----Introduction----

Volcano

-A volcano is an opening in the Earth’s crust that allows magma, ash, and
gasses to erupt from below the surface. It is made up of a magma chamber,
a vent, a crater, and a cone shaped mountain made of layers of ash and
lava. They can be active (still erupting), dormant (quiet but might erupt
again), or extinct (won’t erupt anymore).

Fun fact: The word "volcano" comes from the name of the Roman god of fire,
Vulcan.

Formation of a Volcano

- Volcanoes are formed through geological processes involving the

movement of Earth's tectonic plates and the behaviour of molten rock, or
magma, beneath the surface.

1. Tectonic Plate Movements

Volcanoes are commonly formed at:

• Convergent Boundaries (Subduction Zones): When two tectonic plates

collide, one plate (usually oceanic) is forced under the other (continental or
oceanic) into the mantle.

• As the subducted plate melts due to high pressure and heat, magma forms
and rises to the surface, creating volcanoes.

Example: The Pacific Ring of Fire.

• Divergent Boundaries: When tectonic plates move apart, magma rises to

fill the gap, forming new crust.

Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

• Hotspots: Volcanoes can also form away from plate boundaries over
hotspots, where plumes of hot magma rise from deep within the mantle.

Example: Hawaiian Islands.

2. Magma Formation

• Heat and pressure cause rocks in the mantle to melt, forming magma.
• Magma is less dense than the surrounding rock, so it rises toward the
Earth's surface.

3. Eruption and Formation

• When magma reaches the surface, it erupts as lava, ash, and gases.

• Repeated eruptions build up layers of lava and ash, creating the

characteristic cone-shaped volcano.

Once magma reaches the surface, it's called lava. The type of lava that
reaches the surface determines the type of volcano that forms. For example,
composite volcanoes, cinder cone volcanoes, and shield volcanoes are all
created by different mixtures of lava.

• Can volcanoes form anywhere?

The Case of Underwater Volcanoes

There are three main types of submarine volcanoes, including those at

spreading centers, subduction zones, and hotspot volcanoes.

At spreading centers, where two tectonic plates move apart from one
another, basalt lava can rise out from beneath the seafloor. The basalt flows
at these locations often have a distinctive “pillow” shape, but can also
appear smooth depending on the speed and viscosity of the flow.

Submarine volcanoes also occur at subduction zones, where two tectonic

plates collide, and one is pushed underneath the other and re-melted. The
primary rock here is andesite, which produces a lava with high viscosity and
high gas content. This lava is associated with very violent eruptions, though
much of their explosiveness is dampened by the depths at which they occur.

The third type of volcano is a hot spot volcano. These occur as a

consequence of a magma plume rising through the Earth’s crust overlying an
area of melting in the Earth’s mantle. These eruptions often lead to chains of
volcanic islands and seamounts that are older with increased distance from
the surface location of the rising magma plume.

Fun Facts: There are many more volcanoes on ocean floor than land surface;
Underwater volcanoes can create islands

Classifying Volcanoes Based on PHILVOLCS System

-Active
-Inactive

-Dormant

ACTIVE VOLCANO

- is a volcano that has atleast one eruption during the past 10,000 year. An
active volcano might be erupting or dormant. An erupting volcano is an
active volcano that is having an eruption.

INACTIVE VOLCANO

- an inactive volcano is one that could erupt but has not erupted for more
that 10,000 years. Inactive volcanoes are also called extinct or sleeping
volcanoes.

Inactive volcanoes are expected to erupt again at some point, despite being
dormant for thousand of years. Volcanoes with no record of eruptions are
considered as extinct or inactive. Their physical form since their last activity
has been altered by agents of weathering and erosion with the formation of
deep and long gullies.

DORMANT VOLCANO

- Dormant volcanoes are the volcanoes that have not erupted in a long time
but are expected to erupt again in the future.

Classifying Volcanoes Based on their Cones

- Shield Volcano

- Composite volcano

-Cinder cone volcano

SHIELD VOLCANO
- are formed by the pile-up of non-viscous lava that oozes out from the
volcano. Since lava can flow freely, a broad, slightly domed structure is
formed that resembles like a warrior's shield.

COMPOSITE VOLCANO

- are formed due to alternating solidification of both lava and pyroclastic

deposites which make it nearly a perfect sloped structure. Pyroclastic flows
occur when these volcanoes erupt.

CINDER CONE VOLCANO

- are formed from altering ejected lava fragments and ash. They have a
steep slope, wide crater on top and are the most abundant of the three major
volcano types. Although small, they are also destructive since they release
high amounts of pyroclastic materials.

----Parts of a Volcano----

External Parts of a Volcano:

1. Summit – is the highest point or the apex of the volcano. At the summit
there is an opening which may either be a crater or a caldera.

(A crater is a funnel-shaped opening at the top of a volcano, while caldera is

formed when a part of the wall collapses following an explosive eruption.)

2. Slopes – are the sides or flanks of a volcano that radiate from the main or
central vent.

3. Base – is a lower outer part of the volcano.

Other Geologic Features of a Volcano:

Magma – a molten rock beneath the Earth’s surface.

Magma Chamber – is a region beneath the vent of a volcano where molten

rock or magma is deposited or stored before eruption.

Conduit – is an underground central tube-like or pipe-like structure of a

volcano that connects the magma chamber to the crater through which the
magma travels.
Secondary Vent – is a pathway where magma reaches the earth’s surface
without going through the main vent.

Sill – is a flat piece of rock formed when magma hardens in a crack in a

volcano.

Throat – is the entrance of a volcano. It is a part of the conduit that ejects

lava and volcanic ash.

Main vent – a volcano’s main vent is the weak point in the Earth’s crust
where hot magma has been able to rise from the magma chamber and reach
the surface. The familiar cone-shape of many volcanoes are an indication of
this, the point at which ash, rock and lava ejected during an eruption fall
back to Earth around the vent to form a protrusion.

Parasitic Cone – is a small cone-shaped volcano formed by an accumulation

of volcanic debris.

Lava – is a molten rock which is given off onto the surface of the Earth when
a volcano erupts.

Ash and Gas Cloud – is a mixture of rock, minerals, glass particles, and gases
expelled or pushed out of the volcano during volcanic eruption.

Fun fact: Ash from volcanoes can spark lightning

----Types of Volcanic Eruption: Inside POV----

Magma’s Viscosity

The emissions of a volcano provide us with clues on what materials are found
inside the Earth. Some eruptions are very explosive, while many others are
not.

There are primary factors affecting the volcanoes' eruptive style, namely: the
magma's temperature, its chemical composition, and the amount of
dissolved gases it contains. These factors can affect the magma's viscosity in
different ways. Viscosity is the property of the material's resistance to flow. It
is also described as the liquid's thickness and stickiness. The more viscous
and thicker the material is, the greater is its resistance to flow.

The viscosity of magma decreases with temperature. The higher the

temperature of magma is, the lower its viscosity is. As lava flows, it cools and
begins to harden, its ability to flow decreases and eventually stops.
Magmas with high silica content are more viscous than those with low silica
content. The magma that contains less silica is relatively fluid and travels far
before solidifying.

Lastly, the amount of gases contained in the magma affects its viscosity.
Other factors being equal, gas (mainly water vapor) dissolved in magma
tends to increase its ability to flow. Therefore, in near-surface environments,
the loss of gases makes magma more viscous, forming a dome or a columnar

Types:

1. Phreatic or Hydrothermal

- phreatic eruption is made up of steam-driven explosions that occur when

water beneath the ground or on the surface is heated by volcanic activity.
The water, once heated, begins to boil or can even flash straight to steam,
causing an explosion
2. Phreatomagmatic

- Phreatomagmatic eruptions are volcanic eruptions resulting from

interaction between magma and water. They differ from exclusively
magmatic eruptions and phreatic eruptions. Unlike phreatic eruptions, the
products of phreatomagmatic eruptions contain juvenile clasts.

3. Strombolian eruptions

-are moderately explosive eruptions of basaltic magma with moderate gas

content. Strombolian eruptions consist of intermittent, discrete explosive
bursts which eject pyroclasts as high as hundreds of feet into the air in
firework-like incandescent rooster-tails.

4. Vulcanian Eruption

- Vulcanian eruptions usually consist of small volumes of magma, but form

vigorous eruption columns made up of highly fragmented ash. These
eruption columns may be dark in color and rise to moderate heights. Large
blocks and bombs, including breadcrust bombs, may be ejected during the
eruption.

5. Plinian Eruption

- A Plinian eruption is a powerful volcanic eruption that produces a massive

column of ash and gas that can extend tens of miles into the stratosphere.
These eruptions are named after Pliny the Younger, who described the
eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD.