Plate Tectonics

Introduction of the topics

• The concept of plate tectonics was formulated in the 1960s.
• According to the theory, Earth has a rigid outer layer, known as
the lithosphere, which is typically about 100 km (60 miles) thick
and overlies a plastic (moldable, partially molten) layer called
the asthenosphere.
• he lithosphere is broken up into seven very large continental-
and ocean-sized plates, six or seven medium-sized regional
plates, and several small ones.
• These plates move relative to each other, typically at rates of 5 to
10 cm (2 to 4 inches) per year, and interact along their
boundaries, where they converge, diverge, or slip past one
another.
• Such interactions are thought to be responsible for most of
Earth’s seismic and volcanic activity, although earthquakes and
volcanoes can occur in plate interiors.
• Plate motions cause mountains to rise where plates push
together, or converge, and continents to fracture and oceans to
form where plates pull apart, or diverge.
• The continents are embedded in the plates and drift passively
with them, which over millions of years results in significant
changes in Earth’s geography.
Earth's structure: Core, Mantle, and Crust
Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift
• Alfred Wegener in his 1915 publication, "The Origin of
Continents and Oceans“
• The continents were once united into a single supercontinent
named Pangaea, meaning all earth in ancient Greek. He
suggested that Pangaea broke up long ago and that the
continents then moved to their current positions.
EVIDENCE FOR CONTINENTAL DRIFT
Besides the way the continents fit together, Wegener and his
supporters collected a great deal of evidence for the continental
drift hypothesis.
Identical rocks, of the same type and age, are found on both
sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Wegener said the rocks had formed
side-by-side and that the land had since moved apart.
Ancient fossils of the same species of extinct plants and animals
are found in rocks of the same age but are on continents that are
now widely separated.
Plate Boundaries
There are three main types of plate boundaries:
• Divergent boundaries
• Convergent boundaries
• Transform boundaries
Divergent Boundary
A divergent boundary occurs when two tectonic plates move
away from each other. Along these boundaries, earthquakes are
common and magma (molten rock) rises from the Earth’s mantle
to the surface, solidifying to create new oceanic crust. The Mid-
Atlantic Ridge is an example of divergent plate boundaries.
Convergent Boundary
When two plates come together, it is known as a convergent
boundary. The impact of the colliding plates can cause the edges
of one or both plates to buckle up into a mountain ranges or one
of the plates may bend down into a deep seafloor trench. A chain
of volcanoes often forms parallel to convergent plate boundaries
and powerful earthquakes are common along these boundaries.
The Pacific Ring of Fire is an example of a convergent plate
boundary.
• Transform Plate Boundary
Two plates sliding past each other forms a transform plate
boundary. One of the most famous transform plate boundaries
occurs at the San Andreas fault zone, which extends underwater.
Natural or human-made structures that cross a transform
boundary are offset — split into pieces and carried in opposite
directions. Rocks that line the boundary are pulverized as the
plates grind along, creating a linear fault valley or undersea
canyon. Earthquakes are common along these faults. In contrast
to convergent and divergent boundaries, crust is cracked and
broken at transform margins, but is not created or destroyed.
HOW DO TECTONIC PLATES CREATE EARTHQUAKES, VOLCANOES & MOUNTAINS?
• The Earth’s surface is active according to tectonic theory,
moving as much as 1-2 inches a year. The many tectonic
plates shift and interact all the time. This motion reshapes
the Earth’s outer layer. Earthquakes, volcanoes and
mountains are the result of this process.
• Plates interact in three ways:
1) Plates move away from each other at what are called
divergent boundaries (also known as spreading centers)
2) Plates move towards each other at convergent boundaries,
where continents collide creating mountain ranges or one
plate sinks beneath another plate at a subduction zones and
can form volcanic arcs;
3) Plates slide past each other at transform boundaries creating
strike-slip faults. The uplift and sinking of land, earthquakes
(the sudden release of energy that causes shaking), and volcanic
eruptions are all evidence of interactions and stress due to the
movement of the plates.
Plate motion may seem slow, but over millions of years plate
tectonics shapes the distribution of continents and
oceans and mountain ranges that shape diverse ecosystems
and influence global climate.
Natural Disasters Caused by Tectonic Plates
Earthquakes
Earthquakes happen most frequently along the boundaries between
tectonic plates, but they can also happen along cracks in a plate
called faults.
The area on Earth where earthquakes (and volcanoes) are most
common is called the Ring of Fire.
• Volcanic Eruptions
• The Ring of Fire is also a common place for volcanoes to form, both
on land and underwater, due to the multiple plate boundaries that
exist there.
• A volcano is an opening in the Earth's surface through which hotter
materials such as lava (melted rock), gas, ash, and cinders can
escape.
• One method is when plates diverge. Magma (lava under the
surface) can rise up to fill the space, spilling out of the opening. As
more lava emerges from the volcano, it can cool and build up,
forming a hill or mountain that rises above the surrounding area.
• Volcanoes can also form when two plates converge. In this
instance, one of the plates is forced underneath the other plate,
deeper into the Earth. This is called subduction.
Tsunami Waves
• A tsunami is a large wave that is caused by the violent
movement of the seafloor. This is most often caused by the
movement of tectonic plates (especially subduction) or an
earthquake, but can also happen due to events such
as landslides or volcanoes.
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