APE 5003 Optics & Electronics

Tahmid Tasnim
ID: 2023011320
Batch - 13
 MICROSCOPE

Introduction:
A microscope is an instrument that produces enlarged images of small objects,
allowing the observer an exceedingly close view of minute structures at a scale
convenient for examination and analysis. The image of an object is magnified
through at least one lens in the microscope. This lens bends light toward the eye and
makes an object appear larger than it actually is. The word “microscope” comes from
the Latin “microscopium,” which is derived from the Greek words “mikros,”
meaning “small,” and “skopein,” meaning “to look at.”

The History of The Microscope:

Microscopes are an important invention still heavily relied upon across many
different industries today. The history of the microscope spans hundreds of years,
and the famous device has gone through many variations as it evolved. While ancient
civilizations such as the Romans were experimenting with the light-bending
properties of glass lenses, the microscope’s invention history begins in the late 16th
century.

During the 1590s, two Dutch spectacle makers, Hans and Zacharias Janssen, began
experimenting with glass magnifying lenses. Before this point, the world only knew
of magnifying glasses with a maximum power of 6-10x magnification. The two
spectacle makers put several magnifying lenses inside of a tube and discovered that
objects viewed through the tube were greatly enlarged, much larger than any normal
magnifying glass could achieve. Thus the first microscope was born. However, the
first microscopes were more of a novelty that was not used for any sort of scientific
purpose, as the image produced by the microscope was blurry. It wasn’t until the
17th century that this changed. Historians are able to date the invention to the early
1590s thanks to Dutch diplomat William Boreel, a longtime family friend of the
Janssens who wrote a letter to the French king in the 1650s detailing the origins of
the microscope. He described a device that rose vertically from a brass tripod almost
two and a half feet long. The main tube was an inch or two in diameter and contained
an ebony disk at its base, with a concave lens at one end and a convex lens at the
other; the combination of lenses enabled the instrument to bend light and enlarge
images between three and nine times the size of the original specimen. No early
models of Janssen microscopes have survived, but a Middleburg Museum has a
microscope dated from 1595, bearing the Janssen name. The design is somewhat
different, consisting of three tubes, two of which are drawn tubes that can slide into
the third, which acts as an outer casing. The microscope is handheld and can be
focused by sliding the draw tube in or out while observing the sample, and is capable
of magnifying images up to ten times their original size when extended to the
maximum.

Micrographia, published in 1665, is a historic book Robert Hooke wrote,

documenting his observations through different lenses. He was among the first to
make significant improvements to the basic design. Hooke’s microscope shared
common features with early telescopes: an eyecup to maintain the correct distance
between the eye and eyepiece, separate draw tubes for focusing, and a ball and socket
joint for inclining the body. For the optics, Hooke used a bi-convex objective lens
placed in the snout, combined with an eyepiece lens and a tube or field lens.
Unfortunately, the combination caused the lenses to suffer from significant
chromatic and spherical aberration, yielding very poor images. He attempted to
correct the aberrations by placing a small diaphragm into the optical pathway to
reduce peripheral light rays and sharpen the image, but this only resulted in very
dark samples. So, he passed light generated from an oil lamp through a glass filled
with water to diffuse the light and illuminate his specimens. But the images remained
blurred.1 Micrographia is the first scientific best-seller and is credited for coining
the term cell. In 1674, a Dutch draper and scientist by the name of Antony Van
Leeuwenhoek became the first person to make and use a microscope for scientific
purposes. By grinding and polishing a small glass ball, Leeuwenhoek was able to
make a lens that could achieve 270x magnification, a feat unheard of at the time.
With his microscope, he was able to discover the presence of bacteria, blood cells,
yeast, and other microscopic creatures.

During the 18th century, the history of the microscope was filled with technical
innovations which enabled further production and improvements in microscopes.
Microscopy became very popular among scientists. In 1830, the prototype for
the Compound Microscope was created when Joseph Jackson Lister created a way
to reduce spherical aberration, known as the chromatic effect, by combining multiple
weak lenses without blurring the image, as opposed to lenses with higher
magnifications. In 1872, the research director of the Zeiss Optical Works, Ernst
Abbe, developed the Abbe Sine Condition, a mathematical formula that allows for
maximum resolution in a microscope.
The 1900s introduced instruments, that allowed the image to remain in focus when
the microscope changed magnification. 1903 marked the year Richard Zsigmondy
invented the microscope, the ultramicroscope, which could study objects below the
wavelength of light. Thanks to the greatly improved resolution, contrast-enhancing
techniques, digital imaging, fluorescent staining and much more have revolutionized
such fields as chemistry, physics, biology, and microelectronics. In 1925,
Zsigmondy won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. By 1931, the electron microscope
was invented. Whereas the microscopes previously invented used light to view
objects, the electron microscope uses electrons which have a wavelength that is
100,000th that of light. In 1932, the phase contrast microscope was invented by Frits
Zernike. The phase contrast microscope enables colorless and transparent biological
materials to be studied. In 1953, Zernike won the Nobel Prize in Physics. In 1982,
Heinrich Rohrer and Gerd Binnig invented the scanning tunneling microscope. This
microscope enables the viewer to see 3D images of objects. This is the strongest
microscope ever created. In 1986, Rohrer and Binnig won the Nobel Prize in
Physics. Today, it is possible to perform real-time fluorescence microscopy of living
cells in their natural environment, while in 1999 Intel and Mattel collaborated on
producing the $100 Intel Play QX3 Computer Microscope (since discontinued),
bringing the instrument into the consumer marketplace. And, in the spirit of the early
pioneers of microscopic research, scientists at Florida State University have brought
the field full circle, turning their advanced instruments on common everyday objects
like that All-American staple, burgers and fries, detailing thin sections of the wheat
kernel, onion tissue, starch granules in potato tissue, and crystallized cheese proteins.

Types of Microscopes:
There are different types of microscopes and each of these has different purposes of
use. Some are suitable for biological applications, while others are used in
educational institutions. There are also microscope types that find application in
metallurgy and studying three-dimensional samples.
There are mainly five types of microscopes which are:

• Simple microscope
• Compound microscope
• Electron microscope
• Stereomicroscope
 • Scanning probe microscope

Simple Microscope:
A simple microscope is defined as the type of microscope that uses a single lens for
the magnification of the sample. A simple microscope is a convex lens with a small
focal length. The magnifying power of the simple microscope is given as,
𝐷
𝑚 = 1+
𝐹

Where,

• D is the least distinct vision

• F is the focal length of the convex lens

The working principle of a simple microscope is that when a sample is placed within
the focus of the microscope, a virtual, erect and magnified image is obtained at the
least distance of distinct vision from the eye that is held at the lens. Application of
Simple Microscope are -

• It is common among watchmakers as they can view a magnified image of the

smallest parts.
• It is also used by jewelers for obtaining a magnified image of the fine parts of
the jewelry.
• Most educational institutions such as schools and colleges use a simple
microscope in their laboratories.
• Dermatologists (skin specialists) use simple microscopes to identify different
skin diseases.

Compound Microscope:
A compound microscope is defined as a type of microscope that has more than one
lens. It has a combination of lenses and two optical parts known as an objective lens
and an eyepiece or ocular lens. The magnifying power of the compound microscope
is given as:
 𝐷 𝐿
𝑚= ×
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒

Where,

• D is the least distance of distinct vision

• L is the length of the microscope tube
• fo is the focal length of the objective lens
• fe is the focal length of the eyepiece

The working principle of the compound microscope is that the combination of lenses
enhances the magnification of the sample. The sample is first viewed as a primary
image in the tube and viewed again in the eyepiece. Applications of Compound
Microscope are -

• The study of bacteria and viruses is possible with the help of a compound
microscope.
• A compound microscope finds application in forensic laboratories.
• It is also used in metallurgy.

Electron Microscope:
An electron microscope is defined as the type of microscope in which the source of
illumination is the beam of accelerated electrons. It is a special type of microscope
with a high resolution of images as the images can be magnified in nanometers.
There are two types of electron microscopes:

• The transmission electron microscope (TEM)

• The scanning electron microscope (SEM)

The metal used in an electron microscope is tungsten. A high-voltage current is

applied which results in the excitation of the electrons in the form of a continuous
stream that is used as a beam of light. The lenses used in the electron microscope are
magnetic coils. These magnetic coils are capable of focusing the electron beam on
the sample such that the sample gets illuminated. As the flow of current increases,
the strength of the magnetic lens increases. The electron beam flow is designed such
that it cannot pass through the glass lens. Application of Electron Microscope are -

• Quality control and failure analysis in industries are done with the help of an
electron microscope.
• The images obtained in an electron microscope can be captured as electron
micrographs with the help of specialized cameras.
• The study of metals and crystals became easy with the introduction of an
electron microscope.

Stereo Microscope:
A stereo microscope is defined as a type of microscope that provides a three-
dimensional view of a specimen. It is also known as a dissecting microscope. In a
stereo microscope, there are separate objective lenses and eyepiece such that there
are two separate optical paths for each eye.
A stereo microscope works on the reflected light from the sample. The magnification
of the microscope takes place at low power and hence, it is suitable for magnifying
opaque objects. It is suitable for thick and solid samples because it uses light
reflected from the sample. The magnification of the stereo microscope is between
20x and 50x. Applications of Stereo Microscope are -

• Examination of historic coins and artifacts is possible with the help of the
stereomicroscope.
• It finds application in microsurgery.
• Viewing of crystals became easy with the use of a stereomicroscope.

Scanning Probe Microscope:

The scanning probe microscope is defined as the type of microscope that finds
applications in industries where the examination of the specimen is done at the
nanoscale levels. The study of a specimen’s properties, its reaction time and its
behavior when stimulated can be done with the help of a scanning probe microscope.
The scanning probe microscope has a probe tip that is mounted on the end of a
cantilever. The tip is so sharp that it can move precisely and accurately across the
surface of the sample scanning every atom. The tip is placed close to the surface of
the sample, such that the cantilever experiences a deflection due to forces. This
deflection distance is measured by the laser. The final image after scanning is
obtained on the computer. Application of Scanning Probe Microscope are -

• It is used in studying different properties of the sample such as electrical

properties.
• The magnetic property of the sample is studied using this microscope.
• The transferring of information on the sample can be done with the help of
this microscope.

Microscopes Uses:
Biology and Life Sciences: Microscopes are extensively used in biology for
studying cells, tissues, and organisms. They enable scientists to visualize and
analyze cellular structures and study biological processes.

Medicine and Healthcare: Microscopes play a vital role in medical diagnostics and
research. They are used by pathologists to examine tissue samples, analyze blood
smears, and identify microorganisms causing diseases. In surgical procedures,
microscopes are utilized for precise visualization and microsurgery.

Materials Science and Engineering: Microscopes are employed in materials

science to examine the structure, composition, and properties of various materials.
They help in analyzing metals, ceramics, polymers, and other materials at a
microscopic level to understand their behavior and develop new materials.

Forensics and Criminal Investigations: Microscopes are utilized in forensic

science to analyze trace evidence, such as fibers, hair, and fingerprints. They aid in
the identification of potential suspects, examination of tool marks, and analysis of
firearms and ballistic evidence.
Environmental Science: Microscopes are used in environmental science to study
microorganisms, algae, and other microscopic organisms in water, soil, and air
samples. They help in assessing the health of ecosystems, monitoring pollution
levels, and studying biodiversity.

Quality Control and Manufacturing: In industries such as electronics, automotive,

and pharmaceuticals, microscopes are used for quality control inspections. They
enable detailed examination of small components, circuit boards, and manufactured
products to ensure their adherence to quality standards.

Education and Research: Microscopes are essential tools in educational

institutions and research laboratories. They are used to teach students about cellular
structures, microscopic organisms, and scientific principles. Researchers utilize
microscopes to explore discoveries, conduct experiments, and analyze samples.

Conclusion:
A microscope is used to magnify small objects/specimens. An image of an object or
a sample can be examined or observed in detail with a lens. As we read, various
microscopes serve different purposes. Some are used to see the shape of a cell and
its nucleus, some are used for the investigation of a crime, some are used for
inspecting diseases or allergies while others are used for even high-resolution
imaging or nanoscale measurements.