ML 2022 / 2023

Professor: Hdouch Youcef

contact information:
0654031182
[Link]@[Link]

Literature Review submitted by

El khalfy El mehdi

Title: In-depth Analysis of Semantic Framing Strategies

in Moroccan Media Headlines
Literature review:

Introduction:

The media plays a pivotal role in shaping public perception and political discourse in
modern democratic societies. Headlines, as a major source of news and information, hold a
prominent position in this process. The employment of semantic framing strategies in
headlines has a profound impact on how consumers interpret and engage with political issues.
This literature review aims to explore the intricate relationship between media headlines and
the semantic framing of political issues to understand how media outlets shape public
understanding, attitudes, and opinions.

Framing strategies are among the most influential factors in this process. Framing involves
the selection, emphasis, and presentation of particular aspects of an issue, which can
influence how audiences perceive and interpret the information presented. Semantic framing,
in particular, involves the use of language and word choice to shape the meaning and
interpretation of news stories. Media headlines can influence the public's understanding of
political issues, stakeholders, and policy matters through the strategic selection of words,
tone, and context.

Understanding how semantic framing operates in Moroccan media headlines is of paramount

importance in comprehending the media's role as an intermediary in the construction of
political reality. The strategic use of language and framing in headlines can have a profound
impact on public perceptions, contribute to political polarization, and shape the public
agenda. As such, analyzing semantic framing strategies provides valuable insights into how
media outlets influence public discourse and contribute to the democratic process in
Morocco.

This literature review aims to achieve several essential objectives that shed light on the
relationship between media headlines and the semantic framing of political issues. Firstly, it
seeks to identify and classify the specific semantic framing strategies used in Moroccan
media headlines. Through an in-depth analysis of linguistic techniques such as word choices,
metaphors, and phrases, the review aims to discern how media outlets strategically present
and interpret political news to shape public understanding.

Secondly, the review delves into the semantic mechanisms and rhetorical devices employed
in these framing strategies. By exploring the linguistic elements within headlines, the study
endeavors to unravel the nuanced ways through which media headlines shape the meaning
and perception of news stories. Understanding these linguistic mechanisms is crucial in
comprehending how media messages are constructed and the impact they have on audience
perception.

Moreover, this review aims to critically examine potential biases and ideological influences
present in the headlines. By investigating how specific framing strategies align with certain
ideologies or favor particular stakeholders, the review addresses the ethical considerations of
media representation. Recognizing and understanding such biases is essential for promoting
fair and accurate news reporting, which is a cornerstone of a democratic society.

Lastly, the research investigates the effects of semantic framing strategies in media headlines
on social attitudes. By exploring how readers interpret and engage with the framed headlines,
the study seeks to understand how semantic framing influences public attitudes, opinions, and
political engagement. The insights gained from this analysis will contribute to a deeper
understanding of the impact of media messages on public opinion and the formation of
collective beliefs.

Given the limited availability of Moroccan literature on the specific topic, this literature
review will draw upon foreign resources to comprehensively investigate the subject.
Although foreign studies offer valuable insights into semantic framing and its impact on
public understanding, it is crucial to recognize that their relevance to the Moroccan media
context may be restricted. The media landscape in each country is unique and influenced by a
range of cultural, political, and social factors that can shape the employment and
interpretation of semantic framing strategies. Nonetheless, analyzing cross-cultural studies
and foreign academic sources can provide valuable insights and contribute to a broader
understanding of the subject matter while recognizing the importance of contextual factors
specific to the Moroccan media.

1. Conceptual Framework:

In this thesis, which examines semantic framing strategies in Moroccan media headlines, the
conceptual framework plays a pivotal role. It provides the foundation for the entire study,
giving both direction and structure. The central premise of this research is to explore how
language, word choice, and context influence the interpretation and perception of news
stories. To navigate this complex terrain, we rely on a conceptual framework built upon
well-established theories in media studies and communication. This framework helps us to
categorize and understand the intricate relationship between media communication and its
impact on public perceptions and attitudes. It also provides a lens through which we can
assess the mechanisms underlying media framing strategies, explore their potential biases,
and evaluate their influence on social attitudes.
1.1 Historical background:

The concept of framing originated in the field of psychology and it was first introduced by
Gregory Bateson in the 1950s. Bateson used the term frame to describe the context in which a
message is communicated to the audience, pointing out the idea that the meaning of media
messages is influenced by the context in which they are presented. His idea was later adopted
in the field of communication and it became known as the framing theory.
In the 1970s, Ervin Goffman expanded on Bateson’s work and introduced the concept of
frame analysis. He argued that frames are used to make sense of the world around us and that
they are of paramount importance for understanding social interactions (D'Angelo &
Kuypers, 2010, p. 7).

Building upon this foundation, in the same era, Lakoff & Johnson introduced the concept of
conceptual framing in their work "Metaphors We Live By". They claim that metaphors are
not just linguistic devices but also cognitive tools that shape people’s understanding of the
world and that they are subject to cultural differences. As such frames are regarded as
metaphors that can be deciphered from a cultural perspective, and their interpretation may
vary from one place to another (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p. 257).

Later, the concept of framing was applied to media studies, in which it was known as media
framing. The 1980s witnessed a substantial surge in research related to media studies and
framing. Researchers studied how media outlets frame issues and events arguing that the
ways news media frame issues can deliberately affect the way the audience interprets these
issues and shape public opinion (D'Angelo & Kuypers, 2010, p. 7).
The study of media framing gained more popularity in the 1990s given the the publication of
several works, including Scheufele's (1999) book, Framing as a Theory of Media Effects. In
this book, Scheufele provides a comprehensive overview of media framing theory and
research. He also argues that media framing is a powerful tool that can influence how people
perceive and understand the world around them.

The growing interest in the study of media framing is due to the fact that framing is a
powerful tool that can influence how people perceive and understand the world around them.
Media framing can be used to shape public opinion, influence policy decisions, and even sell
products and services. In today's world, we are constantly bombarded with information from
a variety of sources, including news, social media, and advertising. It is becoming
increasingly difficult to know what information is accurate and reliable. Media framing can
help us to make sense of this complex and often contradictory information environment.

1.2 Definitions and Typology:

At the heart of comprehending the substantial influence wielded by media in shaping public
perception lies a foundational theoretical concept known as "framing." Framing, as elucidated
by Entman (1993), delves into the strategic orchestration of media content. It entails a
purposeful selection and presentation process, wherein specific facets of a given issue are
meticulously chosen and adeptly presented to audiences (Entman, 1993). This systematic
curation of information is by no means haphazard; it is artfully designed to mold and shape
how individuals interpret and engage with the subject matter.

The absence of a clear definition of framing made researchers like Entman define it as a
fractured paradigm; his labeling results from the idea that the concept of framing lacks a
universally accepted definition; this confusion has led to a diverse research landscape, in
which a multitude of perspectives and methodologies are used to explore framing (Lecheler
& de Vreese, 2018, p. 2).

Chong and Druckman (2007) claim that in framing research, there are two main types of
frames: equivalency frames and emphasis frames. Equivalency frames involve saying the
same thing in different ways, like describing a glass as "half full" or "half empty." These
frames don't change the core idea. Emphasis frames, however, present a topic in different
ways that highlight what could be important. For instance, when discussing a new family law,
you could emphasize its positive impact on safety or emphasize its negative impact on
people's finances. Most framing studies focus on emphasis frames because they tackle more
complex issues, such as politics or significant news stories, by highlighting different
viewpoints and aspects of the topic (as cited Lecheler & de Vreese, 2018, p. 3).
De Vreese (2005) suggests that a further distinction can be made so as to differentiate
between frames that are topic-specific in that their use pertains to specific issues and events
(issue-specific frames), and frames that are applicable to various subjects and cultural settings
(generic frames) (as cited Lecheler & de Vreese, 2018, p. 4).

Conceptually, news frames are defined as the central narrative that gives meaning to a certain
event encountered by the audience. As such, frames guide our understanding of the many
controversies we face in the world; this process is done through a deliberate emphasis on
specific facets of reality while relegating others to the ground (Lecheler & de Vreese, 2018, p.
3).

Furthermore, the government's role in this intricate interplay between media and public
perception is paramount. Governments frequently allocate resources and enact policies that
bestow substantial benefits upon certain segments of society while simultaneously imposing
adverse consequences, suffering, or deprivation upon others. The successful implementation
and public acceptance of such actions are contingent upon the government's ability to
cultivate and disseminate specific belief systems. These belief systems revolve around the
delineation of deserving and undeserving recipients of governmental largesse, the
identification of potential threats, and the delineation of which policies are anticipated to
yield favorable outcomes versus those perceived as liable to result in suffering, inequity, or
calamity. In essence, the government strategically employs these belief systems as tools for
shaping public perception regarding the causality of various societal outcomes, thereby
rationalizing its policies and actions. This intricate interplay underscores the profound
influence of media framing and governmental narrative construction in shaping public
understanding and acceptance of policy decisions and societal realities (Edelman, 1993).
Framing involves defining problems by specifying what a causal agent is doing and assessing
its costs and benefits based on cultural values, diagnosing the underlying causes of the
problem, making moral judgments about the agents involved and their impacts, and
proposing and justifying solutions for the problems and predicting their potential outcomes;
it's important to note that a single sentence can serve multiple framing functions, and not all
frames in a given text will encompass all four functions. An example provided by Entman
(1993) is the "cold war" frame, which dominated U.S. news coverage of foreign affairs until
recently. In this frame, certain foreign events, such as civil wars, were portrayed as problems.
The frame attributed these problems to specific sources, often labeling them as communist
rebels. It also made moral judgments by characterizing these rebels as engaging in atheistic
aggression, suggesting that they were perceived as not adhering to or actively challenging
religious values or institutions. Lastly, the Cold War frame recommended particular solutions,
such as advocating for U.S. support for the opposing side in these conflicts. Essentially, the
Cold War frame shaped how these foreign events were perceived, who was considered
responsible, and what actions were deemed appropriate to address them.

In the context of the Cold War, it becomes apparent that frames hold a pivotal role in the
communication process. These frames are discernible in four crucial locations: the
communicator, the text, the receiver, and the culture. Communicators engage in the act of
framing, where their decisions are guided by their cognitive frameworks or schemata, which
significantly influence their belief systems (Entman, 1993). Within the text itself, frames are
embedded, and their presence is detected through the strategic use of keywords, the
employment of familiar stock phrases, the portrayal of stereotypical imagery, reliance on
specific sources of information, and the structuring of sentences to bolster thematic clusters
of facts or judgments. It is imperative to recognize that the frames that shape the recipient's
thoughts and conclusions may not invariably coincide with those contained in the text or
align with the communicator's intended framing (Entman, 1993). In this context, culture
represents a set of commonly used ideas that people in a certain group often refer to when
they talk and think. These ideas are like a toolbox that helps them discuss different topics. In
these four locations, using these ideas helps people construct arguments about problems, their
origins, assessments, and possible solutions.

Fiske & Taylor (1991; as cited in Entman, 1993) suggest that the way frames work can be
highly associated with the word salience, which means making a piece of information more
prominent. A text has many ways of making a piece of information or an idea more
prominent, whether through the use of repetition, placement, or the association of culturally
specific concepts. however, repetition can sometimes be redundant, as people tend to pick up
even the most obscure and less salient ideas provided that these ideas are in alignment with
their already preconceived opinions and ideas. As such, schemata, which comprise a set of
categories, scripts, or stereotypes, are what guide the receiver’s understanding and processing
of the information. In other words, these frames are to be consistently aligned with the
already perceived notions and ideas of the receiver's mental framework throughout the text so
as to guarantee an influence on the receiver’s thinking (Entman, 1989; Graber, 1988, as cited
in Entman 1993).

The power of frames can be illustrated using the experiment of Kahneman and Tversky
(1984), which was conducted to see the people’s choices regarding a potential Asian disease
outbreak using two different scenarios that were described using different frames to depict the
same situation. The experiment showed that changing the frames led to a significant shift in
people’s thinking as well as in their decision-making:
Imagine that the U.S. is preparing for the outbreak of an unusual Asian disease,
which is expected to kill 600 people. Two alternative programs to combat the disease
have been proposed. Assume that the exact scientific estimates of the consequences of
the programs are as follows: If Program A is adopted, 200 people will be saved.
(72%) If Program B is adopted, there is a one-third probability that 600 people will
be saved and a two-thirds probability that no people will be saved. (28%) Which of
the two programs would you favor? (1984, p. 243)
The majority of people chose A, as it offers a higher degree of certainty. In the second
scenario, the same options were presented again using the likelihood of deaths; the results
were shocking as the majority of the participants chose D, which is option B rephrased in
terms of deaths. The aforementioned experiment showed that framing is by far a powerful
tool that can instantly change the way people perceive a situation and also how they act upon
it. Farming, thus, can change the way we perceive the world around us, making it a
kaleidoscope of different realities that change based on how we observe and decipher what is
being communicated to us (Edelman, 1993, p. 232).

Framing, as has been discussed so far, is the epitome of wordplay that involves the strategic
use of words, an option that most politicians and political news outlets opt for to direct
people’s attention and influence their thoughts regarding a specific matter. The idea that most
news coverage is not neutral, as it is mostly influenced by governments, political parties,
corporations, and even individuals, suggests that framing is prevalent; Thus, an understanding
of framing would make it easier for people to evaluate the information they are given and
take into account the actors significant impact on the narrative. An example of the media’s
distortion of news was the Iraq war which led to a death toll of more than one hundred
thousand people. The media, under the influence of the elite and policymakers, played a
crucial role in the instigation of the war by disregarding potential diplomatic negotiations
between Iraq and Kuwait and presenting a sort of dichotomous view of the situation; War and
the imposition of sanctions, which would have also lead to a military conflict were the only
two alternatives advocated by the various media outlet, thus labeling any other option that
would have prevented the destabilization of the Middle East as falling outside of the
boundaries of acceptable discourse for the public opinion (Entman, 1993, p. 55).

Another definition of framing would be the construction of reality, as suggested by Fairhurst

and Sarr in their work “The Art of Framing: Managing the Language of Leadership”. They
claim that frames are used to delineate issues of significance and insignificance, as well as
make distinctions between what is realistic and what is not (Fairhurst & Sarr, 1996, p. 4).

The concept of framing is widespread across many disciplines; this entails that framing is to
be regarded as a research paradigm that can be used as an analytic tool that offers insights
into empirical-based discussion and normative value-driven debates. As such, farming as a
theory, can help not only in the understanding of how media shapes public opinion but also in
different domains, such as political science, in which framing can be used to dissect how
politicians and media outlets frame political issues and candidates in terms of voting. In
social psychology, framing can be used to analyze people’s decision-making and attitudes
toward the diverse experiences and phenomena that people come across or go through.

2. Theoretical framework:

The theoretical framework of this thesis provides the intellectual foundation upon which the
study is built. As we embark on an in-depth analysis of semantic framing strategies in
Moroccan media headlines, it is essential to establish a firm theoretical foundation. We draw
upon established theories in media studies and communication to guide our exploration.
Central to our study is the concept of semantic framing, which is deeply rooted in
communication theory. Semantic framing encompasses how linguistic elements, such as
language, word choice, and context, influence the interpretation and reception of news
stories. This theoretical framework serves as a lens through which we categorize and
understand the intricate mechanisms underlying media framing strategies. It also provides a
method for dissecting potential biases and evaluating their impact on social attitudes. As we
progress, we will delve into a comprehensive discussion of potential theories within semantic
framing, contributing not only to the field of media analysis but also to the broader discourse
on how media shapes public understanding.

The first theory of framing was first put by Goffman, under the title of Frame Analysis in
1972. He claims that people interpret what they encounter in their lives through their primary
framework, which is the basic mental structure that people use when encountering a new
event or issue in the world. The word primary here describes the unconscious foundational
lens from which individual makes sense of the world around them (Goffman, 1974, p. 21). In
his further explanation and introduction of the primary frame, Goffman introduces a
distinction between Natural frameworks; which identify events and issues as being physical
occurrences without ascribing them to any social influences, and Social Frameworks; which
view events and issues as being driven by social factors including the needs and whims and
objective of active users (people) (Goffman, 1974, p. 22).
Goffman thus, emphasizes the impact of frameworks in our understanding of the world
around us. Regardless of whether these frameworks are natural or social, they exert
significant influence on how individuals interpret, process, and communicate information.
Goffman's fundamental assumption is that individuals, knowingly or unknowingly,
incorporate these frameworks into their everyday lives, shaping their understanding of the
world and influencing their communication practices.

2.1 Framing as a foundational theory for future research:

Framing as defined by Entman (1993) is a scattered conceptualization that lacks a core theory
from which future research can be based (p. 51). As such, framing has been used by different
researchers to refer to different things, such as the selection of some particular aspects of a
given story or the choice of words and metaphors in a certain narrative. A lack of a coherent
theoretical framing model made it impossible to compare studies in media effects research.
Entman thus called attention to the development of a theoretical model from which framing
can be studied and analyzed systematically so as to have a compressive understanding of the
effect of framing on the receiver’s interpretation of issues.

Since Entman's call for a consistent concept of framing, researchers have made significant
progress in developing a more coherent theoretical model of framing. Scheufele's (1999)
work on framing is an example of the development of a coherent theory of framing from
which further research can be based to identify the media’s influence on the perception and
interpretation of issues. In his work (Framing as a Theory of Media Effects), Scheufele
(1999) identifies four key processes to understand how media accentuate their viewpoints and
influence the audience’s interpretation of a given situation; frame building, frame setting,
individual-level processes of framing, and a feedback loop from audiences to journalists
(Scheufele, 1999, p. 103).
The first pivotal process in this framework is Frame Building (Scheufele, 1999, p. 115). At its
core, Frame Building represents the process by which media organizations meticulously
construct or selectively emphasize certain facets within their coverage. During this phase,
media outlets employ various tools, such as symbols, metaphors, or causal relationships, to
accentuate specific aspects of a story or issue. By doing so, they effectively guide their
audience's attention and influence their interpretation of the news. In essence, Frame Building
plays a fundamental role in shaping how the audience perceives and understands an issue,
thus wielding considerable influence over the subsequent actions and reactions of individuals.
Subsequently, the second process, Frame Setting (Scheufele, 1999, p. 116), emerges as a
critical component in the framing process. Frame Setting revolves around the deliberate and
strategic presentation of information to a target audience. This involves not only what is
presented but also how it is presented. In essence, it's about selecting the contextual backdrop
within which a message is conveyed—whether it's situated within the social, political, or
cultural environment. Factors such as media ownership, adherence to journalistic norms, and
the unique characteristics of the audience all come into play, influencing the choices made by
journalists and media outlets when reporting on a particular issue. Frame Setting, therefore,
serves as a pivotal bridge between Frame Building and the audience's reception of the
message.
Within Scheufele's framework, the third process, known as Individual-level Processes of
Framing, delves into the realm of individual cognition(Scheufele, 1999, p. 117). It elucidates
how each member of the target audience interprets and processes the news they receive. This
process is deeply rooted in cognitive psychology and schema theory. It acknowledges that
individuals bring their backgrounds, experiences, and cognitive frameworks to the table when
consuming news. Consequently, even when presented with the same information, different
individuals may arrive at distinct interpretations and conclusions. In this way,
Individual-level Processes of Framing underscore the rich tapestry of perspectives that exist
among audience members and highlight the need to consider these individual variations in
framing analysis. The fourth and final process, the Feedback Loop from Audiences to
Journalists (Scheufele, 1999, p. 117-118), encapsulates the dynamic interaction between
media outlets and their audiences. This process underscores the significant impact of
audience feedback on news reporting. Audiences, through comments, social media
engagement, or direct feedback, can influence how journalists and news organizations choose
to structure their news stories. In this sense, it accentuates the reciprocal relationship between
media outlets and their consumers. This process not only showcases the responsiveness of
media to public opinion but also underscores the evolving and adaptable nature of framing in
contemporary media environments.

Scheufele's process model of framing stands as an invaluable tool for dissecting and
comprehending the intricacies of complex media messages, offering a structured approach
through four distinct processes. By employing this model, media researchers gain a
comprehensive vantage point from which they can explore how framing exerts its influence
not only on how audiences perceive critical issues but also on the actions that they
subsequently take in response. Furthermore, the model serves as a powerful lens through
which we can appreciate the ever-fluid and adaptive nature of framing dynamics. It vividly
illustrates the intricate relationship between media entities and their audience, elucidating
how these interactions collectively contribute to the molding of public understanding and the
formation of opinions. Thus, Scheufele's model not only enhances our present comprehension
of media dynamics but also provides a solid foundation upon which forthcoming studies in
the realm of media research can be constructed and expanded, fostering a continuous
evolution in our understanding of this pivotal facet of modern communication.
A process model of framing research cited from Scheufele (1999).

The aforementioned figure illustrates the different stages that have been discussed throughout
the section. It also explains how the four different processes are interconnected and that the
audience through their feedback plays a pivotal role in the refinement and modification of
frames. As such, this model provides the necessary requirements to be a framework from
which researchers can systematically identify and analyze the use of media frames and their
influence on people.

3.1 Framing as a tool:

The importance of framing in media communication can never be overstated. Framing is a

fundamental concept in media studies as it addresses the way in which information is
presented and interpreted, and influences people's courses of action regarding events and
issues. As such, journalists and media outlets are to be skilled in the use of framing tools to
ensure that their intended messages are received with the desired memorable influence and
impact.

Fairhurst and Sarr (1996) claim that there are six language forms that writers can use to create
memorable frames:

1- Metaphors:
They are used in a way that makes the audience interpret an event in terms of another.
According to Fairhurst and Sarr (1996):
“Metaphors such as "great mound of a side," "caverns of pale pink throat," and "blood
... like red velvet" stay in our minds because of the images they evoke. Through the
comparisons they draw, metaphors help us to think in new ways and, often, with more
vividness and clarity. (p. 103)

2- Jargon and Catchphrases:

Catchphrases and jargon are frequently used expressions that can affect how people interpret
and comprehend events and problems. They are frequently employed to deconstruct complex
issues, convey knowledge, or advance a specific viewpoint. Jargons are special words that are
used specifically in a given profession, event, or cultural context. Catchphrases, on the other
hand, are well-known expressions that are used frequently by individuals or organizations
(Fairhurst and Sarr, 1996, p. 108).

3- Contrast:
Contrast focuses on defining a given event, problem, or situation through comparison. As
such, it is useful when the topic of interest is best explained by stating what is not and not
what it is to the target audience (Fairhurst and Sarr, 1996, p. 111).

4- Spin:
Spins are used when the writer wants to frame a specific event or issue in a particular way in
order to make it positive or negative for the audience (Fairhurst and Sarr, 1996, p. 113). Spins
are powerful tools in that they allow journalist and media outlets to frame political issues in a
way that aligns with their interest

5- Stories:
Fairhurst and Sarr (1996) argue that stories are a powerful way to connect with audiences on
an emotional level and to shape their understanding of events and issues (p. 117). Given the
large number of words used in stories, they can include all the aforementioned framing tools
so as to impact the audience's understanding of the situation.

The use of such framing tools, while powerful and beneficial, is a double-edged sword. On
one hand, these tools can be used to direct people’s attention to important issues and make
them aware of the seriousness of certain problems. On the other hand, they can be used with
sinister intent to tarnish reputations or divert attention away from serious issues. In the world
of politics, these tools are highly used to unfairly portray countries and political organizations
as being wrongful or deliberately misinterpret their actions and statements; this is best
exemplified by the ongoing situation in Palestine, in which an act of defense is being
constantly portrayed by most of Western media outlets as an act of terrorism.
Table:

Framing Tools: Definitions and Illustrations

Note. table 5.1 in Fairhurst, Gail Theus, and Robert A. Sarr. The Art of Framing Managing
the Language of Leadership. 1st ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1996. Print.
The purpose of identifying the different framing tools and typologies within the field of
media framing research is to provide future researchers with a structured framework from
which information presented in media headlines can be analyzed. The framing tools along
with the typology offer a lens through which media researchers can analyze the nuances of
how media messages shape public perception and interpretation of various issues. This
deductive approach would make it easier for researchers to compare findings across different
studies and thus offer generalizability and the possibility of cross-contextual comparisons. An
inductive approach, on the other hand, entails that media researchers examine texts without a
preconceived typology of frames, allowing them to emerge in the course of analysis; this
method gives rich insights into how issues are framed and also offers a deep understanding of
the framing process. However, it can be difficult to generalize findings from this approach for
further applications or to replicate them in different contexts (Lecheler & de Vreese, 2018, p.
4).

4.1 The Use of Emotive Language in Framing: A Comprehensive Review:

The impact of framing on emotional responses is still largely unexplored, as researchers in

media studies tend to give more importance to the cognitive aspect of framing. The idea that
framing influences our emotional responses comes from the fact that emotions are linked to
our cognitive evaluations of situations. When we evaluate a situation, our emotional
experiences are shaped by the information and beliefs available to us at that moment, as well
as our perception of whether the situation contradicts our values or hinders our pursuit of a
goal (Gross & D’Ambrosio, 2004, p. 2-3). This means that people with different values,
cultural backgrounds, and goals might react in different ways to the same event or issues and
report different distinct emotions; an example would be the following two headlines:
Headline 1: Death Toll Rises to 100 in Deadly Earthquake
Headline 2: Hundreds Rescued from Rubble of Earthquake
From a factual perspective, both headlines are correct as they state information based on
facts. However, Headline 1 focuses on the negative aspect of the earthquake, the death toll. It
is more likely to evoke feelings of sadness, despair, and anger. It may also make readers feel
helpless or hopeless. On the other hand, Headline 2 focuses on the positive aspect of the
earthquake, the number of people who were rescued. It is more likely to evoke feelings of
hope, optimism, and gratitude. It may also make readers feel more hopeful about the future
and the resilience of the human spirit. Thus, frames are highly used to influence how the
audience feels about a situation by changing the way it is presented and as a result, changing
the audience’s emotional response. (Gross & D’Ambrosio, 2004, p. 5).
The aforementioned example suggests that frames can tap into the audience's preconceived
beliefs and values to trigger emotional responses that are consistent with those beliefs and
values. Additionally, frames are used to deliberately manipulate the emotional content of
information by emphasizing certain emotions over others (Gross & D’Ambrosio, 2004, p.
21); this can be done by providing people with different types of information or by
highlighting some aspects of the issue at the expanse of the others. As such, frames can evoke
emotions and control their nature and intensity as a result, a deeper understanding of the role
of frames in emotional responses is mandatory for understanding how people perceive
political issues and from opinions and attitudes toward them.

3. The Headline Effect: Unveiling the Power of Words to Shape Public

Opinion:

The media has always played a central role in shaping public perception. Media news outlets,
through their reporting and presentation of information, influence how individuals understand
and interpret current news and also what to do to take action upon hearing them. Among the
various elements of news coverage, headlines are by far the most important, as they are
concise and serve as the first point of engagement for the audience, capturing attention and
largely influencing how the subsequent information is processed.

Headlines are important in that they serve as a pinpoint and powerful tool for semantic
framing, capturing attention, and setting the general tone for the whole narrative In this
section, we delve into the realm of media headlines by exploring their significance in the
media landscape and their profound impact on the audience’s perception of events.

3.1 The significance of headlines in news coverage:

Headlines are the cornerstone of this research serving as the basic units of analysis.
According to Emig (1929), who was a communication researcher, headlines are important as
they serve as the starting point from which every news coverage starts: “When you stop to
think how few people read beyond the headlines and how much of public opinion is made by
headlines, you begin to realize the enormous influence exerted by the journalist (or editor)
who sits at a desk and writes headlines” (p. 53). Steigleman states that The importance of
headlines as the attention-grabbing units of the whole narrative made the American
newspaper magnates Pulitzer and Hearst use large headlines consequently establishing the
traditional large newspaper headline (1949; as cited in Hudock, 2005). Stovall states that
another important aspect of news headlines is their visual nature which is totally different
from the rest of the text and also eye-catching compared to the whole narrative (2002; as
cited in Hudock, 2005). Moreover, given the general idea a headline is to have and also its
big representation compared to the rest of the text, the audience may opt to read only the
headline leaving the rest of the narrative unexplored. A study was done by Emig in 1928 to
prove that almost half of the news consumers were reluctant to read the whole narrative and
chose to base their opinions only on the headlines they encountered; this is illustrated in the
given study, in which 51% of the participants relied only on the headlines provided to them
(as cited in Hudock, 2005). Another factor worthy of consideration is the element of time.
According to Marquez (1980), “The importance of studying the accuracy of newspaper
headlines is perhaps underscored by the fact that readers on the average spend only 34
minutes per weekday with each newspaper they read” (p. 30). Another survey, done by The
Pew Research Center, claims that the importance of studying headlines wields more
significance by the minute as contemporary news consumers spend only 17 minutes on their
daily consumption of news (2004; as cited in Hudock, 2005).

4. Moroccan Media Landscape:

Morocco is a country in North Africa. It is bordered by Algeria to the east, Mauritania to the
south, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north. Morocco has a
diverse landscape, with mountains, deserts, beaches, and forests, and it is considered to be a
melting pot in which diverse cultures, religions, and ethnicities peacefully coexist. The media
plays a crucial role in Morocco, as it shapes and forms public opinion regarding a wide range
of issues. In recent years the Moroccan media landscape has become increasingly diverse
given the surge of interest in private media outlets and the internet as a source of information.

One area where media bias is prevalent is in the use of semantic framing in media headlines.
Semantic framing is the use of particular words and phrases so as to shape how an issue is
perceived by the audience. In Morocco, semantic framing is frequently used to impact public
opinion regarding sensitive political issues. Until recent years, Morocco has predominantly
had government-friendly media outlets that were constantly framing news in favor of the
government. These media organizations often abided by official governmental narratives that
were proportionate to government communication and served to promote the government’s
agenda while downplaying any constructive criticism from opposite sides. However, in the
last decade, there has been a shift in the Moroccan media landscape, especially on the
internet, in which a diversity of voices and opinions has emerged to challenge the
predominant government-friendly media outlets and promote a more multifaceted coverage
of issues.

The surge of new media outlets and the internet as a source of information has not made
framing any less of an issue. Framing is still prevalent and it is easier for people to consume
information that is framed in a way that aligns with their existing beliefs and preconceived
notions. As such, the audience needs to understand that misinformation and disinformation
can be spread so as to mislead public opinion. Moreover, Framing, which is regarded by
many as an untheorized concept, is to be fully understood by the public in order to understand
its dangerous implications and also to foster a sense of criticism among the audience, thus,
thus avoiding being misled by biased news coverage.

In the subsequent sections of this literature review, a comprehensive examination of semantic

framing will be conducted so as to understand how framing shapes public opinion in
Morocco. Additionally, the debate surrounding freedom of the press will also be discussed
along with its impact on the exchange of ideas and information in the sense that framing can
largely be affected by constraints that governments put on their local news media outlets.

4.1 Media Landscape in Morocco: Evolving Dynamics of Press Freedom,

Social Media, and Internet News Outlets:

The Moroccan national media faces many challenges in terms of independence and freedom
of expression. The foremost challenge that is still persistent today is the excessive control of
the government, which often leads to the promotion of the government’s interests and the
suppression of any potential criticism or dissenting voices; this has made it difficult for
Moroccan journalists to factually and objectively report news against constitutional taboos
and thus promoting a culture of self-censorship among journalists and media outlets
(El-Issawi, 2016, p. 5). Another major challenge that the Moroccan national media faces is
the lack of clear and constant protection for journalists even after the arab spring revolutions
that led to a significant political change in Morocco and the arab world in general. The new
2011 constitution, which was announced by His Majesty King Mohammed the Sixth
Introduced serval changes, including rights for journalists in their coverage of national issues.
However, these rights lack a clear definition, and journalists are still reluctant to report on
political issues and sensitive topics. The best example is the Moroccan journalist Rachid Nini
who has been subjected to legal actions and imprisonment on several occasions as a result of
his reporting on controversial issues such as the government’s counterterrorism practices
(El-Issawi, 2016, p. 14).

The rise of social media platforms and the internet has led to a growth in digital media and its
impact on traditional forms of reporting. The increasing number of commercial radio stations
and online news outlets has contributed to the partial expansion of the scope of discussion on
social and political issues that were previously considered taboo subjects (El-Issawi, 2016, p.
7). However, this growth is a double-edged sword, as social media and the internet can be
used to spread misinformation or disinformation that may lead to the undermining of the
credibility of both traditional and digital media outlets. According to El-Issawi (2016):
The use of Facebook and other social networking tools, however, is no longer
restricted to lobbying for rights and liberties. It is also massively used in denigration
campaigns and in spreading rumours, thus contributing to the decline of professional
standards, and to feeding the media with slander and scandals. (p. 26).

The government’s long-standing control over the media, often promotes what the government
stands for, thus shunning any potential criticism that could arouse public awareness and
destabilize the administration. Although there has been a brief period of openness and
freedom during the arab spring, there are currently strong ambiguous restrictions on
journalists and news media outlets to censor themselves. The 2011 institution ensures
freedom of speech in covering news and critically analyzing social and political issues.
However, the government is still in control of how information is transmitted to the audience,
and as a result, it can impose restrictions on journalists and media outlets that may contradict
the core law of any country which is the constitution. Overall, the Moroccan media landscape
is characterized by a complex interaction between government control and the growing
influence of digital media. As such, contemporary journalists, using various social media
platforms (Meta, X…) seek to challenge the norms, break taboos, and allow minorities to
voice their issues nationwide.

The growth of interest in social media and digital media outlets made the government more
skeptical and worried about the content of the information consumed by the audience. As
such, the government has taken measures to regulate online news sites and social media
platforms by controlling the images and videos circulated on digital media, especially online
videos, which require a permit given by the Moroccan Film Center since 2016, and also for
media outlets not to employ journalists for over three months unless the journalist has a press
card for the current year or has requested one but hasn’t received it yet. these measures were
heavily criticized by journalists and human rights organizations, who argue that they hinder
freedom of speech and the right for people to access information. (Benchenna & Marchetti,
2020, p. 21).

The government has also created laws that punish journalists and media outlets for their
potential non-compliance. These laws, which are termed red lines, are defined in an ethical
code published on the news website [Link] and are used to forbid any source of
information that jeopardizes Moroccan national security, public order, or the government
itself (Benchenna & Marchetti, 2020, p. 19). Thus, journalists are constantly in fear of
violating the penal code, which legally prohibits defamation, insult, and the transmission of
misinformation or disinformation.

The rise of the internet and digital media has somewhat made the monochromatic media
landscape more colorful, thus creating numerous platforms for information dissemination and
open discussion of sensitive issues. However, the Moroccan government has adopted an
approach that regulates the work of these digital media outlets and their activity on social
media platforms by enacting laws that ensure that the context being transmitted adheres to the
already established standards and consequently deter any source of information that ought to
challenge the authority in all its manifestations. Nevertheless, these regulations and the
exhaustive scrutiny from the government have called attention to the absence of freedom of
speech and press, therefore, creating a debate regarding the balance between the
government’s role in regulating news transmission and the preservation of human rights.

4.2 Semantic Framing in Moroccan Media: Influencing Public Opinion:

In the complex Moroccan media landscape, government regulations have had a significant
impact on discourse through the use of semantic framing strategies by national media outlets.
Semantic framing, the strategic use of words and phrases, is a powerful tool for shaping
public opinion. In Morocco, this technique is often used to cast potential dissent against the
government in a negative light and to portray dissenting voices as rebellious. While semantic
framing is a complex phenomenon, it has several negative consequences, such as silencing
public debate and overshadowing serious sensitive issues.

4.3 The Negative Framing of the February 20 Movement by Moroccan

National Media: A Case Study of Media Influence on Public Perception
during the Arab Spring:

The Moroccan national media played a crucial role in framing the February 20 movement as
being rebellious and negative in terms of its political and ideological orientations. According
to Baylocq and Granci (2012), “Morocco has nine domestic television channels, of which
seven are government owned, one is private and one is of mixed ownership” (p. 3); this
shows that the Moroccan government controlled almost all news media outlets at that time.
As such, the national media, under the direct influence of the Moroccan authority, portrayed
the movement as a threat to the national security, stability, and economy of the country. The
use of semantic framing strategies was prevalent and the Moroccan national media hastily
rushed to label the movement participants and supporters as foreign agents and sexual
deviants (Badran, 2019, p. 12).

One example of the media’s negative semantic framing of the movement can be seen in the
smear campaigns that were directly launched to tarnish the reputation of the movement and
its activists. Online videos were used to disseminate information stating leftists were Sahrawi
undercover agents who were following an Algerian agenda. Another instance of framing was
seen in online news outlets which claimed that a co-founder of the movement and his
girlfriend were not married and living together, thus accusing them of committing an act that
goes against the ethical and religious norms of the society and labeling the whole movement
as not being in line with what the Moroccan country and its people stand for. Additionally,
Targeted campaigns, particularly against female leaders, had severe consequences. Due to
smear campaigns and pressure from their families and communities, some women had to
leave the movement (Badran, 2019, p. 8).

The media, therefore, had a significant impact on labeling the February 20 movement as
rebellious and extreme. This framing was successful in portraying the movement as a threat
to national security and stability, rather than a legitimate expression of dissent. As a result,
many Moroccans were unable to assess the situation effectively, as they were bombarded
with biased frames and one-sided media coverage. This made it difficult for them to
understand the movement's goals and to make informed judgments about its legitimacy. This
framing also had many other negative consequences. It served to delegitimize the movement
and to make it more difficult for it to mobilize support. It also created an atmosphere of fear
and suspicion, which made it more difficult for Moroccans to engage in open and honest
dialogue about the issues that were driving the movement.

The aforementioned analysis done by Badran (2019) and briefly discussed in this review
literature highlights the huge impact of media semantic framing on the audience’s perception
of the issues around them. Additionally, it shows why semantic framing is a powerful tool
that can be used to either direct people’s attention to sensitive issues or divert it away from
the situation by using language that is evocative and aligns with norms, beliefs, and the
cultural and religious backgrounds of the target audience.

5. The Absence of Research on Semantic Framing in Moroccan Media:

The landscape of Moroccan news consumption in Morocco remains largely unexplored and
not yet fully understood. Despite the abundance of news media outlets and the rise of digital
platforms, the realm is still by far uncharted in terms of academic inquiry and research. As
such, this scarcity of studying and examining the use of semantic framing strategies in
Moroccan media headlines represents a critical void in understanding how the Moroccan
audience perceives, interprets, and interacts with news.

The absence of comprehensive research on Moroccan news consumption holds significant

implications. Firstly, it obscures a comprehensive understanding of how Moroccans receive,
interpret, and engage with news content. In a world where media plays a pivotal role in
shaping opinions and beliefs, the lack of such insights hinders a nuanced understanding of the
public's awareness, biases, and information-seeking behaviors.

Moreover, the absence of academic research in this area denies the opportunity to identify
and rectify any potential biases or issues in the Moroccan landscape. Without empirical
studies in the relevant area, it becomes challenging to determine the accuracy, credibility, and
impact of the various Moroccan media outlets on the public discourse.

Conducting thorough research on news consumption in Morocco is crucial not just for
academia but also for the general public. It can serve as a crucial tool for enhancing media
literacy and fostering a more informed society. Research findings could empower citizens to
critically evaluate news sources, discern biases, and comprehend the mechanisms behind
media framing, thereby promoting a more active and engaging news audience.

Conclusion:

The literature review serves to define framing as a concept that has been the interest of many
researchers throughout history and also to shed light on the importance of having a theoretical
framework from which future research can be done. Given the scarcity of empirical research
in the realm of framing, particularly in semantic framing strategies used in media headlines,
more research is therefore needed to fill the gap and understand the role of media in shaping
public opinion. Moreover, understanding that headlines are the first point of contact for
audiences engaging with news suggests that more academic research is to be done to ensure a
comprehensive understanding of how headlines shape our news consumption. Additionally,
there is a considerable lack of awareness among the audience regarding how the media uses
semantic framing strategies to present issues in accordance with the government’s agenda or
the existing beliefs and experiences of the audience. As such, this semantic framing is to be
explored through the analysis of Moroccan media headlines that touch upon sensitive issues
in the Moroccan sphere. The aforementioned statements and claims prove that the media can
be dangerous in its reporting of issues surrounding our country, in that it can make certain
trivial issues more salient while understating or diminishing other important ones. It is also
important to study the credibility of the media as it often wields its influence to propagate
misinformation or deliberate disinformation, especially targeting individuals or groups
perceived as posing challenges to the country's stability.