INTERNATIONAL ISO

STANDARD 25178-2

First edition
2012-04-01

Geometrical product specifications

(GPS) — Surface texture: Areal —
Part 2:
Terms, definitions and surface texture
parameters
Spécification géométrique des produits (GPS) — État de surface:
Surfacique —
Partie 2: Termes, définitions et paramètres d'états de surface

Reference number
ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

© ISO 2012
ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

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ii © ISO 2012 – All rights reserved

 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

Contents Page

Foreword ............................................................................................................................................................ iv
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... v
1 Scope ...................................................................................................................................................... 1
2 Normative references ............................................................................................................................ 1
3 Terms and definitions ........................................................................................................................... 1
3.1 General terms ........................................................................................................................................ 1
3.2 Geometrical parameter terms .............................................................................................................. 4
3.3 Geometrical feature terms .................................................................................................................... 5
4 Field parameter definitions .................................................................................................................. 8
4.1 Height parameters ................................................................................................................................. 8
4.2 Spatial parameters ................................................................................................................................ 9
4.3 Hybrid parameters ............................................................................................................................... 11
4.4 Functions and related parameters..................................................................................................... 11
4.5 Miscellaneous parameters ................................................................................................................. 21
5 Determination of areal parameters for stratified functional surfaces of scale-limited
surfaces ................................................................................................................................................ 22
5.1 Calculating the parameters Sk, Smr1 and Smr2 .............................................................................. 22
5.2 Calculating the equivalent straight line ............................................................................................ 22
5.3 Calculating the parameters Spk and Svk .......................................................................................... 22
5.4 Calculating the parameters Spq, Svq and Smq ............................................................................... 22
6 Feature characterization ..................................................................................................................... 24
6.1 General ................................................................................................................................................. 24
6.2 Type of texture feature ........................................................................................................................ 25
6.3 Segmentation ....................................................................................................................................... 25
6.4 Determining significant features ....................................................................................................... 25
6.5 Section of feature attributes ............................................................................................................... 27
6.6 Attribute statistics ............................................................................................................................... 28
6.7 Feature characterization convention................................................................................................. 28
6.8 Named feature parameters ................................................................................................................. 28
Annex A (informative) Segmentation .............................................................................................................. 31
Annex B (informative) Fractal methods .......................................................................................................... 36
Annex C (informative) Basis for areal surface texture standards ................................................................ 41
Annex D (informative) Concept diagrams ...................................................................................................... 42
Annex E (informative) Relation to the GPS matrix model ............................................................................. 45
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................................... 46

© ISO 2012 – All rights reserved iii

ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

Foreword
ISO (the International Organization for Standardization) is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies
(ISO member bodies). The work of preparing International Standards is normally carried out through ISO
technical committees. Each member body interested in a subject for which a technical committee has been
established has the right to be represented on that committee. International organizations, governmental and
non-governmental, in liaison with ISO, also take part in the work. ISO collaborates closely with the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) on all matters of electrotechnical standardization.

International Standards are drafted in accordance with the rules given in the ISO/IEC Directives, Part 2.

The main task of technical committees is to prepare International Standards. Draft International Standards
adopted by the technical committees are circulated to the member bodies for voting. Publication as an
International Standard requires approval by at least 75 % of the member bodies casting a vote.

Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of patent
rights. ISO shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.

ISO 25178-2 was prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 213, Dimensional and geometrical product
specifications and verification.

ISO 25178 consists of the following parts, under the general title Geometrical product specifications (GPS) —
Surface texture: Areal:

 Part 2: Terms, definitions and surface texture parameters

 Part 3: Specification operators

 Part 6: Classification of methods for measuring surface texture

 Part 70: Physical measurement standards

 Part 71: Software measurement standards

 Part 601: Nominal characteristics of contact (stylus) instruments

 Part 602: Nominal characteristics of non-contact (confocal chromatic probe) instruments

 Part 604: Nominal characteristics of non-contact (coherence scanning interferometry) instruments

 Part 605: Nominal characteristics of non-contact (point autofocus probe) instruments

 Part 701: Calibration and measurement standards for contact (stylus) instruments

The following parts are under preparation:

 Part 1: Indication of surface texture

 Part 603: Nominal characteristics of non-contact (phase-shifting interferometric microscopy) instruments

iv © ISO 2012 – All rights reserved

 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

Introduction
This part of ISO 25178 is a geometrical product specification (GPS) standard and is to be regarded as a
general GPS standard (see ISO/TR 14638). It influences chain link 2 of the chains of standards on areal
surface texture.

The ISO/GPS Masterplan given in ISO/TR 14638 gives an overview of the ISO/GPS system of which this
document is a part. The fundamental rules of ISO/GPS given in ISO 8015 apply to this document and the
default decision rules given in ISO 14253-1 apply to specifications made in accordance with this document,
unless otherwise indicated.

For more detailed information of the relation of this standard to the GPS matrix model, see Annex E.

This part of ISO 25178 develops the terminology, concepts and parameters for areal surface texture.

© ISO 2012 – All rights reserved v

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Surface texture:

Areal —
Part 2:
Terms, definitions and surface texture parameters

1 Scope
This part of ISO 25178 specifies terms, definitions and parameters for the determination of surface texture by
areal methods.

2 Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document. For dated
references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced
document (including any amendments) applies.

ISO/TS 16610-1:2006, Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Filtration — Part 1: Overview and basic
concepts

ISO 17450-1:2011, Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — General concepts — Part 1: Model for
geometrical specification and verification

ISO 25178-3:— 1), Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Surface texture: Areal — Part 3: Specification
operators

3 Terms and definitions

For the purposes of this document, the terms and definitions given in ISO 17450-1 and ISO/TS 16610-1, and
the following apply.

3.1 General terms

3.1.1
non-ideal surface model
skin model
<of a workpiece> model of the physical interface of the workpiece with its environment

[ISO 17450-1:2011, 3.2.2]

1) To be published.

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

[Link]
mechanical surface
boundary of the erosion, by a spherical ball of radius r, of the locus of the centre of an ideal tactile sphere,
also with radius r, rolled over the skin model of a workpiece

[ISO 14406:2010, 3.1.1]

[Link]
electromagnetic surface
surface obtained by the electromagnetic interaction with the skin model of a workpiece

[ISO 14406:2010, 3.1.2]

3.1.2
specification coordinate system
system of coordinates in which surface texture parameters are specified

NOTE If the nominal surface is a plane (or portion of a plane), it is common (practice) to use a rectangular coordinate
system in which the axes form a right-handed Cartesian set, the X-axis and the Y-axis also lying on the nominal surface,
and the Z-axis being in an outward direction (from the material to the surrounding medium). This convention is adopted
throughout the rest of this part of ISO 25178.

3.1.3
primary surface
surface portion obtained when a surface portion is represented as a specified primary mathematical model
with specified nesting index

[ISO/TS 16610-1:2006, 3.3]

NOTE In this part of ISO 25178, an S-filter is used to derive the primary surface.

[Link]
primary extracted surface
finite set of data points sampled from the primary surface

[ISO 14406:2010, 3.7]

3.1.4
surface filter
filtration operator applied to a surface

NOTE In practice, the filter operator will apply to a primary extracted surface.

[Link]
S-filter
surface filter which removes small scale lateral components from the surface resulting in the primary surface

[Link]
L-filter
surface filter which removes large scale lateral components from the primary surface or S-F surface

[Link]
F-operation
operation which removes form from the primary surface

NOTE 1 Some F-operations (such as association operations) have a very different action to that of filtration. Though
their action can limit the larger lateral scales of a surface this action is very fuzzy hence the fuzzy line for the action of the
F-operation in Figure 1.

NOTE 2 Many L-filters are sensitive to form and require an F-operation first as a prefilter before being applied.

2 © ISO 2012 – All rights reserved

 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

3.1.5
S-F surface
surface derived from the primary surface by removing the form using an F-operation

NOTE Figure 1 illustrates the relationship between the S-F surface and the S-filter and F-operation.

3.1.6
S-L surface
surface derived from the S-F surface by removing the large scale components using an L-filter

NOTE Figure 1 illustrates the relationship between the S-L surface and the S-filter and L-filter.

S L F

a b
c

a Small scale. S S-F F

b Large scale.
c Scale axis.
d F-operation. S S-L L
e S-filter.
f L-filter.

Figure 1 — Relationships between the S-filter, L-filter, F-operation and S-F and S-L surfaces

3.1.7
scale-limited surface
S-F surface or a S-L surface

3.1.8
reference surface
surface associated to the scale-limited surface according to a criterion

NOTE 1 The result is used as a reference surface for surface texture parameters.

NOTE 2 Examples of reference surfaces include plane, cylinder and sphere.

3.1.9
evaluation area
portion of the scale-limited surface for specifying the area under evaluation

NOTE See ISO 25178-3 for more information.

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

3.1.10
definition area
portion of the evaluation area for defining the parameters characterizing the scale-limited surface

3.2 Geometrical parameter terms

3.2.1
field parameter
parameter defined from all the points on a scale-limited surface

NOTE Field parameters are defined in Clause 4.

3.2.2
feature parameter
parameter defined from a subset of predefined topographic features from the scale-limited surface

NOTE Feature parameters are defined in Clause 5.

3.2.3
V-parameter
material volume or void volume field or feature parameter

3.2.4
S-parameter
field or feature parameter that is not a V-parameter

3.2.5
height
signed normal distance from the reference surface to the scale-limited surface

NOTE 1 The distance is defined normal to the reference surface.

NOTE 2 The height is negative, if from the reference surface the point lies in the direction of the material.

3.2.6
ordinate value
z(x,y)
height of the scale-limited surface at position x,y

NOTE The coordinate system is based on the reference surface.

3.2.7
local gradient vector
 z z 
 , 
 x y 
gradient of the scale-limited surface at position x,y

NOTE For specific implementation, see ISO 25178-3.

3.2.8
autocorrelation function
f ACF(tx,ty)
function which describes the correlation between a surface and the same surface translated by (tx,ty)

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 z( x,y) z( x  t x ,y  t y )dxdy

f ACF t x ,t y  A

 z( x,y) z( x,y)dxdy
A

with A being the definition area

3.2.9
Fourier transformation
F(p,q)
operator which transforms the scale-limited surface into Fourier space

 z( x,y)e
 (ipx  iqy )
F ( p,q )  d x dy
A

with A being the definition area

[Link]
angular spectrum
fAPS(s)
power spectrum for a given direction, with respect to a specified direction  in the plane of the definition area

R1
2
f APS ( s )   r F rsin(s   ), rcos(s   ) dr
R2

where R1 to R2 is the range of integration in the radial direction and s the specified direction

NOTE 1 The positive x-axis is defined as the zero angle.

NOTE 2 The angle is positive in an anticlockwise direction from the x-axis.

3.3 Geometrical feature terms

3.3.1
peak
point on the surface which is higher than all other points within a neighbourhood of that point

NOTE 1 For discrete data, a triangulization of the surface is necessary.

NOTE 2 There is a theoretical possibility of a plateau. In practice, this can be avoided by the use of an infinitesimal tilt.

NOTE 3 For specific implementation, see ISO 25178-3.

[Link]
hill
region around a peak such that all maximal upward paths end at the peak

[Link]
course line
curve separating adjacent hills

3.3.2
pit
point on the surface which is lower than all other points within a neighbourhood of that point
NOTE 1 For discrete data, a triangulization of the surface is necessary.

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

NOTE 2 There is a theoretical possibility of a plateau. In practice, this can be avoided by the use of an infinitesimal tilt.
NOTE 3 For specific implementation, see ISO 25178-3.

[Link]
dale
region around a pit such that all maximal downward paths end at the pit
NOTE An areal motif is a dale; see ISO 12085.

[Link]
ridge line
curve separating adjacent dales

3.3.3
saddle
set of points on the scale-limited surface where ridge lines and course lines cross

[Link]
saddle point
saddle consisting of one point

3.3.4
topographic feature
areal, line or point feature on a scale-limited surface

[Link]
areal feature
hill or dale

[Link]
line feature
course line or ridge line

[Link]
point feature
peak, pit or saddle point

3.3.5
contour line
line on the surface consisting of points of equal height

3.3.6
segmentation
method which partitions a scale-limited surface into distinct regions

[Link]
segmentation function
function which splits a set of “events” into two distinct sets called the significant events and the insignificant
events and which satisfies the three segmentation properties
NOTE 1 Examples of events are: ordinate values, point features, etc.
NOTE 2 A full mathematical description of the segmentation function and the three segmentation properties can be
found in Scott (2004) (see Reference [16]).
NOTE 3 The mathematical treatment of the segmentation function and segmentation properties will be transferred to a
future ISO 16610 series document on segmentation.

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 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

[Link]
first segmentation property
P1
property where each event is allocated to the set of significant events or the set of insignificant events but not
both

P1: A  E ,  ( A)   ( A)  A   ( A)   ( A)  

where

E is the set of all events;

 (.) maps events onto the set of significant events;
 (.) maps events onto the set of insignificant events
[Link]
second segmentation property
P2
property where if a significant event is removed from the set of events then the remaining significant events
are contained in the new set of significant events

P2 : A  B  E ,  ( A)   ( B)

where

E is the set of all events;

 (.) maps events onto the set of insignificant events

[Link]
third segmentation property
P3
property where if an insignificant event is removed from the set of events then the same set of significant
events is obtained

P3 : A  B  E ,  ( B )  A   ( A)   ( B )

where

E is the set of all events;

 (.) maps events onto the set of significant events

3.3.7
change tree
graph where each contour line is plotted as a point against height in such a way that adjacent contour lines
are adjacent points on the graph

NOTE Peaks and pits are represented on a change tree by the end of lines. Saddle points are represented on a
change tree by joining lines. See Annex A for more details concerning change trees.

[Link]
pruning
method to simplify a change tree in which lines from peaks (or pits) to their nearest connected saddle points
are removed

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

[Link]
local peak height
difference between the height of a peak and the height of the nearest connected saddle on the change tree

[Link]
local pit height
difference between the height of the nearest connected saddle on the change tree and the height of a pit

[Link]
Wolf pruning
pruning where lines are removed in order from the peak/pit with the smallest local peak/pit height up to the
peak/pit with a specified local peak/pit height

NOTE The local peak/pit heights will change during Wolf pruning as removing lines from a change tree will also
remove the associated saddle point.

3.3.8
Wolf peak height
minimum threshold at which a peak is pruned using Wolf pruning

3.3.9
Wolf pit height
minimum threshold at which a pit is pruned using Wolf pruning

3.3.10
peak height
height of the peak

3.3.11
pit height
height of the pit

3.3.12
height discrimination
minimum Wolf peak height or Wolf pit height of the scale-limited surface which should be taken into account

NOTE The height discrimination is usually specified as a percentage of Sz (4.1.6).

4 Field parameter definitions

In the terminological entries below, each term is followed by its parameter (abbreviated term), then its symbol.
Whereas abbreviated terms can contain multiple letters, symbols consist only of a single letter with subscripts
as needed. Symbols are used in the equations shown in this document. The reason for this differentiation is to
avoid misinterpretation of compound letters as an indication of multiplication between quantities in equations.
The parameters (abbreviated terms) are used in product documentation, drawings and data sheets.

4.1 Height parameters

All height parameters are defined over the definition area.

4.1.1
root mean square height of the scale-limited surface
Sq
Sq
root mean square value of the ordinate values within a definition area (A)

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 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

1
 z
2
Sq  ( x, y )dxdy
A
A

4.1.2
skewness of the scale-limited surface
Ssk
Ssk
quotient of the mean cube value of the ordinate values and the cube of Sq within a definition area (A)

1 1 
Ssk  
Sq3  A A

z 3 ( x, y )dxdy 



4.1.3
kurtosis of the scale-limited surface
Sku
Sku
quotient of the mean quartic value of the ordinate values and the fourth power of Sq within a definition area (A)

1 1 
Sku  
4 A
Sq 

z 4 ( x, y )dxdy 

A 

4.1.4
maximum peak height of the scale limited surface
Sp
Sp
largest peak height value within a definition area

4.1.5
maximum pit height of the scale limited surface
Sv
Sv
minus the smallest pit height value within a definition area

4.1.6
maximum height of the scale-limited surface
Sz
Sz
sum of the maximum peak height value and the maximum pit height value within a definition area

4.1.7
arithmetical mean height of the scale limited surface
Sa
Sa
arithmetic mean of the absolute of the ordinate values within a definition area (A)

Sa  1
A  z( x, y) d xd y
A

4.2 Spatial parameters

All spatial parameters are defined over the definition area.

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

4.2.1
autocorrelation length
Sal
Sal
horizontal distance of the fACF(tx,ty) which has the fastest decay to a specified value s, with 0  s  1

min
Sal 
t x ,t y  R
t x2  t 2y 
where R  (t x ,t y ) : f ACF (t x ,t y )  s 
NOTE 1 If not otherwise specified, the default value of s is found in ISO 25178-3.

NOTE 2 A graphical representation of the procedure to calculate Sal is given in Figure 2.

a) Autocorrelation function of the surface b) Threshold autocorrelation at s (the black spots

are above the threshold)

Sal = Rmin
Str = Rmin / Rmax

ty
Rmin θ

tx

Rmax

c) Threshold boundary of the central threshold portion d) Polar coordinates leading to the autocorrelation
lengths in different directions

Figure 2 — Procedure to calculate Sal and Str

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 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

4.2.2
texture aspect ratio
Str
Str
ratio of the horizontal distance of the fACF(tx,ty) which has the fastest decay to a specified value s to the
horizontal distance of the fACF(tx,ty) which has the slowest decay to s, with 0  s  1

min
t 2  t 2y
t x ,t y  R x 
R  (t x ,t y ) : f ACF (t x ,t y )  s 
Str  where
max
t x2  t 2y Q  (t x ,t y ) : f ACF (t x ,t y )  s and **
t x ,t y  Q

where ** is the property that the fACF  s on the straight line connecting the point (tx,ty) to the origin

NOTE 1 If not otherwise specified, the default value of s is found in ISO 25178-3.

NOTE 2 A graphical representation of the procedure to calculate Str is given in Figure 2.

4.3 Hybrid parameters

4.3.1
root mean square gradient of the scale-limited surface
Sdq
Sdq
root mean square of the surface gradient within the definition area (A) of a scale-limited surface

 z ( x,y ) 2  z ( x,y ) 2 
Sdq  1
A  

 
x   y  
  dx d y
A  

4.3.2
developed interfacial area ratio of the scale-limited surface
Sdr
Sdr
ratio of the increment of the interfacial area of the scale-limited surface within the definition area (A) over the
definition area

    z ( x,y ) 2  z ( x,y ) 2   
1   dxdy 
Sdr 
A  
1  
  x 
  
 y  
   1 
A  
   

NOTE For a practical implementation of this parameter, see Reference [10].

4.4 Functions and related parameters

4.4.1
areal material ratio function of the scale-limited surface
function representing the areal material ratio of the scale-limited surface as a function of height

NOTE This function can be interpreted as the sample cumulative probability function of the ordinates z(x,y) within the
evaluation area.

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

4.4.2
areal material ratio of the scale-limited surface
Smr(c)
Smr(c)
ratio of the area of the material at a specified height c to the evaluation area

NOTE 1 Smr(c) is usually expressed as a percentage.

NOTE 2 Height is taken from the reference plane. See Figure 3.

NOTE 3 This function is related to the sample cumulative probability function of the ordinates.

Key
X areal material ratio Smr(c), in
percent
Y height

a Specified height, c.
b Reference plane. 100 X
0

Figure 3 — Areal material ratio

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 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

4.4.3
inverse areal material ratio of the scale-limited surface
Smc(mr)
Smc(mr)
height c at which a given areal material ratio (mr) is satisfied

NOTE Height is taken from the reference plane. See Figure 4.

Smc(mr) (30 %)

Key
X areal material ratio Smc(mr),
in percent
Y height 0 30 100 X

Figure 4 — Inverse areal material ratio

4.4.4
areal parameter for scale-limited stratified functional surfaces
parameter representing the areal material ratio of the scale-limited stratified functional surface as a function of
height

[Link]
core surface
scale-limited surface excluding core-protruding hills and dales

See Figure 5.

[Link]
core height
Sk
Sk
distance between the highest and lowest level of the core surface

See Figure 5.

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

Y
1
2
40%

40%

0 20 40 60 80 100 X

40%

Sk 3

0 20 40 60 80 100 X
Smr1 Smr2

Key
X areal material ratio
Y intersection line position
1 secant
2 secant with smallest gradient
3 equivalent straight line
Sk core height
Smr1, Smr2 material ratios

This figure shows a profile instead of a surface area for ease of illustration. The principle is the same for a
surface area.
Figure 5 — Calculation of Sk, Smr1 and Smr2
[Link]
reduced peak height
Spk
Spk
average height of the protruding peaks above the core surface

NOTE The averaging process in Clause 5 reduces the effect of outlier values on this parameter.

[Link]
reduced dale height
Svk
Svk
average height of the protruding dales below the core surface

NOTE The averaging process in Clause 5 reduces the effect of outlier values on this parameter.

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 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

[Link]
material ratio
Smr1
Smr1
peaks ratio of the area of the material at the intersection line which separates the protruding hills from the
core surface to the evaluation area

NOTE The ratio is expressed in percent.

[Link]
material ratio
Smr2
Smr2
dales ratio of the area of the material at the intersection line which separates the protruding dales from the
core surface to the evaluation area
NOTE The ratio is expressed in percent.

[Link]
areal material probability curve
representation of the areal material ratio curve in which the areal material area ratio is expressed as a
Gaussian probability in standard deviation values, plotted linearly on the horizontal axis

NOTE This scale is expressed linearly in standard deviations according to the Gaussian distribution. In this scale, the
areal material ratio curve of a Gaussian distribution becomes a straight line. For stratified surfaces composed of two
Gaussian distributions, the areal material probability curve will exhibit two linear regions (see 1 and 2 in Figure 6).

µm
0,1 1 10 30 50 70 90 99 99,9 %
1

3
0,5 1
5
0

-0,5 2

-1

4
-1,5

-2
-3s -2s -s 0 s 2s 3s

Key
1 plateau region
2 dale region
3 debris or outlying peaks in the data (scale-limited surface)
4 deep scratches or outlying dales in the data (scale-limited surface)
5 unstable region (curvature) introduced at the plateau-to-dale transition point based on the combination of two
distributions
Figure 6 — Areal material probability curve

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

[Link]
dale root mean square deviation
Svq
Svq
slope of a linear regression performed through the dale region

See Figure 7.

NOTE Svq can thus be interpreted as the Sq-value, in micrometres, of the random process that generated the dale
component of the surface.

[Link]
plateau root mean square deviation
Spq
Spq
slope of a linear regression performed through the plateau region

See Figure 7.

NOTE Spq can thus be interpreted as the Sp-value, in micrometres, of the random process that generated the
plateau component of the surface.

[Link]
material ratio
Smq
Smq
plateau-to-dale areal material ratio at the plateau-to-dale intersection

See Figure 7.

NOTE The ratio is expressed in percent.

4.4.5
void volume
Vv(p)
Vv(p)
volume of the voids per unit area at a given material ratio calculated from the areal material ratio curve

100 %
K
Vv ( p ) 
100 %   Smc ( p)  Smc (q) dq
p

where K is a constant to convert to millilitres per metres squared

[Link]
dale void volume of the scale-limited surface
Vvv
Vvv
dale volume at p material ratio

Vvv  Vv ( p)

NOTE The default values of p can be found in ISO 25178-3.

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[Link]
core void volume of the scale-limited surface
Vvc
Vvc
difference in void volume between p and q material ratio

Vvc  Vv ( p )  Vv (q )

NOTE The default values of p and q are found in ISO 25178-3.

UVL
UPL LPL LVL
µm
0,1 1 10 30 50 70 90 99 99,9 %
1
0,5 Rpq Rmq
0 Rvq
-0,5
-1
-1,5
-2
-3s -2s -s 0 s 2s 3s

Key
LPL lower plateau limit
LVL lower dale limit
UPL upper plateau limit
UVL upper dale limit
Rmq relative material ratio at the plateau to dale intersection
Rpq slope of a linear regression performed through the plateau region
Rvq slope of a linear regression performed through the dale region

This figure shows a profile instead of a surface area for ease of illustration. The principle is the same for a
surface area.

Figure 7 — Scale-limited surface with its corresponding areal material probability curve
and the regions used in the definitions of the parameters Spq, Svq and Smq

4.4.6
material volume
Vm(p)
Vm(p)
volume of the material per unit area at a given material ratio calculated from the areal material ratio curve
p
K
Vm ( p )  100 % 
Smc (q)  Sdc ( p ) dq
0

where K is a constant to convert to millilitres per metres squared

NOTE See Figure 8.

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

Vmp

Vmc

Vvc

Vvv
Key
X areal material ratio, in percent
Y height 0 10 80 100 X

Figure 8 — Void volume and material volume parameters

[Link]
peak material volume of the scale-limited surface
Vmp
Vmp
material volume at p

NOTE The default value of p is found in ISO 25178-3.

[Link]
core material volume of the scale-limited surface
Vmc
Vmc
difference in material volume between the p and q material ratio

Vmc  Vm (q )  Vm ( p)

NOTE The default values of p and q are found in ISO 25178-3.

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4.4.7
peak extreme height
Sxp
Sxp
difference in height between the p and q material ratio

S xp  Smc ( p )  Smc (q )

NOTE The default values of p and q are found in ISO 25178-3.

4.4.8
gradient density function
density function calculated from the scale-limited surface showing the relative frequencies against the angle of
the steepest gradient (x, y) and direction of the steepest gradient (x, y) anticlockwise from the x-axis
(Figure 9)

 z 
z 2 z 2  y 
 ( x, y )  arctan    ( x, y )  arctan  
y x  z 
( x, y )  x 
( x, y )

NOTE 1 See Figure 9 for an example of the gradient density function.

NOTE 2 See Figure 10 for the steepest gradient, , and the direction of the steepest gradient, 

Z X
350
200
300
250
100
200

Y 150
0
100
50 50
0

Key
X direction of steepest gradient, in degrees
Y steepest gradient, in degrees
Z frequency of the occurrences

Figure 9 — Example of gradient density function

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

0° 0°

90°

90°

180° 0°

270°

Figure 10 — Steepest gradient, , and direction of steepest gradient, 

4.4.9 Fractal methods

[Link]
volume-scale function
Svs(c)
Svs(c)
volume between a morphological closing and opening of the scale-limited surface using a square horizontal
flat as a structuring element as a function of the size of the structuring element

NOTE The volume-scale function is usually plotted with log-log scales.

[Link]
relative area function
Srel(c)
Srel(c)
ratio of the area calculated by triangular tiling of the surface at a particular length scale to the definition area
as a function of the length scale

NOTE The relative area function is usually plotted with log-log scales.

[Link]
length scale of observation
length scale at which the calculations for volume-scale or relative area functions are made

[Link]
volume fractal complexity
Svfc
Svfc
complexity parameter derived from the volume-scale function, equal to 1 000 times the slope of a log-log plot
of the volume versus length scale of observation

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 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

[Link]
areal fractal complexity
Safc
Safc
complexity parameter derived from the relative area function, equal to 1 000 times the slope of a log-log plot
of the relative area versus the length scale of observation

[Link]
crossover scale
length scale of observation at which there is a change in the slope of relative area or volume-scale functions

NOTE Since the change in slope is not necessarily abrupt with respect to scale, a procedure is necessary for
determining the scale at which the change takes place.

[Link]
smooth-rough crossover scale
fSRC
fSRC
first crossover scale encountered going from relatively larger scales where the surface appears to be smooth
to finer scales where the surface appears to be rough

NOTE The fSRC is the scale above which the fractal dimension is approximately equal to the Euclidean dimension,
and below which it is significantly greater than the Euclidean dimension. A threshold in relative area is used to determine
the SRC in length-scale and relative area analyses (see Annex B).

[Link]
threshold
Th
Th
value of relative area or volume used to determine the smooth-rough crossover scale

NOTE 1 Starting from the largest scales, working towards the smallest, the first relative area or volume to exceed the
threshold is used to determine the SRC.

NOTE 2 A value of relative area or volume can be specified for the threshold, or the threshold can be selected as some
percent, P, of the largest relative area or volume function, F, in the following manner:

Th  1  (P)(F  1)

NOTE 3 The default value of the threshold is found in ISO 25178-3.

4.5 Miscellaneous parameters

4.5.1
texture direction of the scale-limited surface
Std
Std
angle, with respect to a specified direction  , of the absolute maximum value of the angular spectrum

NOTE Setting s  Std maximizes the absolute value of fAPS(s   ).

© ISO 2012 – All rights reserved 21

ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

5 Determination of areal parameters for stratified functional surfaces of

scale-limited surfaces

5.1 Calculating the parameters Sk, Smr1 and Smr2

The equivalent straight line, calculated according to 5.2, intersects the 0 % and 100 % lines on the Smr axis
(see Figure 5). From these points, two lines are plotted parallel to the X-axis; these determine the core surface
by separating the protruding hills and dales.

The vertical distance between these intersection lines is the core height Sk. Their intersections with the areal
material ratio curve define the material ratios Smr1 and Smr2.

5.2 Calculating the equivalent straight line

The equivalent straight line is calculated for the central region of the areal material ratio curve which includes
40 % of the measured surface points. This “central region” lies where the secant of the areal material ratio
curve over 40 % of the areal material ratio shows the smallest gradient (see Figure 5). This is determined by
moving the secant line for Mr  40 % along the areal material ratio curve, starting at the Mr  0 % position
as in Figure 5. The secant line for Mr  40 % which has the smallest gradient establishes the “central region”
of the areal material ratio curve for the equivalence calculation. If there are multiple regions which have
equivalent minimum gradients, then the region that is first encountered is the region of choice. A straight line
is then calculated for this “central region” which gives the least square deviation in the direction of the surface
ordinates.

To ensure the validity of the areal material ratio curve, the class widths of ordinates of the scale-limited
surface should be selected to be small enough for at least 10 classes to fall within the “central region”. With
surfaces having an almost ideal geometrical plateau, such a fine classification may no longer be meaningful,
because of the limited resolution of the measuring system. In this case, the number of classes used in the
calculation of the equivalent straight line should be stated in the test results.

5.3 Calculating the parameters Spk and Svk

The areas above and below the region of the areal material ratio curve which delimits the core height Sk are
shown hatched in Figure 5. These correspond to the cross-sectional area of the surface hills and dales which
protrude out of the core surface.

The parameters Spk and Svk are each calculated as the height of the right-angle triangle which is constructed
to have the same area as the “hill area” or “dale area”, respectively (see Figure 11). The right-angle triangle
corresponding to the “hill area A1” has Smr1 as its base, and that corresponding to “dale area A2” has the
difference between 100 % and Smr2 as its base.

The parameters Sk, Spk, Svk, Smr1 and Smr2 should only be calculated if the areal material ratio curve is “S”
shaped as shown in Figures 5 and 11, and thus has only one single point of inflection. Experience has shown
that this is always the case of lapped, ground or honed surfaces.

5.4 Calculating the parameters Spq, Svq and Smq

Three non-linear effects can be present in the areal material probability curve shown in Figure 6 for measured
surface data from a two-process surface. These effects shall be eliminated by limiting the fitted portions of the
areal material probability curve, using only the statistically sound, Gaussian portions of the areal material
probability curve, excluding a number of influences.

In Figure 6, the non-linear effects originate from

 debris or outlying hills in the data (scale-limited surface) (labelled 3),

 deep scratches or outlying dales in the data (scale-limited surface) (labelled 4), and

22 © ISO 2012 – All rights reserved

 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

 an unstable region (curvature) introduced at the plateau-to-dale transition point based on the combination
of two distributions (labelled 5).

These exclusions are intended to keep the parameters more stable for repeated measurements of a given
surface.

Figure 7 shows a profile with its corresponding areal material probability curve and its plateau and dale
regions and the parts of the surface that define the two regions. The profile has a hill that is outlying and the
figure shows how it does not influence the parameters. Figure 7 also shows how the bottom parts of the
deepest dales, which will vary significantly depending on where the measurements are made on a surface,
are disregarded when determining the parameters. Figure 7 shows a profile instead of a surface area for ease
of illustration. The principle is the same for a surface area.

The process for determining the limits of the linear regions is given in ISO 13565-3:1998, Annex A.

Y
A1

Spk
Smr1

Smr2

Svk
A2

0 20 40 60 80 100 X
Spk

1
Sk
Svk

0 20 40 60 80 100 X
Smr1 Smr2

Key
X material ratio
Y intersection line position
1 equivalent straight line
A1 hill area
A2 dale area
Smr1, Smr2 material ratios
Sk relative material ratio at the plateau to dale intersection
Spk slope of a linear regression performed through the plateau region
Svk slope of a linear regression performed through the dale region

Conversion of “hill area” and “dale area” into equivalent right-angle triangle.

Figure 11 — Calculation of Spk and Svk based on that for Rpk and Rvk

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

6 Feature characterization

6.1 General

Feature characterization does not have specific feature parameters defined but has instead a toolbox of
pattern recognition techniques that can be used to characterize specified features on a scale-limited surface.
The feature characterization process is in five stages:

 selection of the type of texture feature;

 segmentation;

 determining significant features;

 selection of feature attributes;

 quantification of feature attribute statistics.

The surface depicted in Figure 12 is used as an illustrative example throughout this clause.

µm

1,1

0,9

0,6

0,3
Y
=
1
m
m

m m 0
=1
X

Figure 12 — Example of an illustrative surface

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 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

6.2 Type of texture feature

The three main types of texture features are areal features (hills and dales), line features (course and ridge
lines) and point features (peaks, pits and saddle points); see Table 1. It is important to select the appropriate
type of texture feature for the function of the surface under inspection.

Table 1 — Types of scale-limited features

Class of limited feature Type of scale-limited feature Designation

Hill H
Areal
Dale D
Course line C
Line
Ridge line R
Peak P
Point Pit V
Saddle point S

6.3 Segmentation

Segmentation is used to determine regions of the scale-limited surface which define the scale-limited features.
The segmentation process consists of first finding all of the hills and dales on the scale-limited surface. This
usually results in over-segmentation of the surface and so the “smaller” segments are pruned out to leave a
suitable segmentation of the scale-limited surface. Some criteria of size are given in Table 2 which can be
used to define a threshold to define “small” segments to prune out. An example, using the surface illustrated in
Figure 12, of Hills defined from Wolf pruning using 10 % of Sz is given in Figure 13.

Table 2 — Criteria of size for segmentation

Criteria of size Designation Threshold

Local peak/pit height (Wolf pruning), see Figure 13 Wolfprune % of Sz

Volume of hill/dale (at height of connected saddle on change tree) VolS Specified volume
Area of hill/dale Area % of definition area
Circumference of hill/dale Circ Specified length

6.4 Determining significant features

“Function” does not interact with all features in the same way; different features interact differently. It is thus
essential to distinguish those features that are functionally significant from those that are non-functionally
significant. For each particular surface function, there needs to be defined a segmentation function which
identifies the significant and non-significant features defined by the segmentation. It is the set of significant
features that is used for characterization. Methods of determining significant features are given in Table 3.
These are all segmentation functions.

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

Dimensions in mm
µm

1,1
1

0,9

0,6
0,5

0,3

0
0
0 0,5 1

Figure 13 — Hills defined from Wolf pruning using 10 % of Sz

Table 3 — Methods of determining significant features

Method of determining
Class of feature Designation Parameter units
significant features

Areal Areal feature is significant if not connected to the edge Closed Height is given as a
at a given height (see Figure 14, feature A) material ratio
Areal feature is significant if it is connected to the edge Open Height is given as a
at a given height (see Figure 14, feature B) material ratio
Point A peak is significant if it has one of the top N Wolf peak Top N is an integer
heights
A pit is significant if it has one of the top N Wolf pit Bot N is an integer
heights
Areal, line, point Use all of the features All —

NOTE 1 In future additions of this part of ISO 25178, it is anticipated other standardized methods of determining
segmentation functions for particular functions will be given.

NOTE 2 An example, using the surface illustrated in Figure 12, of closed hills, open hills and open dales is given in
Figure 14.

NOTE 3 The definitions of closed hills, open hills and open dales require more research to make them fully stable (due
to the “connection/no connection” to the edge). It is anticipated that in future additions of this part of ISO 25178 stable
versions of these concepts will be defined.

26 © ISO 2012 – All rights reserved

 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

Key
A example of a closed hill, i.e. not connected to edge (white)
B example of an open hill, i.e. connected to edge (black)
C example of an open dale, i.e. connected to edge (grey)

Figure 14 — Hills above height threshold (50 % material ratio) showing those connected to edge
(black) and those not connected to edge (white)

6.5 Section of feature attributes

Once the set of significant features has been determined, it is necessary to determine suitable feature
attributes for characterization. Most attributes are a measure of size of the feature, e.g. length, area or volume
of a feature. Some feature attributes are given in Table 4.

Table 4 — Feature attributes

Feature class Feature attributes Designation

Areal Local peak/pit height Lpvh

Volume of areal feature (at height of VolS
connected saddle on change tree)
Volume of areal feature (at height of VolE
connection to edge)
Area of areal feature AreaE
Circumference of areal feature Cleng
Line Length of line Leng
Point Local peak/pit height Lpvh
Local curvature at critical point Curvature
Areal, line, point Attribute takes value of one Count

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

NOTE In future additions of this part of ISO 25178, it is anticipated that standardized methods of determining feature
attributes for particular functions will be given.

6.6 Attribute statistics

Calculation of a suitable statistic of the attributes of the significant features, a feature parameter, or
alternatively a histogram of attribute values, is the final part of feature characterization. Some attribute
statistics are given in Table 5.

Table 5 — Attribute statistics

Attribute statistic Designation Threshold

Arithmetic mean of attribute values Mean —

Maximum attribute value Max —
Minimum attribute value Min —
RMS attribute value RMS —
Percentage above a specified value Perc Value of threshold in units of
attribute
Histogram Hist —
Sum of attribute values Sum —
Sum of all the attribute values divided by the Density —
definition area

NOTE In future additions of this part of ISO 25178, it is anticipated that standardized methods of naming particular
attribute statistics will be given.

6.7 Feature characterization convention

To record the feature characterization it is necessary to indicate the particular tools used in each of the five
steps. This can be achieved by using the following convention.

 Start with the letters FC to indicate that this is a feature characterization.

 For each stage, in turn, use the designation from the appropriate table to indicate the tool required.

 Some stage tools require further values for completeness. Use the symbol “;” to delimit between each
stage and the symbol “:” to delimit within a stage.

 If a tool is not specified in this part of ISO 25178, then a reference to the tool definition can be used
instead.

EXAMPLE FC;D;Wolfprune:5%;Edge:60%;AreaE;Hist

6.8 Named feature parameters

In the terminological entries below, each term is followed by its parameter (abbreviated term), then its symbol.
Whereas abbreviated terms can contain multiple letters, symbols consist only of a single letter with subscripts
as needed. Symbols are used in the equations shown in this document. The reason for this differentiation is to
avoid misinterpretation of compound letters as an indication of multiplication between quantities in equations.
The parameters (abbreviated terms) are used in product documentation, drawings and data sheets.

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 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

6.8.1
density of peaks
Spd
Spd
number of peaks per unit area

Spd  FC;H;Wolfprune:X%;All;Count;Density

NOTE 1 See Tables 1 to 5 for explanations of the designations.

NOTE 2 If not otherwise specified, the default value of X % is found in ISO 25178-3.

6.8.2
arithmetic mean peak curvature
Spc
Spc
arithmetic mean of the principal curvatures of peaks within a definition area

Spc  FC;P;Wolfprune:X%;All;Curvature;Mean

NOTE 1 See Tables 1 to 5 for explanations of the designations.

NOTE 2 If not otherwise specified, the default value of X % is found in ISO 25178-3.

6.8.3
ten-point height of surface
S10z
S10z
average value of the heights of the five peaks with largest global peak height added to the average value of
the heights of the five pits with largest global pit height, within the definition area

S10z  S5p  S5v

[Link]
five-point peak height
S5p
S5p
average value of the heights of the five peaks with largest global peak height, within the definition area

S5p  FC;H;Wolfprune:X%;Top:5;Lpvh;Mean

NOTE 1 See Tables 1 to 5 for explanations of the designations.

NOTE 2 If not otherwise specified, the default value of X % is found in ISO 25178-3.

[Link]
five-point pit height
S5v
S5v
average value of the heights of the five pits with largest global pit height, within the definition area

S5v  FC;D;Wolfprune:X%;Bot:5;Lpvh;Mean

NOTE 1 See Tables 1 to 5 for explanations of the designations.

NOTE 2 If not otherwise specified, the default value of X % is found in ISO 25178-3.

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

6.8.4
mean dale area
Sda(c)
Sda(c)
Sda(c)  FC;D;Wolfprune:X%;Open:c/Closed:c;AreaE;Mean

NOTE 1 See Tables 1 to 5 for explanations of the designations. “Open:c/Closed:c” provides the user with a choice of
either “open at height c” or “closed at height c”.

NOTE 2 If not otherwise specified, the default value of X % is found in ISO 25178-3.

NOTE 3 If not otherwise specified, the default value of Open/Closed is found in ISO 25178-3.

6.8.5
mean hill area
Sha(c)
Sha(c)
Sha(c)  FC;H;Wolfprune:X%;Open:c/Closed:c;AreaE;Mean

NOTE 1 See Tables 1 to 5 for explanations of the designations. “Open:c/Closed:c” provides the user with a choice of
either “open at height c” or “closed at height c”.

NOTE 2 If not otherwise specified, the default value of X % is found in ISO 25178-3.

NOTE 3 If not otherwise specified, the default value of Open/Closed is found in ISO 25178-3.

6.8.6
mean dale volume
Sdv(c)
Sdv(c)
Sdv(c)  FC;D;Wolfprune:X%;Open:c/Closed:c;VolE;Mean

NOTE 1 See Tables 1 to 5 for explanations of the designations. “Open:c/Closed:c” provides the user with a choice of
either “open at height c” or “closed at height c”.

NOTE 2 If not otherwise specified, the default value of X % is found in ISO 25178-3.

NOTE 3 If not otherwise specified, the default value of Open/Closed is found in ISO 25178-3.

6.8.7
mean hill volume
Shv(c)
Shv(c)
Shv(c)  FC;H;Wolfprune:X%;Open:c/Closed:c;VolE;Mean

NOTE 1 See Tables 1 to 5 for explanations of the designations. “Open:c/Closed:c” provides the user with a choice of
either “open at height c” or “closed at height c”.

NOTE 2 If not otherwise specified, the default value of X % is found in ISO 25178-3.

NOTE 3 If not otherwise specified, the default value of Open/Closed is found in ISO 25178-3.

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 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

Annex A
(informative)

Segmentation

A.1 Surface segmentation

More than a hundred years ago Maxwell[12] proposed dividing a landscape into regions consisting of hills and
regions consisting of dales. A Maxwellian hill is an area from which maximum uphill paths lead to one
particular peak, and a Maxwellian dale is an area from which maximum downhill paths lead to one particular
pit. By definition, the boundaries between hills are course lines (watercourses), and the boundaries between
dales are ridge lines (watershed lines). Maxwell was able to demonstrate that ridge and course lines are
maximum uphill and downhill paths emanating from saddle points and terminating at peaks and pits. Recently,
the Maxwellian dale (watershed lines) has emerged as the primary tool of mathematical morphology of image
segmentation as preparation for pattern recognition.

Unfortunately, segmenting a surface or image into Maxwellian dales is often disappointing as the
surface/image is over-segmented into a large number of insignificant tiny, shallow dales rather than a few
significant large deep dales. What is required is to merge the insignificant dales into larger significant dales.

It is proposed to extend Maxwell's definitions and to define a dale as consisting of a single dominant pit
surrounded by a ring of ridge lines connecting peaks and saddle points and to define a hill as consisting of a
single dominant peak surrounded by a ring of course lines connecting pits and saddle points. Within a dale or
hill, there may be other pits/peaks, but they will all be insignificant compared to the dominant pit/peak.

The dale is the areal equivalent of the profile motif (see ISO 12085). The hill is also a useful complementary
concept. Like the profile motif, several types of surface specific points and lines characterize hills and dales.
These include the critical points (peaks, pits and saddle points) and the critical lines (ridge lines and course
lines). (See Figure A.1.)

It is also important to consider edge effects. Ockham's Razor (non sunt multiplicanda entia praeter
necessitatem – entities are not to be multiplied beyond necessity) is used to extend contour lines outside the
area of interest in such a way that a minimum number of new critical points are created. Ockham's Razor
leads to two possible solutions called the “virtual pit” and the “virtual peak”, each being the dual of the other.
The concept of the virtual pit is adopted[13]. A virtual pit is assumed to be a point of height minus infinity to
which all the boundary points are connected. (A virtual peak is assumed to be a point of infinite height to
which all the boundary points are connected.)

A.2 Combining segments

A.2.1 Change tree

A useful way to organize the relationships between critical points in hills and dales and still retain relevant
information is a change tree. Kweon and Kanade[14] introduced the concept of a scale-limited change tree to
describe the connectability of a surface. The change tree represents the relationships between contour lines
from a surface and is one example of a more general topological object called a Reeb graph[13]. The vertical
direction on the change tree represents height. At a given height, all individual contour lines are represented
by a point which is part of a line representing that contour line continuously varying with height. Saddle points
are represented by the merging of two or more of these lines into one; peaks and pits are represented by the
termination of a line.

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

VV VV

P1 S1 P2 P3
S2
S3 V1 S4

V2 P4
S5
VV
S7 VV
S6
P6
P5 VV
V3

S8

VV
Key
P peaks
V pits
S saddle points
VV virtual pit

Figure A.1 — Contour map showing critical lines and points

Consider filling a dale gradually with water. The point where the water first flows out of the dale is a saddle
point. The pit in the dale is connected to this saddle point in the change tree. Continuing to fill the new lake,
the next point where the water flows out of the lake is also a saddle point. Again the line on the change tree,
representing the contour of the lake shoreline, will be connected to this saddle point in the change tree. This
process can be continued and establishes the connection between the pits, saddle points and the change
tree. By inverting the landscape so peaks become pits, etc., a similar process will establish the connection
between peaks, saddle points and the change tree.

There are at least three types of change tree:

 the full change tree which represents the relationships between critical points in hills and dales
(Figure A.2);

 the dale change tree which represents the relationships between pits and saddle points (Figure A.3);

 the hill change tree which represents the relationships between peaks and saddle points (Figure A.4).

32 © ISO 2012 – All rights reserved

 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

A P4
A A P4
10 10 10

8 P6 P3 8 8 P6 P3
S7 S7
S4 S4
6 P2 6 6 P2
S2 P1 P5 S2 P1 P5
S3 S3
4 S1 4 4 S1
V1 V1
S6 S6
2 2 2
S8 S5 S8 S5
0 0 0

-2 -2 -2

-4 -4 -4
V3 V2 V3 V2
VV VV
A A A
Key
A height, µm
P peaks
V pits
S saddle points
VV virtual pit

Figure A.2 — Full change tree Figure A.3 — Dale change tree Figure A.4 — Hill change tree

It should be noted that the dale and hill change trees can be calculated from the full change tree. In the rest of
this annex, “change tree” implies the full change tree.

A.2.2 Areal combination

In practice, change trees can be dominated by very short contour lines, due to noise, etc., which hinders
interpretation (over-segmentation of the surface/image by Maxwellian hills and dales). A mechanism is
required to prune the change tree, which reduces the noise, but retains relevant information. An areal
combination is such a mechanism; it leaves the change tree simplified but still containing relevant information.

A.2.3 Rules for areal combination

The following is an outline of the areal combination algorithm for the full change tree. This algorithm can easily
be modified for dale or hill combinations so these cases will not be discussed here. The simplified algorithm
presented here assumes that the virtual pit condition has been applied.

Step 1 Assuming the virtual pit condition, find all the Maxwellian hills and dales and generate the full change
tree.

Step 2 Classify all peaks, pits, edge peaks and edge pits significant or non-significant according to the
function of the surface.

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

Step 3 Combine non-significant peaks and pits with the adjacent saddle point they are connected to in the
change tree.

The resulting change tree will indicate the significant peaks, pits, edge peaks and pits and the relationships
between them. Hence, the change tree has been pruned, reducing the noise, but retaining relevant
information.

A.2.4 Which segments to combine

A segmentation function consists of splitting a set of “events” into two distinct sets called “significant events”
and “insignificant events”. For the segmentation function to give unique and stable results, the segmentation
function must satisfy the following three properties[20].

 P1: Each event is allocated to one and only one of these two sets (i.e. the set of significant events and
the set of insignificant events).

 P2: If a significant event is removed from the set of events then the remaining significant events are
contained in the new set of significant events.

 P3: If an insignificant event is removed from the set of events, then the same set of significant events is
obtained.

It can be shown[16] that all segmentation functions that satisfy these three properties can be mapped one-to-
one onto a certain subset of morphological closing filters. Morphological closing filters are widely used in
image analysis. They are set functions with the following three defining properties[17]:

a) all sets are subsets of their own closings;

b) a closing of a closing of a set is the closing of the original set;

c) a closing of a subset is a subset of the closing of the original set.

The particular subset of the closing filters that the segmentation functions map onto are the closings with the
following properties.

If two sets of events give the same closing, then their intersection also gives the same closing.

Any closing that satisfies this property can be mapped one-to-one onto a particular segmentation function as
follows.

For any set of events, consider the smallest subset of this set that gives the same closing as the original set of
events. It can be shown that this particular subset is unique and well defined and corresponds to the set of
significant events and its complement, with respect to the set of events, corresponds to the set of insignificant
events. The inverse mapping is also well defined. Proofs of these results can be found in Reference [16].

This is a powerful result since it allows one to construct all possible segmentation combination functions from
the morphological closing filters whose properties are very well known, including how to generate all possible
finite closing filters[17].

A.3 Change tree pruning

A.3.1 General

In the literature, there are now several publicized references to methods that are analogous to pruning a
change tree (see References [18], [19] and [20]).

Wolf[18] presents a method which is equivalent to pruning a change tree. This is discussed in A.3.2.

34 © ISO 2012 – All rights reserved

 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

Very recently methods to merge watersheds (Maxwellian dales) have appeared in the literature[19][20].
Watershed merging is equivalent to change tree pruning only if the triangulization of the lattice is assumed to
be a continuous surface (i.e. triangular facets).
All of the above pruning methods can be shown to satisfy the three properties given in A.2.4.

A.3.2 Wolf pruning

One first calculates for each peak and pit the height difference between the peak or pit and the adjacent
saddle point they are connected to on the change tree. Wolf's pruning method consists of finding the peak or
pit with the smallest height difference and combining it with the adjacent saddle point on the change tree. The
other peak or pit also connected to this saddle point is now connected to another saddle and so its height
difference is adjusted to reflect this. The process is then repeated with that peak or pit with the smallest height
difference to its adjacent saddle point on the change tree being eliminated until some threshold is reached.
This threshold could be when all remaining height differences are above a fixed value or alterative when a
fixed number of peaks or pits are left. It can easily be proved that both criteria lead to a segmentation function
that satisfies the three required properties given in A.2.4. Using the change tree given in Figure A.2, P6 to S7,
P2 to S2 and V1 to S3 all take the value of the smallest height difference, i.e. of 0,5. Pruning these leads to
the change tree given in Figure A.5.

Using Wolf pruning until five peaks and five pits are left on a surface gives a stable definition of the ten-point
height parameter. These peaks/pits may not be the highest/lowest, but they will be the tallest.

NOTE Mount Everest may be the highest mountain on earth, but it is not the tallest (base to peak) – that distinction
belongs to Mauna Kea on Hawaii.

A P4 A P4

10 10

P6 P3 P3
8 S7 8
S4 S4
P2 6
6 S2 P1 P5
P1 P5
S3
S1 S1
4 4
V1
S6 S6
2 2
S8 S5 S5
0 0
S8

Key -2 -2
A height, µm
P peaks
V pits -4 -4
S saddle points V3 V2 V3 V2
VV virtual pit A VV A VV
a) Before pruning b) After pruning

Figure A.5 — Wolf pruning of Figure A.2

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

Annex B
(informative)

Fractal methods

B.1 What is a fractal?

A fractal is an object that looks approximately the same over some range of scales or magnification, i.e. the
object should be statistically self-similar, see Figure B.1. The object need not exhibit exactly the same
structure at all scales, but the same “type” of structures must appear over some range of scales.

Figure B.1 — Fractal profile showing the same structures at all scales

In general, a “fractal dimension” can be calculated from a fractal surface using several methods [21][22]
including the variation method [23] and relative area analysis [24]. The latter has shown to be capable of
providing parameters that support strong functional correlations with adhesion [25], electrochemical impedance
[26], friction [27], gloss [28], good differentiation of dental microwear [29], grinding conditions [30], mass transfer
during heat treatment [31], and powder compacts [32].

The fractal dimension is a measure of the geometric complexity or intricacy components of a fractal or partially
fractal surface. The fractal dimension increases with increasing complexity. The fractal dimension is greater
than or equal to the Euclidian dimension, i.e. greater than or equal to one and less than two for a profile, and
greater than or equal to two and less than three for a surface.

Real surfaces are partially fractal, in that they can be characterized, approximated, or modelled as having
irregular geometric components over some range of scales of observations. Ideal fractal surfaces are
mathematical models that have irregular components at all scales of observation.

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 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

Periodic and quasi-periodic geometric components of a surface do not exclude that surface from having fractal
components or from being advantageously characterized by fractal analysis.

B.2 Variation methods

Let F(s) be the volume between a morphological closing envelope and a morphological opening envelope of
the fractal surface by a square horizontal flat structuring element with scale s (s by s).

Then, providing the limit exists,

 d  loge  F ( s )  
DV  lim  3  
s 0 
 d loge  s   

The fractal dimension calculated using the variation method is equivalent to the Minkowski-Bouligand
dimension. It has been shown [23] that the variational method has the lowest uncertainty of all current methods
to calculate a fractal dimension. The fractal dimension of a surface is greater than or equal to two and is an
indication of how complex a fractal surface is. The higher the fractal dimension, the more complicated or
irregular the fractal surface is.

B.3 Variational method applied to scale-limited surfaces

In a strict mathematical sense, scale-limited surfaces are not true fractal surfaces since they have been
deliberately smoothed at some defined scale and so do not contain “the same type of structures at all scales”.
Scale-limited surfaces may, however, display “fractal-type behaviours” over a range of scales. The volume-
scale plot, see Figure B.2, is very useful in capturing some of these behaviours over the observable range of
scales.

The volume-scale plot Svs(s) is a plot of the log of the volume between a morphological closing envelope and
a morphological opening envelope of the scale-limited surface using a square horizontal flat as a structuring
element against log-scale of the structuring element.

Y
1,2

1,16

1,12 a

1,08

Key 1,04 b

X scale, in micrometres
Y volume, in micrometres cubed 1
a Scale.
b Volume. 1 10 100 1 000 X
Figure B.2 — Volume-scale plot of a scale-limited surface

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

Most volume-scale plots of scale-limited surfaces will display several regions where the curve is approximately
a straight line. In each of these particular regions, the relationship between the scale s and the volume Svs(s)
takes the form:

Svs ( s )  c  s d

This is a power law because the volume Svs(s) changes as if it were a power of scale s. The slope of the
straight line, on the volume-scale plot, is just the exponent d and its volume-intercept is log(c).

Over those ranges of scales where a particular power law is valid (i.e. over the corresponding region of the
volume-scale plot where the curve is approximately a straight line), the scale-limited surface will display self-
similarity (i.e. portions of the surface when enlarged by a suitable amount will look like the original surface).
Hence, the scale-limited surface, over these particular ranges of scales, is approximately a fractal surface with
a fractal dimension of 2  d. Thus, the steeper the slope of the volume-scale plots, the more complicated the
surface is for that particular range of scales.

As mentioned above, most volume-scale plots will display several regions where the curve is approximately a
straight line. The scale where there is a change in slope from one region approximated by a straight line to
another is called a “crossover scale”. In practice, this can be a gradual change and so a procedure is
necessary for determining the scale at which this change takes place. The identification of crossover scales is
important because they indicate a change in the dominant mechanism affecting the scale-limited surface
and/or measurement procedure. An example is shown in Figure B.3. Going from relative larger scales, where
the slope is near zero, to smaller scales, where the slope is steeper, the first crossover scale indicates a
change from a relative smooth surface at larger scales to a rougher surface at smaller scales. Hence, above
this first crossover scale, this particular scale-limited surface can be considered smooth.

Y
0,7

0,66

0,62

0,58
a

0,54
Key b

X scale, in micrometres 0,5

Y volume, in micrometres cubed
a First crossover scale. 1 10 100 1 000 X
b Second crossover scale.

Figure B.3 — Idealized volume-scale plot showing crossover scales

B.4 Relative area analysis

Any dimension, D, of a surface, fractal or Euclidian, can be represented as a ratio of the log of the number of
areal elements, N, with respect to the log of the reciprocal of the linear scaling ratio, r [33].

D  (log N) / [log (1/r)]

For an ideal fractal surface, the equation above represents the slope of a log-log, relative area plot because all
scales are covered, including, r  1 (at which point N  1 as well). For real surfaces, this will not be true in
general. On real surfaces, the fractal dimensions are calculated from the slope of these plots in a scale range
over which the surface is self-similar.

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The observed area of a measured surface is calculated as a function of scale by a series of virtual tiling
exercises covering the measured surface in a patchwork fashion [24][34]. The areas of the tiles, or patches,
represent the areal scales of observation. The tiling exercises are repeated with tiles of progressively smaller
areas to determine the observed areas as a function of the areal scales of observation (Figure B.4) [34].

A = 1 270 000 nm² 72 B C = 1,052

A = 263 000 nm² 409 B C = 1,181

A = 52 900 nm² 2 416 B C = 1,33

A = 7 830 nm² 18 331 B C = 1,461

Key
A scale
B tiles
C relative area

The size of the triangular tiles, or patches, shown in outline is the scale of observation. The nominal areas covered by
each tiling exercise are represented on the ceiling of each box.

Figure B.4 — Four tiling exercises from an relative area analysis

The observed area is the number of tiles, or patches, for one virtual tiling exercise times the area
of the tile, or patch (i.e. scale of observation). For example, the measured area is
18 331 tiles  7 830 nm2  143 531 730 nm2 at a scale of 7 830 nm2. The observed area is the apparent area
at a particular scale of observation and must be referenced to that scale, as the observed area changes with
the scale of observation. The nominal area is the area of an individual tiling exercise projected onto the
nominal surface, i.e. the area on the nominal surface covered by the tiling exercise. The least squares plane
or the measurement datum can be used for the nominal surface. The relative area is the observed area at a
particular scale divided by the nominal area [25][34]. Consequently, the minimum relative area is one.

A relative area plot is a log-log plot of the relative areas versus the areal scales of observation (Figure B.5).
The dimension, D, over some scale range can be calculated from the slope, b, of the relative area plot as:

D  2  2b

which can be shown to be derivable from the previous equation for D.

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

1,5

1,4

1,3

1,2

1,1

a
m = -0,071 872 9
1

1 000 10 000 100 000 1 000 000 10 000 000 X

Key
X scale of observation (nm2)
Y relative area
a Slope.
The fractal dimension is about 2,144.

Figure B.5 — Relative area plot including the results of the tiling series in Figure B.4

40 © ISO 2012 – All rights reserved

 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

Annex C
(informative)

Basis for areal surface texture standards

C.1 Timetable of events

The timetable of events leading to the publication of this series of International Standards on areal surface
texture is presented below.

April 1990 - April 1993 EU-funded project entitled Development of Methods for the Characterisation of
Roughness in Three Dimensions under the leadership of Birmingham University.
Developed basic foundation for areal surface texture characterization. Project
report[10] introduced the “Birmingham 14" areal surface texture parameters and
investigated communication protocols which included data-file formats.

Sept 1993 “Blue book”[21] published containing the detailed results from the above EU
project. This book became a de facto standard for areal surface texture
characterization.

April 1998 - April 2001 AUTOSURF project under the leadership of Rover/Brunel University. This EU-
funded project developed areal surface texture characterization methods for sheet
materials for automotive applications. This includes characterization for oil
retention during storage of the coils, pressing performance and paint performance.
Used the feature toolbox to solve real surface texture problems.

May 1998 - May 2001 SURFSTAND project under the leadership of Huddersfield University. This EU-
funded project laid the foundations for the standardization of areal surface texture
analysis. Evaluated the functional usefulness of the “Birmingham 14” parameters
through a series of case studies. Areal texture definitions were revisited, resulting
in “tightening up” the definitions of the “Field” parameters and the introduction of a
“Feature” toolbox. Development of robust and wavelet filter technologies. Finally,
issues dealing with areal instrument calibration were investigated.

Jan 2002 SURFSTAND and AUTOSURF project presentations to ISO/TC 213 in Madrid,
Spain.

June 2002 Surface texture taskforce set up by ISO/TC 213 to determine requirements for
standardization of areal surface texture.

Jan 2003 ISO/TC 213 set up new Working Group WG 16 to develop new surface texture
system as part of next generation GPS.

May 2003 “Green book”[11] published containing the detailed results from the SURFSTAND
project.

June 2003 ASME B46.1-2003 published. Contains the basis for areal surface texture fractal
methods and classification of surface texture instruments.

C.2 References by subject

The references used in this series of International Standards on areal surface texture are given in the
Bibliography. The non-ISO references are sorted by subject field.

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

Annex D
(informative)

Concept diagrams

D.1 General terms

[Link] 3.1.2 specification

mechanical surface coordinate system

3.1.1 non-ideal
surface model of 3.1.3
a workpiece primary surface

[Link]
electromagnetic
surface

3.1.4 [Link] primary

surface filter extracted surface

[Link] [Link] [Link]

S-filter L-filter F-operation

3.1.6 3.1.5
S-L surface S-F surface

3.1.7 scale-
limited surface

3.1.8 3.1.9 3.1.10

reference surface evaluation area definition area

42 © ISO 2012 – All rights reserved

 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

D.2 Geometrical parameter terms

3.2.1 field 3.2.3

parameter V-parameter

3.2.2 feature 3.2.4

parameter S-parameter

3.1.8 3.2.6 ordinate

3.2.5 height
reference surface value

3.1.7 scale-limited 3.2.7 local

surface gradient vector

3.2.8
autocorrelation
function

3.2.9 Fourier [Link] angular

transformation spectrum

D.3 Geometrical feature terms

D.3.1 Features

[Link]
3.3.3 saddle
saddle point

[Link] [Link] [Link]

course line line feature ridge line

3.3.4 topographic
feature

[Link] [Link] dale

[Link] hill
areal feature

[Link]
3.3.1 peak 3.3.2 pit
point feature

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

D.3.2 Feature analysis

3.3.10 3.3.11
3.2.5 height
peak height pit height

3.3.5
contour line

[Link] 3.3.7 3.3.2 pit

3.3.1 peak
saddle point change tree

[Link] local [Link] [Link] local

peak height pruning pit height

3.3.6 [Link] Wolf

segmentation pruning

3.3.8 Wolf 3.3.9 Wolf

peak height pit height
[Link]
segmentation
function 3.3.12 height
discrimination

[Link] first [Link] second [Link] third

segmentation segmentation segmentation
property property property

44 © ISO 2012 – All rights reserved

 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

Annex E
(informative)

Relation to the GPS matrix model

E.1 General
For full details about the GPS matrix model, see ISO/TR 14638.

The ISO/GPS Masterplan given in ISO/TR 14638 gives an overview of the ISO/GPS system of which this
document is a part. The fundamental rules of ISO/GPS given in ISO 8015 apply to this document and the
default decision rules given in ISO 14253-1 apply to specifications made in accordance with this document,
unless otherwise indicated.

E.2 Information about this document and its use

This part of ISO 25178 specifies terms, definitions and parameters for the determination of surface texture
(roughness, waviness and primary surface) by areal methods.

E.3 Position in the GPS matrix model

This part of ISO 25178 is a general GPS standard which influences chain link 2 of the chains of standards on
surface texture in the GPS matrix structure, as graphically illustrated in Figure E.1.

Global GPS standards

General GPS matrix

Chain link number 1 2 3 4 5 6
Size
Distance
Radius
Angle
Form of line independent of datum
Form of line dependent on datum
Fundamental Form of surface independent of datum
Form of surface dependent on datum
GPS Orientation
Location
standards Circular run-out
Total run-out
Datums
Roughness profile
Waviness profile
Primary profile
Surface imperfections
Edges
Areal surface texture

Figure E.1 — Position in the GPS matrix model

E.4 Related International Standards

The related standards are those of the chains of standards indicated in Figure E.1.

© ISO 2012 – All rights reserved 45

ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

Bibliography

[1] ISO 8015, Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Fundamentals — Concepts, principles and
rules

[2] ISO 11562, Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) — Surface texture: Profile method —
Metrological characteristics of phase correct filters

[3] ISO 12085:1996, Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) — Surface texture: Profile method —
Motif parameters

[4] ISO 13565-2:1996, Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) — Surface texture: Profile method;
Surfaces having stratified functional properties — Part 2: Height characterization using the linear
material ratio curve

[5] ISO 13565-3:1998, Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) — Surface texture: Profile method;
Surfaces having stratified functional properties — Part 3: Height characterization using the material
probability curve

[6] ISO 14406:2010, Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Extraction

[7] ISO/TR 14638, Geometrical product specification (GPS) — Masterplan

[8] ISO/TS 16610-20:2006, Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Filtration — Part 20: Linear
profile filters: Basic concepts

[9] ISO 25178-3, Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Surface texture: Areal — Part 3:
Specification operators

References related to field parameters

[10] STOUT, K.J. et al. The development of methods for the characterisation of roughness in three
dimensions. European Report EUR 15178 EN, ISBN 0 7044 1313 2

[11] BLUNT, L. and JIANG, X. Advanced techniques for assessment surface topography – Development of a
basis for the 3D Surface Texture Standards “SURFSTAND”, Kogan Page Science, ISBN 1903996112,
2003

References related to feature parameters

See Reference [11] and the following.

[12] MAXWELL, J.C. On hills and dales. The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Phil. Mag. and J. Sci., Series 4,
40, 1870, pp. 421-425

[13] TAKAHASHI, S. et al. Algorithms for extracting correct critical points and constructing topological graphs
from discrete geographical elevation data. Computer Graphics Forum, 14 (3), 1995, pp. C181-C192

[14] KWEON, I.S. and KANADE, T. Extracting topographic terrain features from elevation maps, CVGIP:
image understanding, 59 (2), 1994, pp. 171-182

[15] SCOTT, P.J. The Mathematics of motif combination and their use for functional simulation. Int. J. Mech.
Tools Manufact., 32 (1-2), 1992, pp. 69-73

[16] SCOTT, P.J. Pattern Analysis and Metrology: The extraction of stable features from observable
measurements. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A, 460, 2004, pp. 2845-2864

[17] SERRA, J. and VINCENT, L. An Overview of Morphological Filtering. Circuits, Systems, and Signal
Processing, 11 (1), 1992, pp. 47-108

46 © ISO 2012 – All rights reserved

 ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

[18] WOLF, G.W. A Fortran subroutine for cartographic generalization. Computers and Geoscience, 17 (10),
1991, pp. 1359-1381

[19] BLEAU, A. and LEON, L.J. Watershed-based segmentation and region merging. Computer Vision and
Image understanding, 77, 2000, pp. 317-370

[20] BARRÉ, F. and LOPEZ, J. Watershed lines and catchment basins: a new 3D-motif method. Int. J. Mech.
Tools Manufact., 40, 2000, pp. 1171-1184

References related to fractal methods

[21] DECHIFFRE, L., LONARDO, P. et al. Quantitative Characterisation of Surface Texture. Annals of the
CIRP, 49 (2), 2000, pp. 635-652

[22] JOHNSEN, W.A. and BROWN, C.A. Comparison of Several Methods for Calculating Fractal-Based
Topographic Characterization Parameters. Fractals, 2/3, 1994, pp. 437-440

[23] DUBUC, B., ZUCKER, S.W. et al. Evaluating the Fractal Dimension of Surfaces. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A,
425, 1989, pp. 113-127

[24] BROWN, C.A., CHARLES, P.D. et al. Fractal Analysis of Topographic Data by the Patchwork Method.
Wear, 161, 1993, pp. 61-67

[25] BROWN, C.A. and SIEGMANN, S. Fundamental scales of adhesion and area-scale fractal analysis. Int. J.
Mech. Tools Manufact., 41, 2001, pp. 1927-1933

[26] MCRAE, G.A. et al. Atomic Force Microscopy of Fractal Anodic Oxides on Zr-2.5Nb. J. of Applied
Surface Science, 191 (1-4), 2002, pp. 94-105

[27] JOHNSEN, W.A. Advances in the design of pavement surfaces. PhD dissertation, Worcester
Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA, 1997

[28] BRIONES, V. et al. Scale-sensitive fractal analysis of the surface roughness of bloomed Chocolate.
J. American Oil Chemists Society, 83 (3), 2006, pp. 193-199

[29] SCOTT R.S., UNGAR P.S. et al. Dental microwear texture analysis within-species diet variability in fossil
hominins. Nature, 436 (4), 2005, pp. 693-695

[30] JORDAN, S.E. and BROWN, C.A. Comparing texture characterization parameters on their ability to
differentiate ground polyethylene ski bases. Wear, 261 (3-4), 2006, pp. 398-409

[31] KARABELCHTCHIKOVA, O., BROWN, C.A. et al. Effect of surface roughness on kinetics of mass transfer
during gas carburizing. International Heat Treatment and Surface Engineering, 1/4, 2007

[32] NARAYAN, P. and HANCOCK, B. Using fractal analysis to differentiate the surface topography of various
pharmaceutical excipient compacts. Materials Science and Engineering, A: Structural Materials:
Properties, Microstructure and Processing, 430(1-2), 2006, pp. 79-89

[33] MANDELBROT, B.B. Fractals: Form, Chance and Dimension. W. H. Freeman and Co., New York, 1977

[34] ASME B46.1-2003, Surface Texture, Surface Roughness, Waviness and Lay

Other methods

[35] BURROWS, J.M. and GRIFFITHS, B.J. A vector modelling technique for the representation of 3-
dimensional surface topography. Int. J. Mech. Tools Manufact., 38, 1998, pp. 537-542

Case studies

See Reference [11].

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ISO 25178-2:2012(E)

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