Aryabhata (476–550 CE)

Aryabhata, born in 476 CE in the region of Kusumapura (likely modern-day Patna, India), was
one of the most illustrious mathematicians and astronomers of ancient India. His work laid
the groundwork for various advancements in mathematics and astronomy, influencing both
Indian scholars and later developments in the Islamic Golden Age and Europe.
Education and Early Life
Aryabhata's early life remains shrouded in mystery, but it is widely believed that he studied
at the ancient Nalanda University. A prodigy, Aryabhata mastered Vedic texts and expanded
upon their mathematical and astronomical principles. He also showed an early inclination
toward observational astronomy, using tools available at the time to understand celestial
phenomena.
Major Works
Aryabhata’s magnum opus, the "Aryabhatiya," is divided into four sections: the “Gitikapada,”
“Ganitapada,” “Kalakriyapada,” and “Golapada.” This text covers arithmetic, algebra,
trigonometry, and astronomy. Written in concise Sanskrit verses, it reflects Aryabhata’s
genius and served as a comprehensive manual for mathematicians and astronomers.
Contributions to Mathematics
Aryabhata introduced the place-value system and the concept of zero, though these ideas
were refined by later mathematicians. He provided solutions for linear and quadratic
equations and worked extensively on approximating irrational numbers. He calculated the
value of π (“pi”) as 3.1416, remarkably accurate for his era.
His trigonometric contributions include defining sine (“jya”) and cosine (“kojya”) and
creating trigonometric tables, which were essential for astronomical calculations.
Contributions to Astronomy
Aryabhata proposed a heliocentric model, suggesting that the Earth rotates on its axis. He
calculated the duration of a year as 365.25858 days, astonishingly close to the modern
value. Aryabhata also offered solutions for predicting solar and lunar eclipses, demonstrating
a sophisticated understanding of celestial mechanics.
Legacy
Aryabhata’s work deeply influenced subsequent scholars, including Brahmagupta, Bhaskara
I, and the Kerala School of Mathematics. Translations of "Aryabhatiya" into Arabic
introduced his ideas to the Islamic world, impacting scholars like Al-Khwarizmi.
Aryabhata’s innovations in mathematics and astronomy have left an indelible mark on global
scientific progress, earning him a place among the greatest minds of all time.
Brahmagupta, a pioneering mathematician and astronomer of ancient India, was born in 598
CE in Bhillamala (modern-day Rajasthan). Known for his seminal text
"Brahmasphutasiddhanta," he made groundbreaking contributions to arithmetic, algebra,
and astronomy, solidifying his reputation as one of history’s foremost thinkers.
Education and Early Life
Little is known about Brahmagupta’s early life, but he likely received his education in
Bhillamala, a prominent hub of learning at the time. He mastered earlier works by Aryabhata
and other scholars, refining and challenging their ideas.
Major Works
Brahmagupta’s most famous work, "Brahmasphutasiddhanta," was written in 628 CE. This
comprehensive treatise contains 25 chapters on mathematics and astronomy, presenting
new methods and theories that influenced future generations. It became a cornerstone for
later Indian and Islamic mathematical advancements.
Contributions to Mathematics
Brahmagupta is credited with formalizing the rules of arithmetic operations involving zero,
making him the first to treat zero as a number. He introduced methods for solving quadratic
equations and established rules for operations involving negative numbers. His formula for
the area of a cyclic quadrilateral remains a cornerstone in geometry.
In addition to these contributions, Brahmagupta advanced methods for calculating square
roots, powers, and progressions. He also proposed solutions for indeterminate equations, a
precursor to modern number theory.
Contributions to Astronomy
Brahmagupta’s astronomical insights were equally impressive. He calculated planetary
motions, eclipses, and the length of the solar year with remarkable precision. His rejection of
Aryabhata’s heliocentric model marked a divergence in Indian astronomical thought, as
Brahmagupta adhered to geocentric principles.
Legacy
Brahmagupta’s influence extended far beyond his lifetime. His work was translated into
Arabic and studied extensively during the Islamic Golden Age, particularly by scholars like Al-
Khwarizmi. These translations later influenced European mathematics during the
Renaissance.
Today, Brahmagupta’s contributions to mathematics and astronomy are celebrated as
milestones in the history of science, cementing his legacy as a visionary thinker.
 Bhaskara I (600–680 CE)
Bhaskara I, one of the earliest known followers of Aryabhata, was a significant
mathematician and astronomer who contributed to advancing Aryabhata’s ideas. He was
born in the 7th century CE, likely in the region corresponding to modern-day Maharashtra,
India. His interpretations and enhancements of Aryabhata’s work marked a turning point in
Indian mathematics and astronomy.
Education and Early Life
Though details about Bhaskara I’s early life are scarce, it is known that he was deeply
influenced by Aryabhata’s "Aryabhatiya." Bhaskara I’s commentary on this text demonstrates
his profound understanding of Aryabhata’s theories and his innovative approach to
expanding them.
Major Works
Bhaskara I is best known for his works "Mahabhaskariya," "Laghubhaskariya," and a
commentary on the "Aryabhatiya." These texts addressed advanced mathematical and
astronomical concepts, providing practical methods for computations used in astronomy.
Contributions to Mathematics
Bhaskara I introduced simpler methods for calculating trigonometric values, particularly sine.
He provided an accurate approximation of π (“pi”) as 3.1416 and emphasized the
importance of logical consistency in mathematical proofs. He also elaborated on Aryabhata’s
place-value system and the application of algebra to solve astronomical problems.
Contributions to Astronomy
In his astronomical treatises, Bhaskara I explained the calculation of planetary positions,
eclipses, and conjunctions. His works provided detailed instructions for constructing
astronomical instruments and tables, ensuring the practical application of his theories.
Legacy
Bhaskara I’s efforts to refine and propagate Aryabhata’s ideas ensured their survival and
further development. His contributions bridged the gap between Aryabhata and later
scholars like Bhaskara II, reinforcing India’s legacy as a hub of mathematical and
astronomical innovation. Today, Bhaskara I is remembered for his clarity, precision, and
dedication to advancing scientific knowledge.
 Bhaskara II (1114–1185 CE)
Bhaskara II, also known as Bhaskaracharya, was one of the most celebrated mathematicians
and astronomers of medieval India. Born in 1114 CE in Vijjadavida (modern-day Bijapur,
Karnataka), Bhaskara II’s work represents the pinnacle of mathematical and astronomical
knowledge in ancient India.
Education and Early Life
Bhaskara II was trained under his father, Mahesvara, who was an accomplished
mathematician and astronomer. This familial influence, combined with access to earlier
Indian texts, helped him build a strong foundation in mathematics and astronomy.
Major Works
Bhaskara II’s magnum opus, "Siddhanta Shiromani," is divided into four parts: "Lilavati"
(arithmetic), "Bijaganita" (algebra), "Grahaganita" (astronomy), and "Goladhyaya" (spherical
astronomy). Each section showcases his mastery over the subjects and provides numerous
original contributions.
Contributions to Mathematics
The "Lilavati" is a masterpiece of arithmetic and geometry, filled with mathematical puzzles
and problems. Bhaskara II presented solutions for quadratic, cubic, and quartic equations,
and explored concepts like permutations and combinations.
He is also credited with early work on differential calculus, explaining the rate of change and
the concept of infinitesimals. His contributions to algebra include methods for solving
indeterminate equations and the discovery of the cyclic method (chakravala) for solving
quadratic equations.
Contributions to Astronomy
In "Grahaganita" and "Goladhyaya," Bhaskara II made accurate calculations of celestial
phenomena, including planetary positions and eclipses. He also developed instruments for
astronomical observations and proposed methods to calculate the time of day based on the
shadow of a gnomon.
Legacy
Bhaskara II’s contributions had a profound influence on both Indian and global mathematics.
His work was translated into Persian and Arabic, impacting the development of mathematics
in the Islamic world. His innovative approach to calculus predates Newton and Leibniz by
centuries, earning him recognition as a pioneer in the field.
Bhaskara II’s legacy endures as a symbol of India’s rich mathematical heritage, inspiring
generations of mathematicians and scientists.
 Madhava of Sangamagrama (1340–1425 CE)
Madhava of Sangamagrama, a 14th-century mathematician from Kerala, India, is celebrated
as the founder of the Kerala School of Mathematics. His pioneering work in calculus
predates the European development of the field by centuries.
Education and Early Life
Madhava was born in the village of Sangamagrama (modern-day Irinjalakuda, Kerala). He
was part of a scholarly tradition that emphasized the study of mathematics and astronomy.
Though details about his early life are scarce, his education likely included the works of
Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara II, which were studied and expanded upon in Kerala.
Major Works
Madhava’s contributions are preserved in the works of his disciples, such as Nilakantha
Somayaji and Jyesthadeva. He is credited with developing infinite series expansions for
trigonometric functions like sine, cosine, and arctangent. His methods allowed for precise
calculations of π, achieving a level of accuracy unmatched until the advent of modern
calculus.
Contributions to Mathematics
Madhava’s development of infinite series was revolutionary. He formulated the power series
for π/4 and derived expansions for sine and cosine functions, foreshadowing the techniques
of Taylor and Maclaurin centuries later. His iterative methods for approximating roots and
computing trigonometric values were groundbreaking.
Contributions to Astronomy
In astronomy, Madhava applied his mathematical innovations to refine models of planetary
motion and eclipses. He developed accurate algorithms for predicting celestial events and
calculating astronomical constants, including the length of the solar year.
Legacy: Madhava’s work laid the foundation for the Kerala School of Mathematics, whose
members continued to develop his ideas. His advancements in calculus influenced both
Indian and European mathematics, bridging gaps between ancient and modern approaches.
Today, Madhava is remembered as a visionary mathematician whose insights.

Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887–1920)

Srinivasa Ramanujan, born in 1887 in Erode, Tamil Nadu, India, is celebrated as one of the
greatest mathematical geniuses in history. Despite minimal formal training in mathematics,
his groundbreaking contributions have left an indelible mark on the field, particularly in
number theory, infinite series, and continued fractions.
Education and Early Life
Ramanujan demonstrated an extraordinary aptitude for mathematics from an early age. He
attended Town High School in Kumbakonam, where he excelled in mathematics but
struggled with other subjects. His discovery of G. S. Carr’s book A Synopsis of Elementary
Results in Pure Mathematics served as a catalyst for his mathematical explorations.
Despite financial hardships, Ramanujan continued his self-directed studies, producing highly
original results. In 1912, he secured a clerical job in Madras, where his exceptional work
attracted the attention of prominent mathematicians.
Major Works
Ramanujan’s collaboration with British mathematician G. H. Hardy at the University of
Cambridge marked a turning point in his career. Together, they explored his pioneering
ideas, many of which were unconventional and ahead of their time. Key areas of his work
include:
 Partition Functions: Ramanujan formulated precise results for the partition of
integers, which have applications in combinatorics and statistical mechanics.
 Modular Forms: His contributions to modular functions laid the groundwork for
modern theories in algebra and number theory.
 Ramanujan’s Tau Function: This function and its properties became significant in the
study of elliptic functions.
  Infinite Series: Ramanujan derived elegant formulas for calculating π and infinite
series representations, which are used in contemporary computational methods.
Legacy
Ramanujan’s notebooks contain thousands of results, many of which have since been proven
correct and continue to inspire research. The number 1729, known as the Hardy-Ramanujan
number, is famously associated with him due to its unique mathematical properties.
Despite his untimely death at the age of 32, Ramanujan’s profound insights have left a
lasting legacy, earning him a place among history’s mathematical greats.
 C. R. Rao (1920–2023)
Calyampudi Radhakrishna Rao, known as C. R. Rao, was a towering figure in statistics,
making foundational contributions that shaped modern statistical theory and its
applications. Born in 1920 in Hadagali, Karnataka, Rao’s work spans decades and
encompasses theoretical advancements, innovative methodologies, and interdisciplinary
applications.
Education and Early Life
Rao earned a Master’s degree in statistics from Calcutta University, where he was mentored
by renowned statistician P. C. Mahalanobis. He later completed his Ph.D. at Cambridge
University under the supervision of R. A. Fisher, a pivotal figure in statistics.
Major Works
Rao’s contributions to statistics include:
 Cramér-Rao Bound: This theorem provides a lower bound for the variance of
estimators, a cornerstone in the theory of statistical inference.
 Rao-Blackwell Theorem: This result offers a method for improving statistical
estimators, significantly enhancing their efficiency.
 Orthogonal Arrays: Rao introduced designs with wide applications in industrial
experiments and quality control.
 Multivariate Analysis: His work on multivariate statistical methods has applications
in genetics, biology, and economics.
Legacy
Rao’s contributions have had a profound impact on both theoretical and applied statistics.
He authored numerous seminal texts, including Linear Statistical Inference and Its
Applications, which remain standard references. His accolades include the National Medal of
Science (U.S.) and India’s Padma Vibhushan. Rao’s work continues to influence research
across disciplines.
 D. R. Kaprekar (1905–1986)
Dattatreya Ramchandra Kaprekar, born in 1905 in Dahanu, Maharashtra, India, was a
recreational mathematician known for his unique contributions to number theory. Although
he did not pursue advanced academic training, his creative discoveries have intrigued
mathematicians worldwide.
Education and Early Life
Kaprekar completed his education at Fergusson College in Pune, earning a Bachelor’s
degree. Despite financial constraints, he pursued his passion for mathematics and became a
schoolteacher in Nashik.
Major Works
Kaprekar is best known for discovering:
 Kaprekar Constant (6174): This fascinating number emerges through an iterative
process involving the digits of a four-digit number. It exemplifies his innovative
approach to mathematics.
 Kaprekar Numbers: Numbers with properties linked to their squares, generating
sequences with unique characteristics.
 Self-Numbers: Kaprekar identified these numbers as those that cannot be expressed
as the sum of any number and its digits.
Legacy
Kaprekar’s work, though unconventional, has inspired mathematical curiosity and
recreational problem-solving. His contributions continue to find relevance in mathematical
research and education.
 Harish-Chandra (1923–1983)
Harish-Chandra, born in 1923 in Kanpur, India, was a mathematician and physicist who made
groundbreaking contributions to representation theory and harmonic analysis. His work
bridged abstract mathematics with physics, influencing quantum mechanics and modern
algebra.
Education and Early Life
Harish-Chandra earned a degree in physics from the University of Allahabad and later
studied at the University of Cambridge under the mentorship of Paul Dirac. His early
exposure to theoretical physics shaped his mathematical pursuits.
Major Works
Harish-Chandra’s research focused on:
 Representation Theory: He developed a systematic theory for representations of Lie
groups and Lie algebras, providing tools for understanding symmetries in
mathematics and physics.
 Harmonic Analysis: His work on harmonic analysis on semisimple Lie groups has
applications in geometry and number theory.
Legacy
Harish-Chandra’s insights have become fundamental to modern mathematics, influencing
areas like algebraic geometry and theoretical physics. His contributions are commemorated
through the Harish-Chandra Research Institute in Allahabad.
 Manjul Bhargava (1974–Present)
Manjul Bhargava, born in 1974 in Canada to Indian parents, is a contemporary
mathematician renowned for his contributions to algebraic number theory. A recipient of
the Fields Medal in 2014, Bhargava’s innovative approaches have reshaped the field.
Education and Early Life
Bhargava completed his undergraduate studies at Harvard University and earned his Ph.D.
from Princeton University under the guidance of Andrew Wiles. His early interest in
mathematics was nurtured by his mother, a mathematician.
Major Works
Bhargava’s research includes:
 Higher Composition Laws: He generalized Gauss’s classical composition laws,
introducing elegant structures in number theory.
 Elliptic Curves: His work on average ranks of elliptic curves has implications for
cryptography and number theory.
 Algebraic Geometry: Bhargava developed new tools for understanding rings and
forms, solving long-standing problems in the field.
Legacy
Bhargava’s accolades include the Fields Medal, Padma Bhushan, and membership in
prestigious academies. His work continues to inspire mathematical exploration globally.
 Shakuntala Devi (1929–2013)
Shakuntala Devi, born in 1929 in Bangalore, India, was a prodigy known as the “Human
Computer” for her extraordinary mathematical abilities. Her talents in mental calculation
amazed audiences worldwide.
Education and Early Life
Largely self-taught, Devi displayed remarkable mathematical talent from an early age. Her
father, a circus performer, recognized her abilities and encouraged her to perform mental
calculations.
Major Works
Devi’s mathematical feats include:
 Mental Calculation: She set records for rapid arithmetic, including extracting roots
and solving complex equations mentally.
 Books on Mathematics: Devi authored works like The World of Homosexuals,
exploring social issues alongside mathematical themes.
Legacy
Shakuntala Devi’s contributions to popularizing mathematics earned her global recognition.
Her achievements continue to inspire interest in mental calculation and mathematics
education.
 Narendra Karmarkar (1957–Present)
Narendra Karmarkar, born in 1957 in Gwalior, India, is a computer scientist and
mathematician best known for developing the Karmarkar’s algorithm, a revolutionary
method for solving linear programming problems efficiently.
Education and Early Life
Karmarkar earned a degree in electrical engineering from IIT Bombay, followed by a Ph.D. in
computer science from the University of California, Berkeley. His academic foundation
provided the basis for his innovative work in optimization.
Major Works
Karmarkar’s algorithm, introduced in 1984, is a polynomial-time method for solving linear
programming problems. It transformed fields such as operations research, economics, and
logistics, enabling faster and more scalable solutions.
Legacy
Karmarkar’s contributions have had a profound impact on optimization and computational
mathematics. He continues to engage in research, exploring advanced topics in algorithm
design and computational geometry.