopting a com-
prehensive approach that prioritizes ethical considerations and human-centric principles.
The EU’s “Ethics Guidelines for Trustworthy AI“ provide a framework for developing and
deploying AI systems in a responsible manner, emphasizing principles such as human
oversight, fairness, transparency, and accountability. The EU’s General Data Protection
Regulation (GDPR) also plays a crucial role in safeguarding data privacy and ensuring the
ethical use of personal data in AI applications.
In the United States, the focus has been on promoting innovation and fostering a
competitive AI landscape. The White House Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP)
has released guidelines for the development and use of AI, emphasizing the importance of
responsible innovation and addressing potential risks. The National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) has also developed a framework for AI risk management, outlining
key considerations for organizations developing and deploying AI systems.
China, on the other hand, has adopted a more centralized approach to AI regulation,
prioritizing national security and economic competitiveness. The Chinese government
has issued guidelines for the development and application of AI, emphasizing the need
for ethical development and promoting the use of AI in strategic sectors. The focus
in China is on fostering a robust domestic AI industry and leveraging AI for national
development goals.
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 24 of 28

While different countries are taking varying approaches to AI regulation, there is a

growing recognition of the need for international cooperation to address the global chal-
lenges and opportunities presented by AI. International organizations like the OECD, the
United Nations, and the World Economic Forum are playing an increasingly important role
in facilitating dialogue and collaboration among countries to develop common principles
and standards for the ethical and responsible development and use of AI.
As AI continues to evolve rapidly, the need for robust and effective regulatory frame-
works will only increase. The challenge lies in striking a balance between promoting
innovation and ensuring responsible AI development and deployment. International
cooperation, transparency, and continuous dialogue among stakeholders will be crucial
for navigating the complex landscape of AI regulation and ensuring its beneficial impact
on society.

4.4. Answer to Question 4—RQ4

The implementation of artificial intelligence systems in government decision-making
processes presents a complex array of challenges and ethical considerations. One of the
primary technical obstacles is the integration of AI systems with existing government infras-
tructure, which often involves legacy systems and disparate data sources. This integration
requires significant resources and expertise, potentially creating a digital divide between
well-funded and under-resourced government entities. Moreover, the need for high-quality,
unbiased data to train AI models poses another technical challenge, as government datasets
may be incomplete or outdated, and they may reflect historical biases.
From a social perspective, the introduction of AI in government decision-making raises
concerns about job displacement and the changing nature of public sector work. There is a
pressing need for upskilling and reskilling programs to prepare government employees for
roles that complement AI systems, rather than competing with them. Additionally, public
acceptance and trust in AI-driven decisions remain significant hurdles. Citizens may be
skeptical of algorithmic governance, particularly if they perceive it as opaque or detached
from human judgment.
The transparency and explainability of AI systems emerge as critical ethical consid-
erations. The “black box“ nature of some advanced AI algorithms can make it difficult to
understand and justify decisions, potentially undermining principles of democratic gover-
nance and accountability. This lack of transparency can also hinder the ability to detect and
correct biases in AI-driven decisions, which may disproportionately affect marginalized
communities. Researchers have emphasized the need for interpretable AI models and clear
mechanisms for challenging and appealing AI-generated decisions in government contexts.
Accountability presents another significant ethical challenge. Determining responsi-
bility when AI systems contribute to or make decisions that lead to negative outcomes is
a complex issue. This becomes particularly problematic in areas such as criminal justice,
welfare distribution, or public resource allocation, where decisions can have profound
impacts on individuals’ lives. Establishing clear lines of accountability and developing
robust oversight mechanisms are essential to ensure that AI systems align with democratic
values and public interests.
The potential for AI to amplify existing biases or create new forms of discrimination is a
pressing ethical concern. AI systems trained on historical data may perpetuate or exacerbate
societal inequalities, leading to unfair or discriminatory outcomes in government services
and decision-making. Addressing this issue requires not only technical solutions, such
as bias detection and mitigation algorithms, but also diverse and interdisciplinary teams
involved in AI development and deployment. Ensuring representation from various
societal groups in the design and implementation of AI systems is crucial for creating more
equitable and inclusive government services.
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 25 of 28

5. Conclusions
In recent years, the adoption of artificial intelligence (AI) in government decision-
making on a global scale has been steadily increasing. Many governments have expressed
interest in investing in AI-based solutions to enhance data processing and make more
efficient and effective decisions to address growing societal needs. An analysis of liter-
ature from relevant sources over the past five years shows that AI has made significant
advancements in various fields, although it also faces significant challenges related to ethi-
cal considerations, privacy, security, and regulation. Striking a balance between fostering
innovation and protecting the fundamental rights and values of society is crucial for the
continued development of AI.
As a result, the integration of artificial intelligence into government decision-making
is an evolving process. As technologies advance and policies and practices are refined,
it is essential to maintain a balance between driving innovation and safeguarding the
fundamental rights and values of society. Collaboration between researchers, policymakers,
and society as a whole plays a crucial role in shaping a future where AI will become a
valuable tool for government decision-making.
Future research directions in the field of AI in government decision-making should
address several key areas to advance our understanding and improve the practical imple-
mentation of these technologies. One critical avenue for future work is the development
of comprehensive frameworks for ethical AI governance. While current research has
identified ethical concerns, there is a need for studies that propose and empirically test
governance models that balance innovation with accountability, transparency, and fairness
in public-sector AI applications.
Another important direction is the exploration of AI’s role in enhancing participatory
democracy and citizen engagement. Future studies should investigate how AI can be
leveraged to facilitate more inclusive policy-making processes, improve public consultation
mechanisms, and bridge the gap between government decisions and citizen preferences.
This could involve research into AI-powered platforms for citizen feedback, sentiment
analysis of public opinions, and the use of AI in processing and incorporating diverse
public inputs into policy formulation.
The long-term societal impacts of AI-driven government decision-making represent a
crucial area for longitudinal studies. Researchers should design and conduct multi-year
investigations to assess how the increasing use of AI in governance affects public trust,
civic participation, and the overall quality of democratic processes. Such studies could
provide valuable insights into the potential unintended consequences of AI adoption and
help in developing strategies to mitigate negative outcomes while maximizing benefits.
Additionally, there is a pressing need for comparative studies examining AI imple-
mentation across different cultural, political, and economic contexts. While much of the
current research focuses on developed nations, understanding how AI can be adapted and
implemented in diverse governmental systems, particularly in developing countries, is
crucial for global progress in this field. Such studies could provide valuable insights into
best practices for AI adoption that are sensitive to local governance structures, resource
constraints, and cultural norms.
Future work should also address the challenges of AI implementation in crisis man-
agement and disaster response within governmental contexts. Research into how AI can
enhance government responsiveness, resource allocation, and decision-making during
emergencies and natural disasters could yield significant practical benefits. This could
include developing AI models for predicting and mitigating the impacts of crises, as well
as optimizing the coordination of multi-agency responses.

Author Contributions: Software, N.T.; validation, G.C., V.S., N.T., and V.M.; formal analysis, M.V.G.;
resources, A.O.; data curation, G.C., V.S., and V.M.; writing—original draft, V.M. and M.V.G.; visual-
ization, A.O.; supervision, M.V.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Informatics 2024, 11, 64 26 of 28

Funding: This research was funded by Universidad Tecnica de Ambato (UTA) and their Research
and Development Department (DIDE) under project PFISEI32. Additionally, the authors would
like to express their gratitude to the research network INTELIA, supported by REDU, for their
valuable assistance throughout the course of this work. Their collaboration and expertise contributed
significantly to the success of the project.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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