Chapter 3

Pavements Design

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

☞ Introduction ☞ Flexible pavements

☞ Requirements of highway pavements ☞ Design methods
☞ Difference between flexible and rigid ☞ Equivalency factor
pavements ☞ Fatigue and rutting criteria
☞ Components of pavements ☞ Rigid pavements

Introduction Difference between Flexible

The road surface should be stable and non-yielding and allow and Rigid Pavements
the heavy wheel loads to move with least possible rolling
resistance. The road surface should be even along the Flexible Pavements
longitudinal profile to enable the fast moving vehicles to • It has low flexural strength.
move safely and comfortably. • It has series of layers with quality of materials reducing
Based on structural behaviour, pavements are generally from top to bottom.
classified into two categories: • Its stability depends on aggregate interlock, particle
friction and cohesion.
1. Flexible pavements
• It reflects the deformations of subgrade and subsequent
2. Rigid pavements layers on the surface.
• Load transfer is by grain to grain to the lower layers.
• Its design is greatly influenced by subgrade strength.
Requirements of Highway • IRC: 37–2012 is used for design.
Pavements • Designed for a life of 15 years.
1. Functional requirements from the view of road users.
• Road should be firm and non-yielding under wheel
load. Rigid Pavements
• Have good riding quality. • It has good flexural strength or flexural rigidity which is
• Should be less slippery. the major factor for design.
2. Structural requirements from the view of highway • It has concrete layer on the top with base course and soil
engineer. subgrade under it.
• It has to sustain heavy wheel loads and their • Distributes load over a wide area, because of its rigidity.
repeated applications due to the moving traffic. • Load transfer is by slab action.

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•• Total thickness of pavement and quality of aggregates are  n = Number of years between the last count and till
lower than in flexible pavements. the end of life of pavement.
•• IRC: 58–2011 is used in design of pavement. 4. Other factors:
•• Design life of pavement is 30 years. (a) Variation in moisture content: Stability of
subgrade is reduced under adverse moisture
­
Components of Pavements ­conditions. Because of variation in moisture con-
tent between centre and edge of pavement, dif-
1. Soil subgrade: This is the lowest layer of pavement ferential settlement occurs.
made of natural soil available at site and compacted. (b) Frost action
As the soil should never be over-stressed, its strength (c) Variation in temperature:
is evaluated using CBR (California bearing ratio) test, Bituminous binders of flexible pavement become
plate bearing test, dynamic cone test, direct shear test. soft due to hot weather and brittle in very cold
2. Subbase: It is a stabilized layer of soil, gravel, broken weather. These continuous softening and harden-
stone which acts as a drainage layer. It takes loads ing of the pavement affect the performance and
from base course. life of pavement.
3. Base course: This is the important layer for flexible 5. Design wheel load:
pavement. It enhances the load bearing capacity of (a) Maximum wheel load:
the pavement which is laid between wearing course •• Design of pavement is based on 98th percen-
and subbase. It is made of either graded stone, WBM tile of axle load.
or bituminous layer. •• Tyre pressure influences the quality of surface
•• Under rigid pavements course.
(a) It prevents mud pumping. •• Total load influences the thickness require-
(b) Protects the subgrade against frost action. ments of pavements.
4. Wearing course: This is to give a smooth riding
Flexible Rigid
surface and made of dense materials. This resists
Type of Load Pavements Pavements
pressure exerted by tyres and takes up wear and tear
Maximum legal axle load 8,200 kg 10.2 t
due to traffic. Generally made of bitumen or asphalt.
Maximum equivalent single 4,100 kg 5.1 t
wheel load
Flexible Pavements Maximum tandom axle load 14,500 kg 19 t
Factors Considered for Design Maximum tridem axle load 24 t
of Pavement
(b) Contact pressure:
1. Design traffic: It is based on 7 day 24 hour traffic Contact pressure
count as per IRC-9. Load on wheel
=
2. Design life: Contact area (or) area of imprint
•• Flexible pavement:
Expressways—20 years. P
=
NH and SH—15 years A
Other roads—10–15 years •• Contact area is assumed as circle.
•• Rigid Pavements: •• At greater depth, the effect of tyre pressure
High volume roads—30 years diminishes as the load starts dispersing (dis-
Low volume roads—20 years tributing) with depth.
3. Anticipated traffic: 6. Rigidity factor:
To find the increased traffic at the end of design life of
project.
A = P[1 + r]n
7 kg/cm2
Tyre pressure

Where
 A = Traffic intensity, i.e., no. of commercial
7 kg/cm2
vehicles per day at the end of ‘n’ years.
 P = Number of commercial vehicles per day at last
count.
Contact pressure
  r = Rate of growth of traffic (7.5%)

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Rigidity factor Design Methods

Contact pressure 1. Empirical:
=
Tyre pressure (or) Inflation pressure •• These are based on physical properties or strength
parameters of soil subgrade and experience or per-
= 1, for tyre pressure = 7 kg/cm2 formance studies of the flexible pavements.
> 1, for low tyre pressure < 7 kg/cm2
•• GI method, CBR, stabilitometer and MC load
< 1, for high tyre pressure > 7 kg/cm2
methods.
•• Tyre pressure for the design is 0.8 MPa (8 kg/cm2) 2. Semi-empirical or semi-theoretical: When the
in the design of rigid pavements as per IRC 58. design is based on stress-strain function and modified
based on experience, it may be called semi-empirical
(c) Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL):
or semi-theoretical.
•• To carry greater load and to reduce the inten-
  Tri-axial test method is modified by Kansas state
sity on road, it is necessary to provide dual
highway department.
wheel assembly to rear axles of road vehicles.
•• The pressure at any depth lies between single 3. Theoretical method: Burmister method
load and two lines load carried by any one
wheel.
CBR Method
•• It is based on design curves and is a simple method.
•• Higher the load, larger will be the thickness of pavement.
S
•• The curves are drawn for CBR value versus depth of con-
struction with number of commercial vehicles varying for
d
each curve.
•• For certain load values (or vehicles per day) and material
45°
d CBR value, the thickness of pavement is found.
2
2S
IRC Guidelines
•• CBR test is performed based on OMC (Optimum mois-
ture content) for new roads and FMC (field moisture con-
tent) for existing roads.
•• Specimen is soaked in water for 4 days (minimum 3 spec-
imens) and tested.
•• ESWL may be calculated either by equivalent
For subgrade CBR = 8% and cumulative standard axle
deflection or equivalent stress criterion.
= 100 msa
•• Equivalent deflection criteria is more reliable.
(a) 200 mm Granular subbase.
(b) 250 mm Granular base.
(c) 140 mm dense bituminous macadam.
2P (d) 50 mm bituminous surface course.

Limitations of CBR Method

P1
ESWL (log scale)

1. This gives the total thickness of pavement as a whole

and it is based on the CBR value of subgrade alone.
P Thickness of individual layers is not specified.
2. Damaging effect of heavier loads and their frequency
are not taken into consideration.
3. The test conditions of CBR and the pavement may
not be same throughout the life of the pavement.
Z = d/2 Z1 Z = 2S
4. The load-penetration curves do not vary if the road is
Depth Z (log scale)
single lane or multi-lane.
7. Repetition of loads: Modified CBR (IRC–37:2012)
P1N1 = P2N2 •• Design is based on cumulative number of standard axles
P1, P2 = Corresponding loads of vehicles. in the traffic lane.
N1, N2 = Number of repetitions
365 (1 + r ) n − 1
•• Load method is based on 1 million repetitions N= ×A×D×F
= 106 load repetitions. r

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Where
365 (1 + 0.05)15 − 1 × 400 × 0.75 × 2.5
N = Million standard axles (msa) =
r = Rate of traffic growth per year 0.05
n = Design life in years
As per IRC, for 2 lane undivided road lane distribution
A = Traffic at the time of completion of construction (cv/

factor D = 0.75
day)
∴ CSA = 5.9 msa
F = Vehicle damage factor (VDF)
≅ 6 msa
D = Lane distribution factor (LDF)
Hence, the correct answer is option (D).
LDF for Various Roads
NOTE
Type of Traffic LDF
For express ways, NH and SH, subgrade dry density g
Single lane road (cv in both directions are 1.0
considered) < 1.75 g/cc
Two lane single carriage way roads 0.75 CBR% Maximum Variation
(cv in both directions are considered)
5 ±1
Four-lane single carriage way roads 0.4
5–10 ±2
(cv in both directions are considered)
11–30 ±3
Dual two lane carriage way roads 0.75
(cv in one direction is considered) > 31 ±5
Dual 3 or 4 lane carriage way roads 0.6/0.45
(cv in one direction is considered) •• Minimum 3 samples are to be tested, with maximum vari-
cv – Commercial vehicles ation as in above table.
•• If variations are more than specified values, 6 samples are
VDF Values to be tested.
Realistic value of VDF should be taken after conducting
axle load surveys. Equivalency Factor
Initial Traffic Volume in Terms
To find the damaging effect of any load with respect to
of Number of cv/day Terrain standard load
Rolling/plain Hilly 4
 Axle load in kg 
0–150 1.5 0.5 •• Single axle load =  
 8200 
150–1500 3.5 1.5
> 1500 4.5 2.5 4
 Axle load in kg 
•• Tandem axle load =  
NOTE  14500
Traffic in one direction is equal to half of the total traffic in
both the directions. If significant difference between two Fatigue and Rutting Criteria
streams occur then maximum traffic should be considered The total cumulative standard axles to be used for the design
for the design. of the pavement should include fatigue and rutting criteria
also.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Fatigue Criteria
Example 1
The number of cumulative standard axles to produce 20%
A two-lane undivided carriage way whose CBR = 6% cracked surface area of bitumen is:
Initial traffic A = 400 cv per day
3.89 0.854
Traffic growth rate r = 5% per year  1  1
NF = 2.21 ×     × 10–4
Design life = 15 years  ∈ E
Vehicle damage factor = 2.5
Find the cumulative standard axle on the road (in msa) Where
(A) 3 (B) 4 ∈ = Tensile strain at bottom of stiff bituminous layer
(C) 5 (D) 6 E = Modulus of elasticity (MPa) of bituminous layer

Solution
Rutting Criteria
365 (1 + r ) n − 1 ADF Number of cumulative standard axles to produce rutting of
CSA =
r 20 mm is.

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4.5337 Where
 1  l = Radius of relative stiffness, cm
Nr = 4.1656   × 10–8
 ∈  h = Slab thickness, cm
Where, ∈ = Vertical subgrade strain, (micro strain).  E = Modulus of elasticity of cement concrete (kg/cm2)
  m = Poissons ratio concrete = 0.15
 K = Subgrade modulus or modulus of subgrade
Rigid Pavements reaction, kg/cm3.
Load carrying capacity of rigid pavements is mainly due to
rigidity and high modulus of elasticity of the slab itself, i.e., Example 2
slab action.
Compute the radius of relative stiffness of 15 cm thick
l P cement concrete slab using following data:
a
Modulus of elasticity of cement concrete = 2.1 × 105 kg/cm2
Poisons ratio for concrete = 0.15
Modulus of subgrade reaction, K = 3 kg/cm3
(A) 67 cm (B) 53 cm
(C) 47 cm (D) 32 cm

Solution
a For K = 3.0
l 1/ 4
b  Eh3 
L=  
12k (1 − µ ) 
2

1/ 4
 2.1× 105 × 153 
=  2 
a = Radius of contact between road and tyre 12 × 3(1 − 0.15 ) 
b = Radius of resisting section = 67 cm.
l = Radius of relative stiffness.
Hence, the correct answer is option (A).
•• Load transfer is by bending/slab action/flexual action.

Factors Affecting Design and Performance Critical Positions of Loading

of CC Pavements •• Interior
1. Design axle load (wheel load). •• Edge
•• Corner
2. Temperature variations at locations on the road.
3. Types of joints and their spacing.
Equivalent Radius of Resisting Section (b)
4. Subgrade and the other supporting layers below the
CC pavement slab. With the load concentrated on a small area of the pavement,
Westergaard designed for the equivalent radius of resisting
5. Drainage characteristics. section as
Design Parameters of Subgrade
•• Strength: CBR
•• Stiffness: Modulus of subgrade reaction (K)
b= {
1.6 a 2 + h2 – 0.675 h, if a < 1.724 h
a – otherwise.
Where
Radius of Relative Stiffness (l) b = Equivalent radius of resisting section, cm
•• A certain degree of resistance to slab action is offered a = Radius of wheel load distribution, cm
by the subgrade. The relative stiffness of the slab with h = Slab thickness, cm
respect to subgrade support depends upon properties of
the slab and pressure–deformation characteristics of the
Example 3
subgrade material.
  Westergaard defined this term as: Find equivalent radius of resisting section of 20 cm thick
slab if radius of contact area of wheel load is 15 cm
1/ 4
 Eh3  (A) 12 cm (B) 14 cm
l=  
12 K (1 − µ ) 
2 (C) 16 cm (D) 18 cm

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Solution P
(1 + 0.54μ) × {4 log10(l/b)
Se = 0.529
a 15 h2
= = 0.75 < 1.724 + {log10b – 0.4048}
h 20
2. Corner load stress equation by Kelley:
b= 1.6 a 2 + h2 − 0.675 h
3P    
1.2
= 1.6 ( 15) 2 + 20 2 − 0.675 × 20 Sc = 2 1 −  a 2  
h   l  
= 14.07 cm  
Hence, the correct answer is option (B). Temperature Stresses (Secondary
Loads on rigid pavements: Stresses)
•• DL (self weight) is ignored [∴has no effect on rigid These stresses arise due to variations in slab temperature.
pavement]
•• LL (wheel load) 1. Warping stresses due to difference in temperature
between top and bottom of pavement due to daily
Westergaard’s Equations for Wheel Loads variation of temperature at a location.
1. Load stress due to interior loading (tensile stress at 2. Frictional stresses by overall difference in temperature
the bottom of slab) caused by seasonal variation of temperature.

0.316 P Warping Stresses (by Bradbury)

Si = [ 4 log10 (l /b) + 1.069]
h2 1. At interior:
2. Load stress, due to edge loading (tensile stress at the
bottom of slab) Eα t  C x + µC y 
Sw(i) =  
2  1− µ2 
0.572 P
Se = [ 4 log10 (l /b) + 0.359] Where
h2
Sw(i) = Warping stress at interior, kg/cm2
3. Load stress, Sc due to corner loading (tensile stress at
slab top) E = Modulus of elasticity of concrete, kg/cm2
a = Thermal coefficient of concrete per °C
3P   a 2  
0.6

Sc = − t = Temperature difference between top and bottom

1  
h2   l   of slab, °C
 
Cx, Cy = Coefficients in x and y direction, based
Where on Lx/l and Ly/l respectively. (x short and y long
 Si, Se, Sc (kg/cm2) = Maximum stress at interior, direction)
edge and corner regions of the slab respectively μ = Poissons ratio of cement concrete (0.15)
due to applied load P kg/cm2
2. At edge:
  h = Slab thickness, cm
C x Eα t C y Eα t
If the corner load stress exceeds the flexural strength Sw(e) = (or) (higher of both)
of concrete, crack is likely to develop across the 2 2
diagonal on top surface of pavement. This maximum 3. At corner:
stress occurs at some distance, X along the diagonal X
= 2.58 al Eα t a
Sw(c) =
3(1 − µ ) l
Where
Where
 X = Distance from apex of slab corner to section
  a = Radius of contact
of maximum stress along the corner bisector or
diagonal.   l = Radius of relative stiffness
  a = Radius of wheel load distribution, cm
NOTES
  l = Radius of relative stiffness, cm 1. If the pavement is free to warp, no stress develops.
2. 
Over warped surface if wheel load is placed, the
Modified Equations for Wheel Load Stress nature of warping stress will be same as wheel load
1. Edge load stress by Teller and Sutherland: stress.

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NOTES
1. In summer pavement tries to expand, but soil below
25°C the pavement is obstructing free expansion. Therefore
Day light = Wrapes down compression develops in pavement. As concrete is
15°C strong in compression, no problem to pavement in
summer.
15°C 2. In winter pavement tries to contract, but soil resist.
Wrapes up Therefore tension develops in pavement. This is criti-
Night = cal as concrete is weak in tension.
25°C
•• For safety Sf >/ Permissible tensile strength of con-
crete (modulus of rupture = fcr = 0.7 f ck .
Frictional Stresses
•• As the slab is in contact with soil, due to seasonal varia-
Critical Combination of Loads
tion in temperature, the slab movements are restrained by
frictional force between slab and base course. 1. Summer (mid-day): Edge region is critical.
•• Half the slab length is considered in resisting the fric-
tional force. Scritical = (SWL)e + (SW)e – Sf
  Frictional force = Resisting force
2. Winter (mid-day): Edge region is critical.

Scritical = (SWL)e + (SW)e + Sf

3. Winter (mid-night): Corner is critical.

Scritical = (SWL)c + (SW)c

L (Sf = 0 at corner)
SWL, SW, Sf are stresses due to wheel load, warping
and frictional stresses respectively.

F= . Friction = 0
f N
(at corner)
Joints in Rigid Pavement
W •• Joints are provided to relieve part of the stresses devel-
F= oped due to temperature variations in slabs.
f .N
N = W/2 (a) Longitudinal joints
(i) Warping joints
f ⋅ N = (Sf) × (B × H) (ii) Contraction joints
(iii) Construction joints
(b) Transverse joints
W 
f   = Sf (B × H) (i) Contraction joints
 2
(ii) Expansion joints
 L×B×H (iii) Construction joints
f ⋅ γc   = Sf (B × H) •• Shrinkage cracks generally develop in CC pavement
 2
slabs supported on the base course during initial stage
γ c fL of curing, when length or width exceed 4.5 m–5.0 m.
Sf =
2
Expansion Joints (in Transverse Direction)
Where
These joints are provided to give allowance for expansion of
 Sf = Stress due to inter-face friction in cement concrete
pavement slab due to increase in temperature after a number
pavement per unit area, (kg/m2)
of contraction joints. These are provided to full depth with
  γc = Unit weight of concrete, (2400 kg/m3)
about 20 mm gap between the two slabs.
  f = Coefficient of friction at interface (max value = 1.5)
  L = Spacing between contraction joint = Slab length (m) •• Because of this gap, there is no load transfer across the
  B = Slab width, (m) joint.

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•• Mastic asphalt/mastic pad is filled in the gap at expan- Example 4

sion joint. It should compress minimum 50% because of A cement concrete pavement is constructed at a tempera-
expansion of pavement. ture of 12°C. The peak summer temperature is 45°C. The
•• Design of expansion joint is based on coefficient of temperature is 10 × 10–6/°C. The gap at the
(a) Maximum temperature variation expansion joint is 2.5 cm. The spacing of expansion joint is
(b) Width of joint (A) 37.8 m
(c) Dowel bars placed (B) 45.6 m
•• 50% of expansion joint gap = Expansion of slab (C) 55.4 m
(D) 75 m
δ
=Lαt
2 Solution
δ δ
L= = Lα t
2α t 2
Spacing of joint 2.5
× 10 −2 = L × 10 × 10 −6 × ( 45 − 12)
δ = Gap at expansion joint 2
αc = 12 × 106/°C
L = 37.87 m.
L = Length of the expansion joint
Hence, the correct answer is option (A).
T = Increase in temperature form construction temperature
= t2 – t1 (°C)

Expansion joint LC

h cm
Tie bars

CROSS-SECTION
Dowel b
bars

Longitudinal
joint
Tie bar
b

Constraction
joint

Contraction joints

LONGITUDINAL SECTION

NOTES 1. For PCC (plain cement concrete slab): Frictional

1. Winter season is best for construction of rigid pave- resistance upto Lc/2 = Allowable tension in CC
ment because the tensile stresses developed due to Lc
decrease in temperature will be minimum. (γc × B ×
× h) × f = Sc × h × b
2
2. IRC recommends to stop construction of rigid pave-
Spacing of contraction joint,
ment in summer, if day temperature is more than 40°.
In such cases construction during nights is preferred. 2Sc
Lc =
Contraction Joints γc ⋅ f
•• These joints are provided to allow the contraction of Where
the slab due to fall in slab temperature the construction   Sc = Allowable tensile stress in concrete (0.7 f ck )
temperature.
 γc = Unit weight of concrete
•• The movement is restricted by the subgrade friction.
•• This works only in water (as contraction, when ‘t’ reduces)   f = Coefficient of friction (as per IRC = 1.5)

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Lc = Slab length or spacing of contraction joints.

dSs
h = Slab thickness Lt =
2 Sb
B = Width of slab.
2. For RCC: •• Permissible bond stress of concrete,
•• To prevent widening of fine cracks, steel reinforce- Sb in plain bars = 17.5 kg/cm2
ment is provided across the contraction joints. Sb in deformed bars = 24.6 kg/cm2
•• It is assumed that all tensile stress is taken by rein- •• To prevent warping at joint, maximum diameter of
forcement alone. tie bars may be limited to 20 mm
•• To avoid concentration of tensile stresses, spacing
Lc
(γc × B × × h) × f = Ss × As of the bars < 75 cm.
2
As = Total area of steel per entire width ‘B’ Longitudinal Joints
Ss = Allowable tensile stress in steel. These are provided if pavement width is more than 4.5 m.
Spacing of contraction joint Tie bars are provided across longitudinal joint.
Fatigue behavior of cement concrete: Due to repeated
2Ss As application of wheel loads, (bending effect) progressive
Lc =
Bhγ c f fatigue damage takes place in cement concrete slab in the
form of gradual development of micro-cracks.
•• If steel reinforcement is used at the joint, maxi- Flexural stress due to load
mum spacing between joints is 4.5 m as per Stress ratio (SR) =
flexural strength of concrete
IRC.
Fatigue life, N = ∞ … if SR< 0.45
Design of Tie Bars 3.268
 4.2577 
•• Provided across longitudinal joint at mid depth N=   …
•• Ensures the two adjacent slabs of longitudinal joint to  SR − 0.4325 
remain firmly together. If (0.45 ≤ SR ≤ 0.55)
•• These are not load transfer devices.
0.9718 − SR
•• Bars are designed to withstand tensile stress induced due N= …
to friction at bottom. 0.0828

1. Cross-section of tie bars: Considering one metre If SR > 0.55

length of joint, •• Fatigue life consumed

Expected repetitions of axle load

Bhf γ c =
As = Fatigue life
Ss
If fatigue life consumed < 1, pavement is safe.

Where Dowel Bars

  As = Area of steel in cm2/m length. Wheel load
  B = Lane width in ‘m’
 Ss = Allowable working stress in steel (1400 to
1750 kg/cm2)
Assuming 8 to 15 mm diameter HYSD bars for the
design.
2. Length of tie bar: Tensile force developed in each tie
bar = Bond force developed on each embedded half-
length of tie bar.
Dowel bar
 π d2   π dLt  •• Half of the length is bonded in one CC slab and the rest
Ss   = Sb  
 4   2  half kept free for movement in other slab.
•• Dowel bars are mild steel round bars (coated with zinc/
Minimum length of tie bar lead based paints/epoxy coats)

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•• Maximum load transferred through dowel bars is (40% Design Requirements as per IRC
of maximum axle load)
•• Not required if slab thickness < 150 mm 1. Reinforcement in RCC pavement: Top face only
•• Bearing stress in concrete is responsible for the perfor- (effective cover = 50 mm)
mance of the joints for the dowel bars. 2. Minimum cement: 350 kg/m3
•• Maximum bearing stress between concrete and dowel bar 3. Maximum cement: 425 kg/m3
kpt ( 2 + β z ) 4. Maximum nomial size of aggregate: 25 mm
σmax =
4 β 3 EI 5. AIV: < 30% for wearing surfaces
6. Los Angeles abrasion value < 35%
1/ 4
 kb  7. Water absorption: 2% maximum by weight
β= 
 4 EI 
8. Flexural strength of concrete 38–42 kg/cm2
Where 9. In all cases use E = 3 × 105 kg/cm2, μ = 0.15 and
β = Relative stiffness of the bar embedded in concrete. α = 10 × 10-6/°C
 k = (Modulus of dowel)/Concrete interaction (Dowel
10. Required minimum compressive strength: 35 MPa
support kg/cm3/cm)
b = Diameter of dowel, cm 11. Minimum k = 6 kg/cm3(modulus of subgrade reaction)
z = Joint width, cm 12. Separation layer between sub base and pavement: 125
E = Modulus of elasticity of the dowel, g/cm2 micro polythene sheet (as per IRC: 15–2002)
Pt = Load transferred by a dowel bar.
I = Moment of inertia by a dowel bar, cm4. Example 5
•• Allowable bearing stress on concrete, A cement concrete pavement has a thickness of 25 cm and
lane width of 3.5 m. Allowable working stress in steel tie
(10.16 − b)
FB = bars Ss = 1200 kg/cm2. Allowable tensile stress in deformed
9.525 tie bar, Ss = 2000 kg/cm2, allowable bond stress in deformed
•• Dowel bars provided up to a distance of 1.0 × relative bars Sb = 24.6 kg/cm2. Use 12 mm f bars, find the length
stiffness, from the point of load application are effective of tie bar
in load transfer. (Assume f = 1.2 and γc = 2400 kg/m3)
•• Minimum dowel length = Ld + d (A) 1.2 m c/c (B) 1.75 m c/c
(C) 2.6 m c/c (D) 4.4 m c/c

Reinforcement in Cement Concrete Slab Solution

•• Without increasing the flexural strength, but to control Total area of steel tie bar per m length of longitudinal joint
cracking reinforcement is provided to counteract the ten- f (γ c × B × h ×1)
sile stresses due to shrinkage due to temperature or mois- Ast =
2S s
ture changes.
•• Maximum tensile force in the slab is in the middle of the ( 2400 × 3.5 × 0.25 × 1)
slab, where cracks occur first. Ast = 1.2
2 × 2000
•• Longitudinal and transverse steel in slab is given by the
= 0.63 cm2/m.
Lf γ c 1 m → 0.63 cm2 = 63 mm2
As =
2S s
Area of each steel bar, a

Where π
= × 122 = 113 mm 2
AS = Area of steel in cm2/m length or width of slab
4
L = Distance in ‘m’ between free tranverse joints (63 mm2 = As) – 1000 mm
f = (1.15) Coefficient of friction between concerete and
subbase/base 113 mm2 → ?
γc = Weight of slab in kg/m2 \ spacing Lc = 1793 mm c/c  1750 mm c/c
Ss = Allowable working stress in steel (g/cm2)
\ Lc = 1.75 m c/c
(Usually 50–60% of minimum yield stress of steel which
is 1400 kg/cm2) Hence, the correct answer is option (B).

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Exercises
1. The penetration test for bitumen is conducted at a tem- 10. In the content of flexible pavement design, the ratio of
perature of contact pressure to tyre pressure is called the Rigidity
(A) 60°C (B) 37°C Factor. This factor is less than unity when the tyre pres-
(C) 25°C (D) 50°C sure is
2. The total thickness of pavement by CBR methods (A) less than 0.56 N/mm2
depends on the CBR value of (B) equal to 0.56 N/mm2
(A) base course (B) surface course (C) equal to 0.7 N/mm2
(C) subgrade (D) all layers (D) more than 0.7 N/mm2
3. The width of expansion joint gap is 2.5 cm in a cement 11. Bituminous concrete is a mix comprising of
concrete pavement. The spacing between expansion (A) fine aggregate and filler and bitumen
joint for a maximum rise in temperature of 25°C is (B) fine aggregate and bitumen
(assuming a coefficient of thermal expansion of con- (C) coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, filler and b­ itumen
crete as 10 × 10–6 per degree C) (D) coarse aggregate, filler and bitumen
(A) 5 m (B) 50 m
12. What is the Equivalent single wheel load of a dual
(C) 100 m (D) 25 m
wheel assembly carrying 20,440 N each for pavement
4. The modulus of subgrade reaction is obtained from thickness of 20 cm? Centre spacing of tyres is 27 cm
the plate bearing test in the form of load deformation and the distance between the walls of tyres is 11 cm.
curve. The pressure corresponding to the following set- (A) 27,600 N (B) 32,300 N
tlement value should be used for computing modules of (C) 40,880 N (D) 30,190 N
subgrade reaction.
(A) 0.375 cm (B) 0.175 cm 13. A two lane single carriage way is to be designed for
(C) 0.125 cm (D) 0.250 cm a design life period of 15 years. Total two way ­traffic
intensity in the year of completion of construction
5. In the plate bearing test, if the load applied is in the
is expected to be 2000 commercial vehicles per day.
form of an inflated type of wheel, then this mechanism
Vehicle damage factor = 3.0, lave distribution fac-
corresponds to
tor = 0.75. Assuming an annual rate of traffic growth
(A) rigid plate (B) flexible plate
as 7.5%, the design traffic expressed as cumulative
(C) semi-rigid plate (D) semi-elastic plate
number of standard axles is
6. Base course is used in rigid pavements for (A) 42.9 × 106 (B) 22.6 × 106
(A) prevention of subgrade settlement (C) 10.1 × 10 6 (D) 5.3 × 106
(B) prevention of slab cracking
(C) prevention of pumping 14. In a concrete pavement
(D) prevention of thermal expansion A. Temperature stress is tensile at bottom during day
7. The standard plate size in a plate bearing test for find- time
ing modulus of sub grade reaction (K) value is B. Load stress is compressive at bottom
(A) 100 cm diameter (A) Both the statement A and B are correct
(B) 50 cm diameter (B) Statement A is correct and B is wrong
(C) 75 cm diameter (C) Statement B is wrong and A is correct
(D) 25 cm diameter (D) Both statement A and B are incorrect
8. The minimum value of CRB (%) required for granular 15. The data given below pertain to the design of a flexible
subbase as per Ministry of Surface Transport (MoST) pavement
specification is Initial traffic = 1213 cvpd
(A) 5 (B) 10
(C) 15 (D) 20 Traffic growth rate = 8% per annum
9. Temperature stresses in concrete pavements may cause Design life = 12 years
the slab to crack. If slab cools uniformly then the crack Vehicle damage factor = 1.0
will develop at which of the following locations of the The design traffic in terms of million standard axles
slab (msa) to be catered would be
(A) at centre (A) 0.06 msa (B) 8.4 msa
(B) near edges (C) 21.0 msa (D) 32.26 msa
(C) at corners
16. The following observations were made of an axle load
(D) near edges and at corners
survey on a road.

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 Chapter 3 ■ Pavements Design | 3.971

Axle Load (kN) Repetition Per Day   I. Load stresses are inversely proportional to wheel
35–45 800
load
75–85 400 II. Modulus of subgrade reaction is useful for load
stress calculation
(A) Both statements are True
The standard axle load is 80 kN. Equivalent daily num-
(B) I is True and II is False
ber of repetitions for the standard axle load are
(C) Both statements are False
(A) 450 (B) 480
(D) I is False and II is True
(C) 800 (D) 1200
20. A two lane single carriage way is to be designed for
17. Using IRC: 37–1984 ‘Guidelines for the Design of
a design life of 15 years. Total two way traffic inten-
Flexible Pavements’ and the following data, choose the
sity in the year of completion of construction is
total thickness of the pavement. Number of commercial
expected to be 2000 commercial vehicles per day,
vehicles when construction is completed = 2723 veh/
vehicles damage factor = 3.0 lane distribution factor
day
= 0.75. Assuming an annual rate of traffic growth as
Annual growth rate of traffic = 5.0% 7.5%, the design traffic expressed as cumulative num-
Design life of the pavement = 10 years ber of standard axles, is
Vehicle damage factor = 2.4 (A) 42.9 × 106
(B) 22.6 × 106
CBR value of the sub grade soil = 5%
(C) 10.1 × 106
Data for 5% CBR value (D) 5.3 × 106
No of Standard Axles (msa) Total Thickness, (mm) 21. The load penetration data from a California bear-
20 620 ing ratio (CBR) test is provide in the following table.
25 640 Indicate whether any correction is required for the
30 670
calculated CBR value. Find the CBR value of the soil
from the data provided (in %)
40 700

(A) 620 mm (B) 640 mm Penetration Load in kgf (kg Force)

(C) 670 mm (D) 700 mm 0 0
0.5 4
18. For a 25 cm thick concrete pavement, analysis of
1.0 13
stresses gives the following values
1.5 29
Wheel load stress due to edge loading: 30 kg/cm2
2.0 40
Wheel load stress due to corner loading: 32 k/cm2 2.5 50
Warping stress at corner region during summer: 9 kg/ 3.0 58
cm2 4.0 70
Warping stress at corner region during winter: 7 kg/cm2 5.0 78
Warping stress at edge region during summer: 8 kg/cm2 7.5 93

Warping stress at edge region during winter: 6 kg/cm2 10 103

12.5 112
Frictional stress during summer:
5 kg/cm2 Area of plunger is given as 19.6 cm2. Pressure for stand-
Frictional stress during winter: 4 kg/cm2 ard crushed stones at 2.5 mm and 50 mm are 70 kg/cm2
The most critical stress value for this pavement is and 105 kgf/cm2 respectively.
(A) 40 kg/cm2 (B) 42 kg/cm2 22. Dowel bars in concrete pavement are placed
(C) 44 kg/cm 2 (D) 45 kg/cm2 (A) along the direction of traffic.
19. In case of governing equations for calculating wheel (B) perpendicular to the direction of traffic.
load stress using Westergaards approach, the following (C) along 45° to the direction of traffic.
statements are made (D) can be placed along any direction.

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Previous Years’ Questions

1. The following data pertains to the number of com- (C) P–3, Q –1
mercial vehicles per day for the design of a flexible (D) P–2, Q –2
pavement for a national highway as per IRC: 37–1984 5. Consider the following statements in the context of
Number of Vehicles Vehicle
cement concrete pavements
Commercial Considering the Damage   I. Warping stresses in cement concrete pavements
Vehicles Per Day Number of Lanes Factor are caused by the seasonal variation in temperature
Two axle trucks 2000 5 II. Tie bars are generally provided across transverse
Tandem axle trucks 200 6 joints of cement concrete pavements
Assuming a traffic growth of 7.5% per annum for The correct option evaluating the above statements is/
both the types of vehicles, the cumulative number of are [GATE, 2010]
standard axle load repetitions (in million) for a design (A) I True and II False
life of ten years is  [GATE, 2007] (B) I False and II True
(A) 44.6 (C) I True and II True
(B) 57.8 (D) I False and II False
(C) 62.4 6. A pavement designer has arrived at a design traffic
(D) 78.7 of 100 million standard axles for a newly develop-
2. The width of the expansion joint is 20 mm in a ing national highway as per IRC: 37–1984 guideline
cement concrete pavement. The laying temperature using the following data: Design life = 15 years, com-
is 20°C and the maximum slab temperature in sum- mercial vehicle count before pavement construction
mer is 60°C. The coefficient of thermal expansion of = 4500 vehicles/day, annual traffic growth rate = 8%.
concrete is 10 × 10-6 mm/mm/°C and the joint filler The vehicle damage factor used in the calculation was
compresses up to 50% of the thickness. The spacing 
between expansion joints should be  [GATE, 2007]  [GATE, 2012]
(A) 20 m (B) 25 m (A) 1.53 (B) 2.24
(C) 30 m (D) 40 m (C) 3.66 (D) 4.14
3. It is proposed to widen and strengthen an existing 2 7. Select the strength parameter of concrete used in
lane NH section as a divided highway. The existing design of plain jointed cement concrete pavements
traffic in one direction is 2500 commercial vehicles from the following choices [GATE, 2013]
(CV) per day. The construction will take 1 year. The (A) tensile strength
design CBR of soil sub grade is found to be 5% (B) compressive strength
Given: Traffic growth rate of CV = 8% (C) Flexural strength
(D) shear strength
Vehicle damage factor = 3.5 (standard axles per CV)
8. The following statements are related to temperature
Design life = 10 years and traffic distribution factor
stresses developed in concrete pavement slabs with
= 0.75
free edges (without any restraint)
The cumulative standard axles msa computed are P. The temperature stresses will be zero during both
 [GATE, 2008] day and night times if the pavement is considered
(A) 35 (B) 37 weightless.
(C) 65 (D) 70 Q. The temperature stresses will be compressive at
4. Which of the following stress combinations are the bottom of the slab during night time if the self-
appropriate in identifying the critical condition for the weight of the pavement slab is considered.
design of concrete pavements? R.  The temperature stresses will be compressive
Type of Stress Location
at the bottom of the slab during day time if the
self-weight of the pavement slab is considered.
P. Load 1. Corner
 [GATE, 2014]
Q. Temperature 2. Edge The true statement(s) is/are
3. Interior (A) P only
 [GATE, 2009] (B) Q only
(A) P–2, Q –3 (C) P and Q only
(B) P–1, Q –3 (D) P and R only

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 Chapter 3 ■ Pavements Design | 3.973

9. A traffic survey conducted on a road yields an average 30 km/h (the distance of 174 m includes the distance
daily traffic count of 5000 vehicles. The axle load distri- travelled during the perception-reaction time of driv-
bution on the same road is given in the following table ers). The sign can be read by 6/6 vision drivers from
Axle load (tonnes) Frequency of Traffic (%)
a distance of 48 m. The sign is placed at a distance
of x m from the start of Zone Y so that even a 6/9
18 10
vision driver can slow down to 30 km/h before enter-
14 20 ing the zone. The minimum value of x is _______ m.
10 35  [GATE, 2015]
8 15 Direction of vechicle movement
6 20
Sign Start of Zone Y
The design period of the road is 15 years the yearly Road
traffic growth rate is 7.5% and the load safety factor
x Zone Y
(LSF) is 1.3. If the vehicles damage factor (VDF) is
calculated from above data, the design traffic (in mil-
lion standard axle load MSA) is ________. 12. In the context of the IRC:58–2011 guidelines for
 [GATE, 2014] rigid pavement design, consider the following pair of
10. Which of the following statements CANNOT be used statements:
to describe free flow speed (uf) of a traffic stream? I. Radius of relative stiffness is directly related to
 [GATE, 2015] modulus of elasticity of concrete and inversely
(A) uf is the speed when flow is negligible. related to Poisson’s ratio.
(B) uf is the speed when density is negligible. II.  Radius of relative stiffness is directly related
(C)  uf is affected by geometry and surface conditions to thickness of slab and modulus of subgrade
of the road. reaction.
(D)  uf is the speed at which flow is maximum and Which one of the following combinations is correct?
density is optimum.  [GATE, 2016]
11. A sign is required to be put up asking drivers to slow (A) I True; II True
down to 30 km/h before entering Zone Y (see figure) (B) I False; II False
on this road, vehicles required 174 m to slow down to (C) I True; II False
(D) I False; II True

Answer Keys

Exercises
1. A 2. C 3. B 4. C 5. B 6. C 7. C 8. A 9. B 10. D
11. C 12. D 13. A 14. D 15. C 16. A 17. C 18. B 19. D 20. A
21. 36.5% 22. A

Previous Years’ Questions

1. B 2. B 3. B 4. D 5. D 6. B 7. C 8. C 9. 237.78
10. D 11. 142 12. B

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