Nuclear Physics

Nuclear Physics comprises the study of:

• The general properties of nuclei

• The particles contained in the nucleus
• The interaction between these particles
• Radioactivity and nuclear reactions
• Practical applications of nuclear phenomena:
Medical radio-isotopes (imaging &
therapy) Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI) Identification of materials (NAA,
AMS) Dating of materials
Power generation (fusion and fission)
Weapons of mass destruction (WMD)
 Properties of
Every atom contains at its center an extremely dense,
positively charged nucleus, which is much smaller than the
overall size of the atom, but contains most of its total mass.
The nucleus is made of protons and neutrons
Protons have positive electric charge
Neutrons have no electrical charge

Z = number of protons(atomic number) N = number of neutrons

16O
8
 A ZO
A = Z+N(mass number)

Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons

but different number of neutrons. Isotopes have similar
chemical properties, and different physical properties.
Isotope A Z N Atomic Mass (u) Abundance

12
6C 12 6 6 12.000000 98.90%
13
6C 13 6 7 13.003355 1.10%

[The chemical atomic weight of carbon is 12.011 u]

14
6C 14 6 8 14.003242 Radioactive

[146C decays by - emission with Half-Life 5730 y]

 Nuclear Size and

The radii of most nuclei is given by the equation:

1/3
R = R0 A
R: radius of the nucleus, A: mass number, R0 = 1.2x10-15 m

The mass of a nucleus is given by:

m=Au

u = 1.66…x10-27 kg (unified mass unit)

 Nuclear
56
2
Fe is the most abundant isotope of iron (91.7%)
R = 1.2x10-15 m (56)1/3 = 4.6x10-15 m
[Compare with inter-atomic separations  0.1x10-9 – 0.3x10-9 m]
V = 4/3  R3 = 4.1x10-43 m3
m = (56) 1.66x10-27 kg = 9.3x10-26 kg
 = m / V = 2.3x1017 kg/m3
[Compare with the density of solid iron  7x103 kg/m3]

Since: m = A u and R = R0 A1/3

 = m / V = u / (4/3  R03)  constant
All nuclei have approximately the same density
 Nuclear Binding

The total rest energy of the separated nucleons

is greater than the rest energy of the nucleus.

The difference is called the Binding Energy EB

EB is a measure of the energy gained in forming

the nucleus from the individual nucleons

Note that A M is the mass of the neutral atom

A containing
2 the
EZ B = (Z MH + N mN – ZM) c
nucleus, and MH refers to theA mass of hydrogen (to balance
the Z electrons contained in M)
Z
 Binding Energy per

The binding energy per nucleon EB/A is nearly constant as a

function of A, suggesting that the nuclear force is saturated
(a nucleon interacts only with its nearest neighbors).
 The Nuclear

The force that binds together protons and neutrons

inside the nucleus is called the Nuclear Force

Some characteristics of the nuclear force are:

• It does not depend on charge

• It is very short range  10-15 m
• It is much stronger than the electric force
• It is saturated (nucleons interact only with near neighbors)
• It favors formation of pairs of nucleons with opposite spins

We do not have a simple equation to describe the nuclear

 The Nuclear
force
 Nuclear

The energy of a group of nucleons in a square well ( a reasonable

first approximation to a nucleus) is smaller if Z  N. For large
values of A we need N  Z to compensate for the electric force
Nuclear

Plot of N vs. Z for known nuclides.

The stable nuclides are indicated

by the black dots.

Non-stable nuclides decay by

emission of particles, or
electromagnetic radiation,
in a process called radioactivity
 Radioactivit
Alpha Decay: nuclei that are too large to be stable tend to decay by
alpha decay, the emission of an alpha particle.
[An alpha particle is the 4He nucleus, two protons and two neutrons]
238
92U  234 Th + 

Gamma Decay: the energy of internal motion (protons and neutrons

in a nucleus is quantized. A nucleus has a set of
allowed energy states (ground state and excited
states) much like in an atom. Transitions between
states lead to the emission of very energetic
electromagnetic radiation called  (gamma) rays

238 U *  238 U + 
92 92
 Radioactivit

Beta Decay: consist in a) the emission of an electron - , b) the

emission of a positron +, or c) electron capture.

a) Nuclides with neutron to proton ratio too large for

stability tend to decay by conversion of a neutron into a
proton, an electron and an antineutrino: n  p + - + 
b) Nuclides with proton to neutron ratio too large for
stability tend to decay by conversion of a proton into a
neutron, a positron, and a neutrino: p  n + + + 
c) In certain cases an orbital electron can combine with
a proton in the nucleus to form a neutron and a neutrino:
p + -  n + 
 Radioactivit

Radioactive decay is a statistical process. There is now way to

predict when an individual nucleus will decay. However, it is
possible to predict the decay rate of a group of nuclei.

If the initial number of radioactive nuclei at time t = 0 is N0,

then the number of remaining nuclei at time t is given by:

N(t) = N0 exp(-t)
The constant  is called the decay constant and can be interpreted
as the probability per unit time that a nucleus will decay
 Radioactivit

The Half-Life T1/2 is the time required for the number of

radioactive nuclei to decrease to half the initial value N0
N0/2 = N0 exp(-T1/2)  T1/2 = ln 2 / 

The mean lifetime Tmean, or lifetime, is the

time required for the number of radioactive t1/2 ≡ T1/2
nuclei to decrease to 1/e of the initial value N0  ≡ Tmean
Tmean = 1  Tmean = 1 / 

The number of decays per unit time dN/dt is

the activity of a sample, and is measured in
Curie (Ci)  1 Ci = 3.7x1010 decays/second
238
U decay series
 14
C Dating

Radioactive 14C is continuously produced in the atmosphere

[14N(n,p)14C, the neutrons being produced by cosmic rays].

14
C decays by - emission with half life T 1/2 = 5730 y

14
C  14N + - + 

The chemical activity of 14C is similar to that of 12C, so living

organisms have the same 14C /12C ratio as in the atmosphere,
which is about 1.35x10-12.

When an organism dies it stops absorbing 14C, and the ratio

14
C /12C decreases. Measurement of this ratio allows the
calculation of the time of death of the organism.
 Nuclear

A nuclear reaction is a rearrangement of nuclear

components induced by particle bombardment

4 14 17 1
2 He + 7
N  O
8
+ H
1

14 17
7 N(,p) O
8

Nuclear reactions are subject to the following

conservation laws:
Charge
Momentum and angular momentum
Energy
Total number of nucleons
 Nuclear
Some nuclear reactions release energy, while
other reactions require input energy to proceed
The amount of energy released or absorbed in a nuclear reaction
(in the center of mass reference frame) is called the Q value, or
reaction energy:

In a reaction: MA + MB  MC + MD
If MA + MB Q
>M C + AM
= (M B Q
+DM -M> C0-Mexoergic
D) c
2 reaction
If MA + MB < MC + MD  Q < 0  endoergic
reaction

An endoergic reaction will not proceed unless the incoming particle

provides the reaction energy Q (in CM)
Particle Induced Nuclear Reactions: are used mostly
for nuclear physics research, and for analytical purposes

The reaction 7Li(p,)4He can be used to

detect Li in solids [1-2 MeV protons]
 Neutron Induced Nuclear Reactions

Nuclear reactions induced by neutron bombardment are used:

a) In analytical techniques such as neutron activation analysis
b) In the generation of energy by Fission or Fusion

It is convenient to distinguish between fast and slow neutrons

Fast neutron  kinetic energy  1 MeV
Slow neutron or thermal neutron  kinetic energy ~ 0.025 eV

The probability for a reaction to proceed or Cross Section

depends strongly on the energy of the neutrons
 Neutron Activation Analysis

Low energy neutrons are likely to be captured by nuclei, with

emission of radiation from the excited nucleus, as in X(n,)Y.
The emitted radiation is a signature for the presence of element
X

Various layers of a painting are revealed using NAA

 Fission and Fusion

Binding energy per nucleon The binding energy per nucleon

peaks for A ~ 70, then:
a) splitting a large mass nucleus
into two medium mass nuclei
(fission), or
b) fusing two low mass nuclei
into a larger mass nucleus
(fusion)
result in the release of energy.
 Fission
Uranium has two main isotopes:
238
U with an abundance of 99.3%
235
U with an abundance of 0.7%

When 235U captures a thermal,

or low energy, neutron it forms
236
U that decays by undergoing
fission (85% of the time)
n + 235U  141Ba + 92Kr + 3n

There is about 1 MeV per nucleon higher binding energy in the

products of the reaction than in the Uranium. As a consequence,
more that 200 MeV of energy are liberated in this reaction.
Furthermore, the emitted neutrons can induce additional fission
 Chain Fission

To sustain a chain reaction

one of the emitted neutrons
must be captured by another
235
U nucleus

The reproduction constant k

is the average number of
neutrons from each fission
that cause subsequent fission

k < 1  the reaction will die out

k  1  the reaction will be sustained (nuclear reactor)
k > 1  the reaction will run away (nuclear bomb)
 Nuclear Fission

Fission of 235U is most likely for low energy neutrons. The neutrons
emitted in fission are more energetic so they need to be slowed down
by means of a moderator (water, graphite) placed in between the fuel
rods. Control rods, of Cadmium or other materials, are further used to
regulate the number of fission inducing neutrons
 Fusio

In fusion, two light nuclei such as deuterium 2H and tritium 3H

fuse together to form a heavier nucleus:
2
H + 3H  4He + n + 17.6 MeV

The energy released per nucleon is larger than that released in fission

The production of power from fusion of light nuclei holds great

promise because of the relative abundance of fuel, and the absence
of some of the dangers inherent in fission.

However, the technology necessary to make fusion practical, has

not been developed yet.
 Fusio

The proton – proton cycle,

resulting in the formation
of 4He, and the release of
considerable energy, is the
primary source of the sun’s
energy

In practice it is very difficult to generate the necessary density

of super-hot gas (T > 107 K - plasma), and keep it confined, to
facilitate the fusion process.