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Can Emotional Intelligence be developed?

Victor Dulewicz & Malcolm Higgs
Published online: 17 Feb 2007.

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Journal of Human Resource Management, 15:1, 95-111, DOI: 10.1080/0958519032000157366

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 Int. J. of Human Resource Management 15:1 February 2004 95 – 111

Can Emotional Intelligence be developed?

Victor Dulewicz and Malcolm Higgs

Abstract This paper explores approaches to the development of Emotional Intelligence

(EI) and to the critical question ‘can EI be developed?’ Technical data on the instruments
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used to measure EI, the Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (EIQ) devised by Dulewicz
and Higgs (2000c) and the EQ-i designed by Bar-On (1997), are reported. Findings from
three studies involving managers, team leaders and the skippers and crews from a round-
the-world yacht race are presented to explore whether Emotional Intelligence scores
change after training and other experiences. A revised model to explain how the elements
of Emotional Intelligence are related to each other is presented and tested, and possible
explanations of why some elements are more amenable to development actions are
proposed.

Keywords Emotional Intelligence; developing EI; EI training; EI model.

Introduction
From a review of a wide range of the literature in the field of Emotional Intelligence
(Gardner, 1983; Gardner and Hatch, 1989; Salovey and Meyer, 1990; Goleman, 1996,
1997; Steiner, 1997; Cooper and Sawaf, 1997) conducted by Dulewicz and Higgs
(2000a), it is evident that this is an important topic for occupational psychology. Indeed,
Emotional Intelligence (EI) is also a very hot topic in human resource management,
judging by the extensive media coverage given to the subject over the last few years, and
the great interest shown in the topic by people from all walks of life. It is argued that it
has tremendous potential value not only for managers and HR professionals but also for
teachers, educationalists and counsellors (e.g. Higgs and Dulewicz, 1999). However, it is
a concept that is surrounded by controversy. In the UK recently, Woodruffe (2001)
challenged the growth in the popularity of the concept on the basis that it was both
unproven and, indeed, nothing new although this point was firmly rebutted by researchers
working in the area (e.g. Goleman, 2001; Dulewicz and Higgs, 2001a).
There appears from the literature to be some debate about what constitutes the domain
of Emotional Intelligence, about terminology used to describe the construct and about
methods used to measure it. Furthermore, there is a debate around the theoretical framing
of the construct. Mayer et al. (1999) view the construct as an ability and designed a
questionnaire to measure it in this way. ‘Our focus is on ability measures of EI because
we view these instruments as the most promising’ (Mayer et al., 2000). Goleman (1998)
adopted a very different view of the construct, seeing it as being competencies-based.

Professor Victor Dulewicz, PhD, Head of HRM and Organizational Behaviour Faculty, Professor
Malcolm Higgs, DBA, Academic Dean, Henley Management College, Greenlands, Henley-on-
Thames, Oxfordshire, RG9 3AU, UK (tel: þ44 (0)1491 571454; fax: 44 (0)1491 571635;
e-mails: [email protected]; [email protected]).
The International Journal of Human Resource Management
ISSN 0958-5192 print/ISSN 1466-4399 online q 2004 Taylor & Francis Ltd
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DOI: 10.1080/0958519032000157366
 96 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
He presented a model with twenty-five competencies, derived from the Hay-McBer
competencies framework, arrayed in twelve clusters, and these have since been reduced
empirically to twenty competencies to form the Emotional Competencies Inventory
(Boyatzis et al., 2000). Other authors (e.g. Bar-On, 1997; Dulewicz and Higgs, 2000c)
have taken a third view and have operationalized the construct through questionnaires
and models derived from empirical research into personal factors related to EI, and
particularly into ‘emotionally and socially competent behaviour’ (Bar-On, 2000: 364).
Henceforth, we will call this the EI personal factors model.
Within the larger debate, a key question often posed is ‘can an individual’s Emotional
Intelligence be developed or is it an inherited or enduring trait?’ Within much of the
literature relating to Emotional Intelligence, there is a strong consensus that it is a
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developable trait or competency (e.g. Goleman, 1996; Steiner, 1997; Höpfl and Linstead,
1997; Cooper, 1997; Martinez, 1997). However, the ability-based view (Mayer et al.,
2000) does not form part of this consensus. Much of the popular literature is devoted to
describing processes or programmes designed to help individuals develop their
Emotional Intelligence (e.g. Martinez, 1997; Farnham, 1996; Harrison, 1997; Cooper,
1997). Within this literature, issues do arise in relation to the stage in an individual’s life
at which interventions designed to build effective Emotional Intelligence are most
effective. Goleman (1996) comments that, while Emotional Intelligence is amenable to
development, it is interventions during childhood that are most effective. Indeed the core
linkage with educational research provides the most robust evidence to support such a
proposition (Goleman, 1996; Salovey and Mayer, 1990). While building from this
research and extensive case study examples, the value of learning intervention during
childhood is promoted, some doubts are raised as to the efficacy of learning interventions
at later stages in life (e.g. Goleman, 1996).
The significance of the potential value of Emotional Intelligence within an organizational
context has led to a range of discussions about its role and developability within a managerial
learning context (Fineman, 1997; Höpfl and Linstead, 1997). Indeed, Höpfl and Linstead
(1997) point out that, in their view, although the core capabilities are developed within
childhood, these are malleable and thus capable of being developed and changed;
furthermore, workplace experiences have a significant impact on this shaping process. In
developing this argument, they contend that what managers learn in an organization includes
‘how to feel about what they do and learn’ and that the emotional dimension of the work of
management is reflected through working experiences and practices.
In this paper we explore two key issues: (1) different approaches to the development
of EI and (2) can EI be developed or not? We report findings from three studies which
address these questions but, first, we present technical data on the main instruments used
to measure Emotional Intelligence, the Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (EIQ)
devised by Dulewicz and Higgs (2000c) and the EQ-i designed by Bar-On (1997).

The EI instruments
The EIQ
In an exploratory study, Dulewicz and Higgs (2000a) investigated the reliability and
construct and predictive validity of three competency-based scales (measuring
emotional, intellectual and management competencies) using data gathered from
a large sample of general managers in a seven-year follow-up. An EI scale based on
sixteen relevant competencies showed promising reliability and predictive validity
over a seven-year period. Building on this study, a tailored questionnaire
(the EIQ-Managerial), based on a comprehensive review of the literature at the time,
 Dulewicz and Higgs: Can Emotional Intelligence be developed? 97
was designed to assess an individual’s level of Emotional Intelligence on a self-report
basis (Dulewicz and Higgs, 1999; 2000c). From an item analysis, seven separate
elements of Emotional Intelligence were identified, which are defined briefly below:

. Self-awareness: being aware of one’s feelings and being able to manage them
. Emotional resilience: being able to maintain one’s performance when under pressure
. Motivation: having the drive and energy to attain challenging long-term goals or
targets
. Inter-personal sensitivity: showing sensitivity and empathy towards others
. Influence: the ability to influence and persuade others to accept your views or
proposals
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. Intuitiveness: the ability to make decisions, using reason and intuition when
appropriate
. Conscientiousness: being consistent in one’s words and actions, and behaving
according to prevailing ethical standards.

Full definitions are provided in Higgs and Dulewicz (1999) and Dulewicz and Higgs
(2000c).
The EIQ has been shown to have good psychometric properties. Cronbach’s alpha
reliability co-efficients for each of the elements are acceptable and the alpha for the
overall EIQ score derived from the seven elements is 0.77 (Dulewicz and Higgs, 2000c).
A comprehensive review of the existing literature from leading authorities in the field
(Gardner, 1983; Gardner and Hatch, 1989; Salovey and Meyer, 1990; Goleman, 1996,
1997; Steiner, 1997; Cooper and Sawaf, 1997) is summarized by Dulewicz and Higgs
(2000a). This ensured that all the critical elements of Emotional Intelligence were
represented so that the questionnaire had good content validity. The authors of the EIQ
have also demonstrated its construct validity in relation to the 16PF questionnaire; Belbin
Team Roles derived from the 16PF; and the Myers Briggs Type Indicator (Dulewicz and
Higgs, 1999, 2000c). Dulewicz et al. (2001) investigated the degree to which two EI
instruments, the EIQ and the EQ-i, measure the same constructs and the relationship
between EI and morale and stress at work. Correlations between the two instruments
showed content and construct validity, while correlations with various measures of
morale and stress at work produced evidence of construct validity.
A study of team leaders in a pharmaceutical company (Dulewicz and Higgs, 2000b,
2000c) provided clear evidence of the concurrent validity of the EIQ against measures of
current performance. In a study of sales staff (Dulewicz and Higgs, 2000b, 2000c), self-
assessments and 3608 assessment by the boss were significantly correlated with job
performance ratings provided by the boss’s boss. Dulewicz et al’s. (2003) study on
managers also showed significant relationships between EIQ and current job
performance, thus providing further evidence of concurrent validity. Indirect links to
the original predictive validity study on general managers reported above was provided
in the development study of EIQ (Dulewicz and Higgs, 1999). In the team leaders’ study
noted above, Dulewicz and Higgs (2000b) cross-validated the EIQ against the EI
competencies.

The EQ-i
The structure of the EQ-i is based on the literature and its author’s research
experience as a clinical psychologist. It has good reliability and content and construct
validity (Bar-On, 1997). The concept was theoretically developed from logically
 98 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
clustering variables and identifying underlying key factors purported to determine
effective and successful functioning as well as positive emotional health. The EQ-i
produces a total EQ score, five composite scale scores and fifteen sub-scale scores,
defined by Bar-On (1997), titles of which are presented in Table 8 below. A number
of factor analyses were performed and provided empirical support for the 1-5-15
structure of the EQ-i. Therefore, the EQ-i presents a hierarchical structure of
Emotional Intelligence (Bar-On, 1997).

The original EIQ model

A concern of some authors in the field has been the disparate nature of the different
elements of EI (e.g. Higgs and Dulewicz, 1999). There is much evidence, above, to
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suggest that each of the elements contributes to managerial performance. But how do
they relate to each other, so that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts? The
relevant literature, covering competency and personality theory, and Freud’s work
(Freud, 1920), with his model of the id, the ego and the super-ego, was reviewed.
In particular, the conflict between the ego (our consciousness) and the super-ego
(our conscience) and the need for balance in order to achieve maturity seemed
relevant. An initial model devised by Higgs and Dulewicz (1999) has three main
components:

. The drivers are motivation and intuitiveness. These traits energize people and drive
them towards achieving their goals, which are usually set very high.
. The constrainers, high conscientiousness and emotional resilience, on the other
hand, act as controls, and curb the excesses of the drivers, especially if they are
very high and undirected, or misdirected.
. The enablers, self-awareness, interpersonal sensitivity and influence, are those
traits that facilitate performance and help the individual to achieve targets or
succeed in life generally.

High performance should result, first, if the individual has high scores on all seven
elements, and they are all contributing when in balance, or, second, if all scores are
average or above, and there are no large disparities between drivers and constrainers.
On the other hand, low performance should result, first, if scores are below average on all
seven elements or, second, if overall EI and the enablers scores are average, but the
drivers are high and the constrainers are low, or vice versa. In these cases, there would be
imbalance.

A revised model of Emotional Intelligence

Bar-On’s (1997) distinction between inter- and intra-personal elements/components is an
important one, especially for research into managerial performance because inter-
personal elements are paramount if managers are to achieve results with or through
colleagues. The authors propose that this distinction should be superimposed on the
original EI model (Higgs and Dulewicz, 1999), feedback on which had raised questions
about the position of intuitiveness and emotional resilience. A good case has been made
for the fact that these elements are more likely to be enablers than either a driver or a
constrainer, respectively (Higgs and Dulewicz, 1999). Intuitiveness could be seen as an
enabler because its application can facilitate performance when the circumstances
necessitate. For example, when someone is under pressure to act or take decisions, and
there is not sufficient time to conduct a rigorous analysis of the situation and gather
 Dulewicz and Higgs: Can Emotional Intelligence be developed? 99
information, Intuitiveness can become an important quality for taking appropriate action.
Emotional resilience was originally considered to be a constrainer because aspects of the
elements included the ability to control one’s emotions when under pressure. However,
the effects of high resilience would be to facilitate or enable high performance while a
low score would impede it. Thus, a revision to the Higgs and Dulewicz (1999) model
incorporating these two amendments, and superimposing the distinction between inter-
and intra-personal elements, would appear like this:

Model components EI elements

Driver: Motivation
Constrainer: Conscientiousness
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Intra-personal enablers: Self-awareness

Emotional resilience
Intuitiveness
Inter-personal enablers: Interpersonal sensitivity
Influence

A schematic representation of this revised model appears in Figure 1. This clearly

differentiates between inter- and intra-personal elements and also reflects the importance
of the inter-personal enablers to the link with performance, the other five elements being
channelled through these two.
This revised model also reflects the importance of the intellectual competencies
(IQ for short) and the managerial competencies (MQ). From previous work,
Dulewicz and Higgs (2000a) showed that the IQ competencies cover four broad
categories – analysis and judgement; planning and organizing; perspective and risk

Figure 1 A revised model of Emotional Intelligence, including ‘IQ’ and ‘MQ’

competencies
 100 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
taking and creativity – which all appear to constitute intra-personal qualities. In contrast,
the MQ competencies – supervising others; communicating and achieving results – are
all clearly inter-personal qualities. The above model reflects these relationships.

Hypotheses
The revised model can be tested using the data from the three studies reported in this
paper. Such an analysis could facilitate our understanding of the development
of EI. Therefore, in this study, hypotheses reflecting different combinations of
driver, constrainer, interpersonal and intra-personal elements of EI, and IQ and MQ
competencies, were tested:
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Hypothesis 1: Driver plus interpersonal plus intra-personal elements plus

constrainer will be significantly related to performance.

In the next hypothesis, the constrainer (conscientiousness) is subtracted from the intra-
personal elements because it constitutes a constraining force:

Hypothesis 2: Driver plus interpersonal plus intra-personal elements minus

constrainer will be significantly related to performance.

In the third hypothesis, the IQ and MQ elements are introduced:

Hypothesis 3: Driver plus interpersonal plus MQ plus intra-personal elements plus

IQ plus constrainer will be significantly related to performance.

Developing Emotional Intelligence

The analogy of a vessel containing fluid can be used to illustrate the development of elements
of EI. The overall capacity of some elements could be increased through training by extending
the range of an individual’s skills. This is what the authors refer to as being ‘developable’.
In the original EIQ model (Higgs and Dulewicz, 1999), the enablers fitted into this category.
At the other extreme, some elements appear to be more enduring characteristics, probably
formed earlier in life, and so could be seen as vessels which are fixed in size. Therefore,
experience can increase only the volume of contents within the vessel, not the vessel itself.
This is what is meant by ‘exploiting’ one’s capacity. The elements from the original model
(Higgs and Dulewicz, 1999) seen to be ‘exploitable’ are the drivers and constrainers. Further
research is reported in this paper to test two more hypotheses:

Hypothesis 4: Scores on the enablers will increase over time after development
interventions.

Hypothesis 5: Scores on the drivers and constrainers will not change over time after
development interventions.

In the following section of this paper, the findings will be presented from three studies in
which assessments of Emotional Intelligence have been conducted on separate
occasions, with very different intervening activities between the applications. The results
will provide evidence to test the develop/exploit categorization of elements of Emotional
Intelligence and correlations with performance data will be used to investigate the
hypotheses relating to the revised model of EIQ.
 Dulewicz and Higgs: Can Emotional Intelligence be developed? 101
Method and results of three studies
Three studies were reviewed in order to explore the extent to which Emotional
Intelligence is amenable to development and the relationship of this to the proposed
model of EI. In each study, measures of EI were taken before a specific intervention or
event and then again after a period following the intervention or event. The results of the
initial assessment were not fed back until after the second assessment, although
participants were aware that they were subjects of a study. This procedure followed
‘before and after’ design principles recommended by many researchers (e.g. Wright and
Fowler, 1986; Hair et al., 1995).
In operationalizing the development of EI among participants in each study, a paired
sample t-test was used for comparing groups before and following development
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activities. All analyses were carried out on SPSS for Windows, Version 10. A description
of the three studies and their findings is now presented.

Study 1: retail company

The study reported here was part of a larger study (Slaski and Cartwright, 2002)
examining the relationship between EI, stress, well-being and performance with 224
managers in a large retail organization. It was specifically aimed at evaluating the
efficacy of a programme to develop Emotional Intelligence.

Sample A sample of fifty-nine middle managers completed the EIQ and were selected
to attend the Emotional Intelligence development programme. Their mean age was 36.3
years; thirty-six (61 per cent) were male and fifteen (25.4 per cent) possessed a degree.

Intervention EI training took place one day per week for four weeks with a one-week
break in-between sessions to enable participants to practise and embed previous learning.
It focused on the development of self-awareness, detachment, regulation of emotions,
recognition of emotions in others and the impact of one’s behaviour on others. Training
techniques used were lectures, discussions, videos, exercises, dialogue, role play, diaries
and one-to-one feedback.

Retesting Managers were tested again on EIQ six months after the final day of training.

Performance Ratings of job performance by their line managers on sixteen performance

factors were used as the performance measure in this study (Dulewicz et al., 2003).

Results A paired-sample t-test was applied to the managers’ two sets of EIQ scores and
the results are summarized in Table 1. The full results are reported by Dulewicz et al.
(2003). They found a statistically significant improvement both on the EIQ total score,
and on five of the seven elements at the .001 level (unless stated otherwise, below).
Improvements were found on self-awareness, interpersonal sensitivity, influence
(.01 level), motivation (.01 level) and emotional resilience. The two elements that
showed no improvement over time were intuitiveness and conscientiousness.

Study 2: pharmaceutical company

The team leaders’ study, already cited above (Dulewicz and Higgs, 2000b; 2000c), was
part of a major continuous improvement initiative (Deming, 1993) within the company.
Seventeen projects were set up to address a range of types of problem from ‘soft’ issues
 102 The International Journal of Human Resource Management

Table 1 Paired samples t-test for training-group mean scores and significant differences for the
EIQ and elements pre- and post-EQ training
EIQ elements Mean score pre Mean score post Difference Sig. level
EIQ total 256.6 268.0 11.4 0.01
Self-awareness 46.7 49.6 2.9 0.01
Emotional resilience 37.1 40.3 3.2 0.01
Motivation 37.7 38.9 1.2 0.01
Interpersonal sensitivity 46.7 49.1 2.4 0.01
Influence 36.9 38.2 1.3 0.01
Intuitiveness 24.5 24.8 0.3 n.s.
Conscientiousness 26.9 27.1 0.2 n.s.
Downloaded by [New York University] at 05:40 10 May 2015

Note
ðn ¼ 51Þ:
Source: Dulewicz et al. (2003).

such as communications to ‘hard’ issues such as process yields and control

documentation. Each project was headed by a team leader (TL), who undertook special
CI training to conduct the project. Before this took place, each TL was assessed on
the EIQ. A control group, who also completed the EIQ, was also set up, consisting of
seventeen managers with broadly similar ages and experience, but who did not undertake
any training or lead the special projects.

Sample A sample of twenty-seven was available for retesting, fourteen team leaders
and thirteen from the control croup. Their mean age was 35.7 years; nineteen (70.3 per
cent) were male and a large majority possessed a degree.

Intervention None of the sample undertook any development actions specifically to

improve their Emotional Intelligence during this intervening period, although, as noted,
the experimental group took part in some continuous improvement development
exercises.

Retesting On completion of the project, twenty-seven team leaders and members

of the control group retook the EIQ twelve months after the initial assessment in
January 2000.

Performance The measure of job performance used was a composite of ratings by the
bosses’ boss, the HR director and the CEO (Dulewicz and Higgs, 2000b, 2000c).

Results The results of paired sample t-tests on the team leaders are presented in Table 2.
No difference was found in the overall EIQ score or on six of the elements, but
conscientiousness did show a significant difference (0.01 level), with scores improving
over time (a negative t value reflects an improvement). Further analysis revealed that the
experimental group’s conscientiousness improved significantly while the control group’s
did not. Therefore, the overall difference appeared to be due to increases within the
experimental group.
 Dulewicz and Higgs: Can Emotional Intelligence be developed? 103

Table 2 Paired samples t-test on team leaders’ pre- and post-EIQ

Paired differences t-value Sig. level

Mean SD
Self-awareness 0.19 1.33 0.72 0.48
Emotional resilience 20.26 1.38 2 0.98 0.34
Motivation 20.30 1.14 2 1.35 0.19
Interpersonal sensitivity 0.15 1.10 0.70 0.49
Influence 0.07 1.21 0.32 0.75
Intuitiveness 0.19 1.39 0.69 0.49
Conscientiousness 0.67 1.24 2.79 0.01
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EIQ total 20.07 0.83 2 0.46 0.65

Note
Df ¼ 26.

Study 3: Global Challenge yacht race

The BT Global Challenge round-the-world yacht race covered over 28,000 miles during
a period of ten months from September 2000 over seven separate legs. The twelve yachts
were all identical and each had one skipper, fourteen core crew and three ‘leggers’ who
took part in single legs. The total crew formed two or three ‘watches’, each with its own
leader. The overall aim of the project was to explore the relationship between the EI and
personality factors of skippers and crews, the team dynamics and overall race results
(Dulewicz and Higgs, 2002; Dulewicz et al., 2002).

Sample There were fourteen skippers including two reserves, both of whom took part. One
dropped out after the first leg and was not included in the analysis. Of the thirteen, their mean
age was 31.2 years; eleven were male and a majority possessed a degree. Eleven were from
the UK and two were Australian. Turning to the core crew who took part in all legs, 113 were
tested pre- and post- race. The large majority were from the UK. Thirty-seven crew were
from the boats that finished in the top four and thirty-six in the bottom four.

Intervention No interventions designed specifically to develop Emotional Intelligence

were carried out during the race.

Retesting One area that merited special investigation was the extent to which the
participants’ Emotional Intelligence changed during the race. To do this, the skippers and
core crew completed the EIQ before the start of the race in September 2000 and again at
the end in June 2001.

Performance The performance measure employed in this study was the aggregate
number of points awarded to each boat, the official race result.

Results Individual scores on EIQ before the race and at the end were compared using
paired sample t-tests. Looking first at the skippers (see Table 3), intuitiveness was the
only element to change. The difference was highly significant, at the .003 level and
showed an increase through the race.
The results for the core crew appear in Table 4. Scores on two elements (sensitivity
and influence) actually declined significantly. However, these findings refer to all
 104 The International Journal of Human Resource Management

Table 3 Paired samples t-test on skippers’ pre- and post-race EIQ

Paired differences t Sig. level

Mean SD
Self-awareness 0.00 2.89 0.00 1.00
Emotional resilience 0.92 2.50 1.33 0.21
Motivation 2 0.23 3.24 20.26 0.80
Interpersonal sensitivity 1.15 3.58 1.16 0.27
Influence 2 0.54 2.90 20.68 0.52
Intuitiveness 2.46 2.37 3.75 0.01
Conscientiousness 2 0.31 3.59 20.31 0.76
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EIQ total 2 1.46 12.25 20.43 0.68

Note
Df ¼ 12.

Table 4 Paired samples t-test on crew’s pre- and post-race EIQ

Paired differences t Sig. level

Mean SD
Self-awareness 0.40 4.21 1.01 0.32
Emotional resilience 20.15 4.34 2 0.37 0.71
Motivation 0.17 3.61 0.49 0.62
Interpersonal sensitivity 1.52 4.95 3.27 0.00
Influence 0.73 3.10 2.52 0.01
Intuitiveness 20.07 3.26 2 0.23 0.81
Conscientiousness 0.15 3.27 0.49 0.62
EIQ total 0.35 31.09 0.12 0.90

Note
Df ¼ 112.

Table 5 Paired samples t-test on bottom four crews’ pre- and post-race EIQ
Paired differences t Sig. level

Mean SD
Self-awareness 0.69 3.95 1.06 0.30
Emotional resilience 0.75 4.16 1.08 0.29
Motivation 0.44 3.82 0.70 0.49
Interpersonal sensitivity 2.47 5.39 2.75 0.01
Influence 1.33 3.04 2.63 0.01
Intuitiveness 1.44 3.87 2.24 0.03
Conscientiousness 0.19 3.49 0.33 0.74
EIQ total 20.19 49.09 2 0.02 0.98

Note
Df ¼ 35.
 Dulewicz and Higgs: Can Emotional Intelligence be developed? 105

Table 6 Paired samples t-test on top four crews’ pre- and post-race EIQ
Paired differences t Sig. level

Mean SD
Self-awareness 0.47 4.58 0.64 0.53
Emotional resilience 20.79 4.87 2 1.00 0.32
Motivation 20.21 4.05 2 0.32 0.75
Interpersonal sensitivity 0.34 4.96 0.43 0.67
Influence 0.42 3.48 0.74 0.46
Intuitiveness 1.03 2.39 2.65 0.01
Conscientiousness 20.16 2.68 2 0.36 0.72
Downloaded by [New York University] at 05:40 10 May 2015

EIQ total 20.95 18.69 2 0.31 0.76

Note
Df ¼ 36.

core-crew. When one analyses the top four and bottom four crews separately, a different
picture emerges. As can be seen from Table 5, sensitivity and influence decreased for the
bottom four boats’ crew but remained the same for the top four (see Table 6). However,
the top four crews’ intuitiveness increased while it decreased for the bottom four
(Table 5). Clearly these two results cancelled each other out since the results for the total
crew showed no difference (see Table 4).
Testing the revised model of Emotional Intelligence
The revised model was tested by correlating the overall performance measure used in
each study with various combinations of EI elements, and also ‘IQ’ and ‘MQ’ ratings
available for the team leaders and the BT Global Challenge (BTGC) studies. The results
appear in Table 7 and show no significant correlations between the BTGC race results
and the various combinations of skippers’ scores. This is most probably because so many
factors other than the skippers’ personal qualities had a bearing on the race results.
However, the results from the other two studies, where the overall performance of the
individuals themselves constituted the measure of performance used, were more positive.

Table 7 Correlations between revised Emotional Intelligence model and performance measures in
three studies
Elements of model Study

Retail managers Team leaders BTGC skippers

1 Driver + intra-personal + interpersonal 0.32* 0.65*** 0.01
+ constrainer (hypothesis 1)
2 Driver + intra-personal + interpersonal 0.30* 0.64*** 2 0.26
2 constrainer (hypothesis 2)
3 Driver + intra-personal + IQ + interpersonal # 0.86*** 0.10
+ MQ + constrainer (hypothesis 3)
N 53 27 11

Notes
# Study did not include measures of IQ and MQ.
*** Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level.
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level.
 106 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
The revised model highlights the importance of the interpersonal elements as the interface
between the intra-personal elements and the work environment. When working with others,
the intra-personal elements are brought into play and contribute to performance through the
interpersonal elements, sensitivity and influence. In the first equation, the inter- and intra-
personal elements and the driver and constrainer were aggregated and then correlated with
performance. Row 1 presents the correlation co-efficients, two of which are statistically
significant. Thus, this additive model of the elements was statistically significantly related to
performance in both the retail and team leader studies.
A variant of the model was then tested, in which a negative weighting was applied to
conscientiousness in order to reflect the fact that this is seen as a constrainer. Results for this
model – which consists of the driver plus intra-personal elements plus interpersonal
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elements minus conscientiousness (hypothesis 2) – appear in Row 2. This shows statistically

significant correlations with performance in the retail and team leaders’ studies.
In the team leader and Global Challenge studies, in which IQ and MQ scores were
available, the IQ score was added to the intra-personal elements and the MQ score to the
interpersonal elements. The results for the model – which consists of the driver plus
intra-personal elements plus IQ plus interpersonal elements plus MQ plus
conscientiousness (hypothesis 3) – are presented in Row 3. Highly significant
correlations (at the .001 level) were found in the team leaders’ study.

Discussion
Within the overall debate on the nature of Emotional Intelligence, there has been
considerable discussion around the issue of the extent to which EI can be developed. In broad
terms there is an emerging consensus that EI is developable, but with differing views on the
extent of development possible (Goleman, 1996, 1998; Higgs and Dulewicz, 1999; Steiner,
1997; Höpfl and Linstead, 1997; Cooper, 1997; Martinez, 1997). Higgs and Dulewicz
(1999), in their original model of Emotional Intelligence (above) had proposed that some
elements are more readily developable than others. They proposed that the ‘enablers’ are
more amenable to development than the ‘constrainers’ or ‘drivers’. The results of the retail
study provide partial support for this proposition, in that all three enablers in their original
model – self-awareness and the interpersonal elements, sensitivity and influence – showed
highly significant improvements while intuitiveness (originally a driver) and conscientious-
ness (a constrainer), as expected, did not show a significant difference in the pre- and post-
training assessments. However, while an improvement had been expected on the enablers,
even after only a short course, it had not been expected on motivation (a driver) and
emotional resilience (originally a constrainer).
Further support for the proposition that EI can be developed is provided by Dulewicz
et al. (2003). From an analysis of EQ-i data gathered in the retail study described above,
they found improvements in EQ-i scores, based on a comparison of the scores of a
‘training’ group and a control group before and after the ‘training’ group had attended the
Emotional Intelligence course described above. Table 8 shows those EQ-i factors that had
improved after training and the equivalent EIQ elements. Interestingly, the majority of the
EQ-i factors which did not change (independence, social responsibility, reality testing,
problem solving, stress management, impulse control) could be seen to be conceptually
aligned to the drivers and constrainers in the Higgs and Dulewicz (1999) model.
The team leaders in the pharmaceutical company study took the EIQ on two occasions
twelve months apart. No differences were found on the overall EIQ score or on six of the
elements. However, conscientiousness did show a significant difference, with scores
improving over time. As noted above, the experimental group’s conscientiousness
 Dulewicz and Higgs: Can Emotional Intelligence be developed? 107

Table 8 Summary of Emotional Intelligence elements measured by the EQ-i and the EIQ which
improved after training
EQ-i Equivalent EIQ elements
Intra-personal component
1. Emotional self-awareness
(no significant change)
2. Assertiveness Influence
3. Self-regard Self-awareness
4. Self-actualization Motivation
5. Independence
(no significant change)
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Inter-personal component
6. Empathy Interpersonal sensitivity
7. Social responsibility
(no significant change)
8. Inter-personal relationships Sensitivity and influence
Adaptability component
9. Reality testing
(no significant change)
10. Flexibility No equivalent element
11. Problem solving
(no significant change)
Stress management component
12. Stress tolerance Self-awareness and resilience
13. Impulse control
(no significant change)
General mood component
14. Optimism
(no significant change)
15. Happiness Self-awareness and resilience

Source: Dulewicz et al. (2003)

improved significantly while the control group’s did not. Therefore, the overall
difference was probably due to changes within the experimental group. They were
initially selected to lead a number of special projects as part of a ‘total quality’
continuous improvement initiative and so it is likely that they were focusing on
conscientious performance.
In the Global Challenge study, the skippers’ EIQ scores on intuitiveness increased
through the race. This is perhaps not surprising since the pressures and other demands
made on them throughout the race would have probably encouraged them to make ever-
more decisions based on intuitiveness as the race progressed. There would often have
been little time to make more considered rigorous, rational decisions based on hard data.
Turning to the core crew, their scores on two elements (sensitivity and influence)
actually declined significantly, although there were differences between the top four and
bottom four boats’ crews. Sensitivity and influence decreased for the bottom four but
remained the same for the top four. Intuitiveness, however, increased for the top four, as
found with the skippers, but decreased for the bottom four. Clearly, these two results
cancelled each other out since the results for the total crew had shown no difference.
 108 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
Thus, the intuitiveness of skippers and successful crew improved but, not surprisingly,
there were no other improvements in EI since no systematic intervention (i.e. EI training)
occurred during the race, and skippers and watch leaders were probably in no position to
coach their crew in Emotional Intelligence.
It is interesting to note that the two EIQ elements which did not show improvements
after EI training in the retail study (conscientiousness and intuitiveness) were found to
improve with team leaders, and with skippers and top four crews respectively, in very
different circumstances. Being drivers and constrainers in the original model, they were
probably more difficult to develop, so it is possible that the change was due to the
individuals maximizing their potential in these areas when under pressure and the impact
of a somewhat extreme situation over a significant period of time.
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As noted in the introduction above, Goleman (1996) stated that, while Emotional
Intelligence is amenable to development, it is interventions during childhood which are
most effective. Indeed, he had some doubts about the efficacy of learning interventions at
later stages in life, although his views had changed in his second book in which he
proposes a number of broad principles to develop EI (Goleman, 1998: 244–5). Höpfl and
Linstead (1997) consider that the core capabilities are developed within childhood but
these are malleable and thus capable of being developed and changed; furthermore,
workplace experiences have a significant impact on this shaping process. Combining the
findings reported above with these views, the seven elements could be seen to lie on a
development continuum ranging from ‘easily developable, malleable’ (enablers) through
to ‘difficult to develop’, need to exploit one’s capacity formed earlier in life (some
drivers and constrainers). In this research, unusual work or other (i.e. sailing) experiences
most probably forced or encouraged some individuals to exploit their existing capacities
for conscientiousness and intuitiveness. The results of the retail study, which had
incorporated EI training, showed that the enablers were improved, as predicted, but also
that the capacity for motivation and resilience could be fully exploited by appropriate
development action.
The analyses conducted to test the revised model of Emotional Intelligence (Table 7)
provide fairly strong support. Two hypotheses (H1 and H2) to test the model ‘“intra
plus/minus conscientious” plus interpersonal elements’ are supported in two of the three
studies with the positive weighting of conscientiousness producing marginally larger
coefficients than the negative weighting. Furthermore, the team leader study supported
the hypothesis (H3) that included IQ as an intra-personal element and MQ as an
inter-personal element (Row 3). A substantial increase in the size of the correlations was
found compared to those found with the EI elements alone (Rows 1 and 2).
The implications of the results on changes in EI vary between studies for different EI
elements. One hypothesis (H4), that the original enablers – self-awareness, influence and
sensitivity – will have improved after development action, was confirmed. Using the
vessel analogy presented above, their overall capacity could be seen to have increased
through training. The final hypothesis (H5), that the original driver and enablers’ scores
will not improve over time, was supported in part. Intuitiveness and conscientiousness,
which did not improve after training, but did after team leadership and sailing
experiences, can be seen as vessels which are fixed in size so that experience can only
increase the volume of contents within the vessel. However, results from the above
studies show that intuitiveness and conscientiousness can be improved through
experience, i.e. team leaders, and skippers and successful crews in their race. This is what
is meant by ‘exploiting’ one’s capacity. The other two elements, emotional resilience and
motivation, which had previously been considered to be ‘exploitable’ but which showed
improvements after training, probably lie between these two extremes. A reformulated
 Dulewicz and Higgs: Can Emotional Intelligence be developed? 109

Table 9 The ‘develop –exploit’ continuum for EIQ elements

EIQ elements Develop ˆ ––––– ! Exploit
Intra-personal enablers
Self-awareness U
Emotional resilience U
Intuitiveness U
Interpersonal enablers
Interpersonal sensitivity U
Influence U
Driver
Motivation U
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Constrainer
Conscientiousness U

overview of development action incorporating a continuum of develop –exploit is shown

in Table 9. However, further research is needed to confirm these propositions.
Nevertheless, there is certainly support for the proposition that EI is, to a certain extent,
developable. This has implications for organizations in terms of the nature and design of
development activities. Given the evidence that EI is related to job performance, it would
seem reasonable to propose that organizations should introduce programmes and
processes designed to develop the Emotional Intelligence of their employees.

Summary and conclusions

The main finding from this study is that there is evidence to support the widely held
belief that Emotional Intelligence is capable of being developed. In particular, the
hypothesis that the ‘enabler’ elements of Emotional Intelligence can be developed after
relevant training action was borne out by the improvement of scores observed
after training. The two studies without a specific EI training intervention showed more
limited changes, even with the enablers. Second, Higgs and Dulewicz’s (1999) model of
Emotional Intelligence has been revised, in part, to take account of both these findings
and the distinction between inter- and intra-personal elements. Results from two of the
studies provide some support for the new model. Third, in an attempt to explain these
findings, a ‘vessel’ analogy has been put forward in an attempt to explain why some
elements appear to be more amenable to development than others, which are considered
to be ‘exploitable’.
The study inevitably had some limitations. The sample sizes could be seen to be
relatively small but nevertheless acceptable compared to many other similar studies
involving managers or professionals. However, further research is required on the revised
model and on the effects of EI training, in particular on the ‘develop– exploit’ continuum.
Finally, future studies of the development of Emotional Intelligence ideally should focus
on longer-term programmes and involve groups other than managers.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Andrea Bacon, Rosie Mackie, Peter Shields and
Dr Mark Slaski for their contributions to the three studies cited.
 110 The International Journal of Human Resource Management
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