9/15/2024

Chapter 2

Electric Circuit 1
AC Fundamentals

An AC circuit consists of a combination of

circuit elements and an AC generator or source

1
 9/15/2024

Electric waveforms
Circuits with alternating current (AC) are functions whose
values vary in both magnitude and direction

Current flow
The current flow in DC circuits is always in the same
direction;
In AC circuits the direction of the charge flow
changes with time. In other words, the
electric charges in AC circuits vibrate around their
initial place.

2
 9/15/2024

Skin effect
The density of the electric charge flow in DC circuits is
the same in the whole volume of a conductor
The density of the electric charge flow in AC circuit
decreases exponentially in depth,
This means that the resistance of the conductors for DC
and AC are not the same and could be
significantly different for very high frequencies .

Sinusoidal waveform
The most commonly used waveform is the sinusoidal one.
Suppose A (t ) is a sinusoidal waveform:
A (t)=Аm.sin(ωt +φ)
where Am is the amplitude – it is the minimal and maximal
value of the waveform; is the root mean square
(RMS), also called effective value;
ω=2.π .f is the angular frequency of the waveform. It is
measured in rad .s-1 ;
φ is the phase shift in degrees or radians that the waveform
has shifted left or right from the reference point ( t=0 ).
When φ=0 we say that the waveform is in phase. When φ>0
or φ<0 the phase is positive or negative respectively

3
 9/15/2024

Consider the current and

voltage of a branch are:

If φ<0 then the current leads the voltage by φ;

If φ=0 then the current and voltage are “in phase”

4
 9/15/2024

The waveforms are characterized with a couple of quantities:

The period (T) is the length of time that the waveform takes
to repeat itself from start to finish. The unit for is second.
The frequency (f) is the number of times the waveform
repeats itself within a one second period:

The unit for frequency is Hertz (Hz).

The amplitude A is the magnitude or intensity of the signal
waveform. The unit of the amplitude depends on the quantity
being described: for current it’s amps and for voltage – volts.
Consider the sinusoidal voltage
Vm is amplitude, ω is the angular frequency in radian/s,
ωt is the argument of the sinusoid, and
φ is the phase angle in degrees

Amplitude (Em):
The amplitude of a sine
wave is the distance from
its average to its peak.
Peak-to-Peak Value (Ep-p):
It is measured between minimum and
maximum peaks.
Peak Value
The peak value of a voltage or
current is its maximum value with
respect to zero.
In this figure : Peak voltage = E + Em

5
 9/15/2024

Sinusoidal Sources

Amplitude
Period = 1/f

Phase angle

Angular or radian
frequency = 2pf = 2p/T Sinusoidal voltage source
vs  Vm sin(t  ).
Angular Velocity (ω)
The rate at which the generator coil rotates is called its angular velocity

For Conversion:

Frequency:
The number of cycles per second of a waveform is defined

Frequency is denoted by the lower-case letter f.

In the SI system, its unit is the hertz (Hz)

6
 9/15/2024

Relationship between ω, T, and f

 When you know the angular velocity of a coil and the
length of time that it has rotated, you can compute the
angle through which it has turned using:

 one cycle of sine wave may be represented as either:

Substituting
these into:

Sinusoids and phasors

As can be seen when the time is t=0 the vector is rotated at
0° , 180° and 360° .
Similarly when A (t) has a maximum ( +Am ) the vector is
rotated at 90° and when A (t) has a minimum ( -Am ) – the
vector is rotated at -90° .

7
 9/15/2024

Consider the current and voltage

of a branch are:
v (t )=V m.sin(ωt )
i(t )=Im.sin (ωt-30°)
The current lags the voltage by
φ=30°.
Then the phasor diagram of the
two vectors for t=0 is presented
in b.
In time the two vectors rotate
fig.c together with angular
frequency ω however the
current vector will continue to
lag the voltage by 30°

8
 9/15/2024

Attributes of Periodic Waveforms

Amplitude , Peak-Value, and Peak-to-Peak Value
Amplitude (Em):
The amplitude of a sine wave is the distance
from its average to its peak.

Peak-to-Peak Value (Ep-p):

It is measured between minimum and maximum peaks.

Peak Value
The peak value of a voltage or current is its maximum
value with respect to zero.

In this figure : Peak voltage = E + Em

•Root-Mean-Square Values or Effective Values

Average value: Arithmetic average of all values in one half-
cycle (the full cycle average = 0).
Root-Mean-Square (RMS) or Effective Value: Relates the
amount of a sine wave of voltage or current to the DC
values that will produce the same heating effect.
T

 v t dt
1 T
 1
 t dt
2
Vrms
T I rms  i 2

0 T0

2
Vrms
Pavg  Pavg  I rms
2
R
R Average Power

9
 9/15/2024

The Sine Wave

• Characteristics of the Sine-Wave AC Waveform:

– The cycle includes 360° or 2π rad.
– The polarity reverses each half-cycle.
– The maximum values are at 90° and 270°.
– The zero values are at 0° and 180°.
– The waveform changes its values the fastest when it
crosses the zero axis.
– The waveform changes its values the slowest when it
is at its maximum value.

Phasors
A phasor is a complex number that represents the
amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors,
which are more convenient to work with than sine
and cosine functions.
A complex number z can be written in the one of the
following forms.

10
 9/15/2024

Arithmetic operations

I is thus the phasor representation of the sinusoid v(t).

In other words, a phasor is a complex representation of
the magnitude and phase of a sinusoid.

11
9/15/2024

12
 9/15/2024

Sinusoidal Response For Circuit Elements

1- (Resistors)
• When a sine wave of alternating voltage is connected
across a load resistance, the current that flows in the
circuit is also a sine wave.
• The sine wave frequency of an alternating voltage is
the same as the alternating current through a series
connected load resistance.

phase difference is φ =0 which means that vR (t) and iR (t )

are in phase

13
 9/15/2024

•Resistance

In phase

phase difference is φ=0 which means that vR (t) and iR (t )

are in phase

•Sinusoidal response of Inductance

• Relationship between voltage and current

V, i have the same frequency，

i L lag VL by 90o i
u π 2π
0 ωt

14
 9/15/2024

•Sinusoidal response of Inductance

Vm   LI m  Vrms   LI rms
Inductive Reactance Ώ
Definition

U rms U m
XL     L  2p fL
I rms Im
The terms jωL called impedance measured in
ohm (Z) Z = / It is a vector

•Sinusoidal response of Inductance

• Relationship between voltage and current

V, i have the same frequency，

i L lag VL by 90o i
u π 2π
0 ωt

15
 9/15/2024

•Complex Impedances
Two-
I
terminal +
circuit of
zero
sources
V
-

Complex Impedance
V V Ψ v V
Z    (Ψ v  Ψ i )  Z  
I I Ψ i I
V   Ψ v Ψi
Magnitude Z  Angle
I

16
9/15/2024

17
 9/15/2024

•Sinusoidal response of capacitance

•Relationship between voltage and current
I m   CVm  2p fCVm i
 I rms   CV rms  2p fCV rms
v C

Definition

Vrms U m 1 1
XC    
I rms I m  C 2p fC

•Sinusoidal response of Capacitance

The terms 1/jωC called impedance measured in
ohm (Z) Z = / It is a vector

18
 9/15/2024

•Complex Impedances of R L C
VR
R : ZR  R | Z R | R  0
IR

VL
 j  L  j X L | Z L |  L p
L : ZL  
IL 2

V 1 1 p
C: ZC  C    j XC | Z C |  
I C j C C 2

•Summary
ele Relationship
Ohm’s Complex Phasors
me circuit between u
impedance diagram
nt and i Law
i
U  
R v R v  Ri U  R I R  I U
I

U
i

di   U
L
v L v L U  jX L I jX L  
dt I I

i
dv   U I
C
v C iC U   jX C I  jX C   
dt I U

19
 9/15/2024

•The Laws of Phasor Form

(KCL)： i  0  I  0

(KVL)： v  0 V  0

(Ohm)： v  iR V  IZ

•Complex Impedances in Series

I
I
+ +
V1 Z1 +
V –
+ V Z
V2 Z2 –
– –

Equivalent Impedance Zeq =Z1+Z2

Z1 Z2
V1  V V2  V
Voltage-Divider Z1  Z 2 Z1  Z 2

20
 9/15/2024

•Complex Impedances in Parallel

I
I
+ I1 I2
+
V Z1 Z2 V Z
–
–
1 1 1
 
Equivalent Impedance Z Z1 Z 2
eq

Z2  Z1 
Current-Divider I1  I I2  I
Z1  Z 2 Z1  Z 2

Phasor Diagram of a Sinusoidal

Waveform

21
 9/15/2024

Example v  3cos3t
i  2sin(3t  10)
Find their phase relationship
 sin t  sin( t  p )
 i  2sin(3t  180  10)
and

Therefore the current leads the

voltage by 100

22