MODERN INDIA

Sreelakshmi Gopan
Faculty
Era of Militant Nationalism (1905–1909):-
• A radical shift towards a militant nationalist approach in political activity began to
emerge in the 1890s and fully took form by 1905. Alongside this trend, a revolutionary
faction also began to take shape.
• Many factors contributed to the rise of militant nationalism: -
• Recognition of the real Character of British Rule
➢ 1892— The Indian Councils Act was criticised by nationalists as it failed to satisfy
them.
➢ 1897— The Natu brothers were deported without trial and Tilak and others, imprisoned
on charges of sedition.
➢ 1898— Repressive laws under IPC Section 124 A were further amplified with new
provisions under IPC Section 156 A.
➢ 1899— The number of Indian members in Calcutta Corporation were reduced.
➢ 1904— Official Secrets Act curbed freedom of press.
➢ 1904— The Indian Universities Act ensured greater government control over
universities, which it described as factories producing political revolutionaries.
• Growth of Confidence and Self-Respect
• Growth of Education
• International Influences
• Remarkable progress made by Japan after 1868
• The defeat of the Italian army by Ethiopians (1896), the Boer wars (1899- 1902) where the
British faced reverses, and Japan’s victory over Russia (1905) demolished myths of European
invincibility.
• Reaction to Increasing Westernisation
• Dissatisfaction with Achievements of Moderates
• Reactionary Policies of Curzon
• Existence of a Militant School of Thought
• Emergence of a Trained Leadership
Partition of Bengal:-
• In December 1903, the British announced the partition of Bengal, creating two
provinces: Western Bengal (with Bihar and Orissa) and Eastern Bengal (with
Assam). While officially justified by administrative efficiency and Assam's
development, the move was largely seen as an attempt to weaken Bengal, the hub
of Indian nationalism.
(i) on the basis of language, thus reducing the Bengalis to a minority in Bengal itself
(as in the new proposal Bengal proper was to have 17 million Bengalis and 37
million Hindi and Oriya speakers); and
(ii) on the basis of religion, as the western half was to be a Hindu majority area (42
million out of a total 54 million) and the eastern half was to be a Muslim majority
area (18 million out of a total of 31 million).
Anti-Partition Campaign Under Moderates (1903–05):-
• On August 7, 1905, with the passage of the Boycott Resolution in a
massive meeting held in the Calcutta Townhall, the formal
proclamation of Swadeshi Movement was made.
• Boycott of Manchester cloth and Liverpool salt.
• October 16, 1905, the day the partition formally came into force,
was observed as a day of mourning throughout Bengal. the
movement spread to other parts of the country—in Poona and
Bombay under Tilak; in Punjab under Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit
Singh; in Delhi under Syed Haider Raza; and in Madras under
Chidambaram Pillai.
• At its 1905 session, presided over by Gokhale, the Indian National Congress resolved
to:
(i)denounce Bengal's partition and Curzon's reactionary policies, and
(ii) endorse Bengal's anti-partition and Swadeshi movements.
• Militant nationalists like Tilak, Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh
sought to expand the movement beyond Bengal and transform it from merely
boycotting foreign goods into a nationwide political mass struggle aimed at achieving
swaraj. However, the Moderates, who dominated the Congress at the time, were
reluctant to take such a radical step.
• At the 1906 Congress session in Calcutta, presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji, the
Indian National Congress declared its goal as "self-government or swaraj," akin to that
enjoyed by the United Kingdom's colonies, such as Australia or Canada.
• The Extremist movement (1905–08), led by Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lajpat Rai, and
Aurobindo Ghosh, employed methods such as boycotting foreign goods, organizing
public meetings and processions, forming volunteer groups (samitis), using traditional
festivals and fairs for propaganda, promoting self-reliance (atma shakti), advocating
swadeshi education and enterprises, and fostering cultural and scientific
advancements. Later, they also called for boycotts of schools, colleges, councils, and
government services.
• The rise of the Extremists was driven by the Moderates' failure to achieve tangible
results, divisive government policies in Bengal, and severe repression.
• Mass participation included students, women, sections of the zamindari, laborers, and
parts of the lower-middle and middle classes in urban areas, though most Muslims
stayed away.
• It was decided to annul the partition of Bengal in 1911, mainly to curb the menace of
revolutionary terrorism.
Why Swadeshi Movement fizzled out by 1908:-
• Severe government repression
• Lack of effective organisation and a disciplined focus
• With arrest/deportation of all leaders, the movement left leaderless
• Split in nationalist ranks
• Narrow social base
Moderate-Extremist Split at Surat (1907):-
• Moderates wanted to restrict the Boycott Movement to Bengal and to a
boycott of foreign cloth and liquor.
• Extremists wanted to take the movement to all parts of the country and
include within its ambit all forms of association with the government
through a boycott of schools, colleges, law courts, legislative councils,
government service, municipalities
Government Acts for Repression of Swadeshi Movement:-
• Seditious Meetings Act (1907)
• Criminal Law (Amendment) Act (1908)
• Indian Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act (1908)
• Explosive Substances Act (1908)
• Indian Press Act (1910)
Morley-Minto Reforms (1909):
• Increased the number of elected members in Imperial and Provincial
Legislative Councils, though elected non-officials remained a minority.
• Introduced elections for the first time, though members were indirectly
elected.
• Established separate electorates for Muslims.
• Allowed legislatures to pass resolutions, ask questions, propose
supplementary questions, and vote on specific budget items.
• Included one Indian in the viceroy's executive council.
Key Aims and Limitations:
• Designed to divide nationalist ranks and align Moderates and Muslims with
the government.
• Legislators had no real responsibility, often leading to superficial criticism.
• The election system was overly indirect.
• Revolutionary heroism emerged as a byproduct of militant nationalism, gaining
momentum during the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement (1905–1917) and
resurging after the Non Cooperation Movement.
• After the decline of open political movements, young nationalists struggled to
retreat into obscurity. Disillusioned by the failure of both moderate and extremist
leaders to channel their energy into effective struggles or organizations, they
sought alternative paths to express their patriotism.
• Under severe government repression, with peaceful protests seemingly futile,
these revolutionaries concluded that achieving independence required the
physical expulsion of the British through force.
Ideology:-
• Assassinate unpopular officials, thus strike terror in the hearts of rulers and arouse people to
expel the British with force; based on individual heroic actions on lines of Irish nationalists or
Russian nihilists and not a mass-based countrywide struggle.
Revolutionary Activities:-
Bengal
• 1902—First revolutionary groups in Midnapore and Calcutta (The Anushilan Samiti)
• 1906—Yugantar, the revolutionary weekly started
• By 1905-06—Several newspapers started advocating revolutionary terrorism.
• 1907—Attempt on life of the former Lt. governor of East Bengal and Assam
• 1908—Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose attempt to murder Muzaffarpur Magistrate, Kingsford
• Alipore conspiracy case involving Aurobindo Ghosh, Barindra Kumar Ghosh, and others
• 1908—Burrah dacoity by Dacca Anushilan
• 1912—Bomb thrown at Viceroy Hardinge by Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal Sandhya,
Yugantar—newspapers advocating revolutionary activity
• Jatin Das and Yugantar; the German Plot during World War I
Revolutionary Activity in Maharashtra and Punjab:-
Maharashtra:
1879: Vasudev Balwant Phadke organized the Ramosi Peasant Force.
1890s: Bal Gangadhar Tilak promoted militancy through Shivaji and Ganapati festivals and his
journals Kesari and Maharatta.
1897: The Chapekar brothers assassinated Plague Commissioner Rand and Lt. Ayerst in Poona.
1899:Mitra Mela, a secret society, was founded by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and his brother.
1904: Mitra Mela merged with Abhinav Bharat, another revolutionary organization.
1909: The Nasik District Magistrate, Jackson, was assassinated by revolutionaries.
Punjab:
Revolutionary activities were led by notable figures, including:
- Lala Lajpat Rai
- Ajit Singh
- Aga Haidar
- Syed Haidar Raza
- Bhai Parmanand
- Lalchand ‘Falak’
- Sufi Ambaprasad
Revolutionary Activity Abroad :-

• 1905: Shyamji Krishnavarma established the Indian Home Rule Society and India House in
London and published the journal The Sociologist.
• 1909: Madan Lal Dhingra assassinated Curzon-Wyllie in London.
• Madame Bhikaji Cama, operating from Paris and Geneva, published the journal Bande
Mataram.
• Ajit Singh was active in revolutionary efforts.
• Berlin Committee for Indian Independence: Founded by Virendranath Chattopadhyay and
associates, sending missions to Baghdad, Persia, Turkey, and Kabul to garner support.
Ghadr Movement in North America:
Key leaders: Lala Hardayal, Ramchandra, Bhawan Singh, Kartar Singh Saraba, Barkatullah, and
Bhai Parmanand.
Programme:
- Assassinate British officials.
- Publish revolutionary literature.
- Organize among Indian troops abroad and raise funds.
- Plan a coordinated revolt in all British colonies.
1915 Armed Revolt Plan:
- Aimed for an uprising on February 21, 1915, leveraging World War I and the Komagata Maru
incident (September 1914).
- The plan failed due to treachery.
- Defence of India Act, 1915: Enacted to suppress the Ghadrites and their revolutionary activities.
First world war and national movement:-

During the First World War (1914–1919), Britain allied with France, Russia, the USA, Italy, and Japan
against Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey. This period marked the maturation of Indian
nationalism, with three main responses to British involvement in the war:

1. Moderates: Supported the British Empire in the war as a duty.

2. Extremists: Led by figures like Tilak (released in June 1914), they supported the war, mistakenly
believing that India's loyalty would be rewarded with self-government.
3. Revolutionaries: Saw the war as an opportunity to fight British rule and sought independence
through violent resistance.

Indian supporters of the British war efforts failed to realize that the imperialist powers were focused
on protecting their own colonies and markets.

Revolutionary activity during this period was carried out by the Ghadr Party in North America, the
Berlin Committee in Europe, and some mutinies by Indian soldiers, such as the one in Singapore. In
India, revolutionaries saw the war as a chance to strike, as it drained British forces (with white
soldiers dropping to just 15,000 at one point) and created the potential for financial and military
support from Germany and Turkey, Britain's enemies.
Home Rule League Movement:-

The Home Rule League Movement, spearheaded by Tilak and Annie Besant, was an
expression of more aggressive politics in the Indian nationalist movement, inspired by a
similar movement in Ireland.

Factors Favouring the Movement:

1. The need for popular pressure to secure political concessions.
2. Disillusionment with the Morley-Minto Reforms.
3. Wartime hardships, which made the public more receptive to protest.
4. Tilak and Besant were ready to take on leadership roles.

Aim of the Movement:

To promote the concept of Home Rule (self-government) to the common people.
Leagues:
Tilak's League: Launched in April 1916, active in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central Provinces, and
Berar, with six branches.
Besant's League: Started in September 1916, spread across the rest of India, with 200 branches.
Later, the leagues were joined by other groups, including moderate Congress members.
Methods Used:
- Organizing discussions, reading rooms, and public meetings.
- Propaganda through newspapers, pamphlets, posters, etc.
Positive Gains:
- Shifted the focus of the movement to the masses, permanently.
- Established a link between urban and rural areas.
- Prepared a generation of committed nationalists.
- Influenced the reunion of the Moderates and Extremists at the Lucknow session (1916).
Lucknow Session of INC (1916):
- Extremists were readmitted to Congress.
- The Congress and Muslim League presented joint demands under the Lucknow Pact.
- Congress accepted the Muslim League's stance on separate electorates.
Importance of Montagu's Statement:
The British government officially recognized the goal of self-government for Indians as
part of its policy.
After World War I, harsh economic conditions and global influences set the stage for a nationalist
resurgence in India.
Economic Hardships: India contributed men and resources to the war, with many soldiers dying.
Post-war, high taxes and shortages led to widespread suffering.
Industry: Price hikes, recession, and increased foreign investment nearly drove many industries to
collapse, prompting calls for import protection and government aid.
Workers and Artisans: Unemployment and high prices hit this group hardest.
Peasantry: Facing heavy taxation and poverty, peasants were eager for leadership to protest.
Soldiers: Returning soldiers, shocked by the poverty and lack of freedom, shared their experiences
with rural communities.
Educated Urban Classes: This group faced unemployment and growing awareness of racial
discrimination under British rule.
These conditions created a perfect environment for a national uprising against foreign rule.
• Expectations from War Cooperation

Indians made significant contributions to the British war effort, with many troops sacrificing
their lives. Nationalists, including Gandhi, cooperated with Britain, hoping for political
concessions post-war. This raised high expectations for political gains from the British
government, fueling discontent when these expectations were unmet.

• Nationalist Disillusionment with Imperialism

During the war, the Allied powers promised colonies democracy and self-determination.
However, after the war, it became clear that imperialist powers had no intention of granting
independence. Instead, they divided the colonies of defeated nations among themselves,
further discrediting the myth of white superiority and fueling militant nationalist
movements in Asia, Africa, and beyond.

• Impact of the Russian Revolution (1917)

The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia led by Lenin overthrew the Czarist regime and
established the Soviet Union, renouncing imperialist rights in Asia and granting self-
determination to former colonies. The revolution demonstrated that with unity and
determination, the masses could challenge even the most powerful oppressors.
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms:-
• Dyarchy in provinces
• Two lists—reserved and transferred—for administration. Reserved subjects to be
administered by governor through executive council and transferred subjects to be
administered by ministers from legislative council.
• Extensive powers to governor, governor general, and secretary of state for interference
• Franchise expanded, powers also extended.
• Governor general to administer with an executive council of 8—three to be Indians.
• Two lists for administration—central and provincial
• Bicameral central legislature—Central Legislative Assembly as the lower house and Council of
States as the upper house
Drawbacks:-
• Dyarchy arrangement too complex and irrational to be functional
• Central executive not responsible to legislature
• Limited franchise
Era of Gandhi:-
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, Gujarat, studied
law in England and went to South Africa in 1893 for a case. There, he encountered severe
racial discrimination against Asians, which motivated him to stay and organize Indian
workers to fight for their rights. The Indian community in South Africa included indentured
laborers, merchants, and ex-indentured laborers. They faced numerous hardships, including
denial of voting rights, poor living conditions, and restrictions on movement, with Asians
and Africans banned from public spaces after 9 p.m. Gandhi remained in South Africa until
1914 before returning to India.
Moderate Phase (1894–1906)
Gandhi’s early efforts in South Africa focused on petitions to British authorities, hoping they would
address Indian grievances as British subjects. He founded the Natal Indian Congress and the Indian
Opinion newspaper to unite Indians.

Passive Resistance or Satyagraha (1906–1914)

In 1906, Gandhi launched a phase of passive resistance (satyagraha), beginning with opposition to a
law requiring Indians to carry registration certificates. Indians, led by Gandhi, defied the law, suffered
penalties, and burned their certificates in protest, gaining international attention.

Gandhi expanded the struggle to include protests against restrictions on Indian migration, a poll tax
on ex-indentured Indians, and the invalidation of non-Christian marriages.
Key Campaigns and Compromises:-
Migration Restrictions: Indians defied laws by crossing provinces illegally, leading to arrests
and strikes.
Poll Tax and Marriage Invalidation: The tax burdened the poor and the invalidation of
marriages sparked outrage, particularly among women.
Transvaal Immigration Act: Protests included illegal migration and strikes. Public opinion in
India, influenced by leaders like Gokhale, supported the cause.

Eventually, negotiations led to a compromise, with the South African government agreeing to
major demands, including the abolition of the poll tax, recognition of Indian marriages, and
more lenient immigration policies.
Gandhi’s Technique of Satyagraha:-

Gandhi developed Satyagraha in South Africa, a method of non-violent resistance based on

truth and love. Drawing on Indian tradition, Christian teachings, and Tolstoy's philosophy, it
emphasized peaceful resistance to injustice. The key principles of Satyagraha were:

- Truth and Non-Violence: A satyagrahi (practitioner) must resist wrongs without violence,
remaining truthful, fearless, and non-violent.
- Non-Cooperation and Boycott: Involved withdrawing cooperation, boycotting unjust
institutions, and refusing to pay taxes or accept honors.
- Acceptance of Suffering: Satyagrahis were willing to suffer hardships as part of their
commitment to truth and justice.
- No Hatred for Oppressors: Even while fighting for justice, satyagrahis would harbor no ill
will toward wrongdoers.
- Fearless Resistance: A true satyagrahi would never submit to evil, regardless of the
consequences.
- Strength and Courage: Only the brave could practice Satyagraha; cowardice was worse
than violence.
- Integrity of Action: The means must align with the end; the goal of justice should never
justify immoral actions.
Gandhi, upon returning to India, spent a year observing the conditions of the masses and
refrained from taking any political stance. He was critical of moderate politics and opposed the
Home Rule movement, believing it was not the right time for such a demand during the war. He
emphasized that only non-violent satyagraha could effectively achieve nationalist goals. Gandhi
decided not to join any political organization unless it adhered to the principles of satyagraha. In
1917–1918, he led three key struggles in Champaran, Ahmedabad, and Kheda before initiating
the Rowlatt Satyagraha.
Gandhi’s Early Activism in India:-
• Champaran Satyagraha (1917)—First Civil Disobedience
• Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)—First Hunger Strike
• Kheda Satyagraha (1918)—First Non-Cooperation
The Rowlatt Act:-
Officially called the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, but popularly known as the
Rowlatt Act.
The committee had recommended that activists should be deported or imprisoned without trial
for two years, and that even possession of seditious newspapers would be adequate evidence of
guilt.
The Rowlatt Act, passed in 1919, was seen as a betrayal by Indians who had expected political
concessions after their support during the war. Gandhi, who had advocated for cooperation with
the British, called the act the "Black Act" and mobilized mass protests against it. He organized a
Satyagraha Sabha, rallying groups like the Home Rule Leagues and Pan-Islamists. Protests
included nationwide strikes, fasting, prayers, civil disobedience, and non-violent resistance. This
marked a significant shift, with peasants, workers, and urban poor playing an active role in the
movement. The movement gained momentum, but violent protests erupted across India,
especially in Punjab, leading to harsh repression by the British, including the use of military
force. This period saw one of the largest anti-British uprisings since 1857.
The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre occurred on April 13, 1919, in Amritsar, following growing
discontent over British repression.
Initially, protests were non-violent, with Indians shutting down businesses to express their
anger over the Rowlatt Act. However, after the arrest of leaders Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr.
Satyapal on April 9, protests turned violent, leading to British reprisals.
On April 13, a large crowd gathered at Jallianwala Bagh for Baisakhi celebrations, unaware of
the martial law orders prohibiting public gatherings.
Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer arrived and ordered his troops to fire on the unarmed crowd
without warning, killing at least 379 and wounding over 1,100.
The true death toll remains disputed but was likely much higher. This massacre deeply shocked
the nation, and its brutal aftermath, including public floggings and forced humiliations,
heightened anti-British sentiments.
The incident led to a major shift in Gandhi’s views, pushing him towards launching the Non-
Cooperation Movement. The massacre also became a rallying point for resistance, inspiring
figures like Bhagat Singh and Udham Singh, who sought justice for the atrocities committed
during British rule.
The Hunter Committee(officially the Disorders Inquiry Committee) was formed in October 1919 to
investigate the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. Chaired by Lord William Hunter, the committee's purpose
was to assess the causes of disturbances in Bombay, Delhi, and Punjab, as well as the British response.
Findings of the Committee:
-General Dyer defended his actions, claiming he aimed to instill terror and reduce the moral stature of
the protesters. He acknowledged that he could have dispersed the crowd peacefully but chose violent
action to make an example of them.
- The committee unanimously condemned Dyer’s actions, criticizing his failure to issue a dispersal order
and the excessive length of the firing. The report stated Dyer had exceeded his authority, and the event
was not a result of any conspiracy to overthrow British rule.
- Indian members added that the proclamations of martial law had not been sufficiently publicized and
that Dyer’s actions were inhumane.
However, the Hunter Committee did not impose any penalties because Dyer's actions were condoned by
British superiors. Additionally, an Indemnity Act passed by the British government protected Dyer and
other officers involved from legal repercussions.
International Reactions:
- Winston Churchill condemned the massacre, calling it "monstrous," while former Prime Minister
H.H. Asquith referred to it as one of the worst outrages in British history.
- Despite this, some members of the British aristocracy and public figures supported Dyer, with the
Morning Post raising a fund for him.
- Dyer was relieved of his command in March 1920 but was not prosecuted; he continued to receive
his pension.

The Indian National Congress criticized Dyer’s actions, calling them inhuman and condemning the
imposition of martial law. They formed a separate committee to present their view, which further
fueled Indian anger against British rule.
Khilafat-Non-Cooperation Movement
Key Demands:
1. A favorable treaty for Turkey
2. Addressing the wrongs in Punjab
3. Establishing Swaraj (self-rule)
Techniques Employed:
- Boycott of government-run schools, colleges, courts, municipalities, and services
- Rejection of foreign cloth and liquor
- Promotion of national schools, colleges, and panchayats
- Support for khadi (handwoven cloth)
- The second stage involved civil disobedience, including non-payment of taxes.
Nagpur Congress Session (December 1920):
The Congress shifted its goal from seeking self-government through constitutional means to
attaining Swaraj through peaceful and legitimate methods.
Chauri-Chaura Incident (February 5, 1922):
Violence by an agitated mob led Gandhi to call off the movement.
February 1920: A joint Hindu-Muslim deputation to the viceroy on Khilafat grievances failed. Gandhi
announced he would lead a non-cooperation movement if the peace treaty didn’t satisfy Muslims.

May 1920: The Treaty of Sevres dismembered Turkey.

June 1920: An all-party conference in Allahabad approved a boycott of schools, colleges, and courts,
asking Gandhi to lead.

August 31, 1920: The Khilafat Committee launched the non-cooperation movement.

September 1920: Congress endorsed non-cooperation, including boycotts of schools, courts,

legislative councils, foreign cloth, and government titles, promoting swaraj and Hindu-Muslim unity.

December 1920 (Nagpur session):

- Non-cooperation program was endorsed.
- Congress shifted its goal to swaraj through mass struggle.
- Organizational changes were made.
- Gandhi promised swaraj within a year if fully implemented.
- Some leaders, including Jinnah and Besant, left the Congress.
- Revolutionary groups pledged support, energizing the movement.
Thousands of students joined 800 national schools, and many lawyers, including Motilal and
Jawaharlal Nehru, gave up their practice. Foreign cloth imports halved, and public picketing
occurred. The Tilak Swaraj Fund raised one crore rupees. Congress volunteers acted as a parallel
police force.

In July 1921, the Ali brothers urged Muslims to resign from the army, leading to their arrest.
Gandhi supported this and urged civil disobedience. Local movements like no-tax protests in
Bengal, Andhra, Assam strikes, and demonstrations against the Prince of Wales' visit spread.
Several regional agitations, including the Awadh Kisan, Eka, Mappila Revolt, and Sikh agitation,
emerged.
After Gandhi's arrest in March 1922, the nationalist movement faced disarray and
demoralization. A debate arose within Congress on the next steps. One faction, led by
C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, and Ajmal Khan, advocated for entering legislative councils to
expose their weaknesses and use them for political struggle. This faction became known
as the 'Swarajists.' The opposing faction, led by C. Rajagopalachari, Vallabhbhai Patel,
Rajendra Prasad, and M.A. Ansari, believed in focusing on constructive work, continuing
the boycott, and preparing for a return to civil disobedience.

At the Gaya session of Congress in December 1922, the Swarajists' proposal to 'end or
mend' the councils was defeated. C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru resigned from their
positions and formed the Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party, with C.R. Das as president.