1

Blast Loads on Buildings

uOttawa.ca
 2

Introduction
❑ We now have a good idea of the pressures generated by an explosion. Before
designing the structure, we must first conduct a blast load analysis
❑ The first step towards blast load analysis is to determine the blast loads. This
requires the establishment of the following parameters:
▪ TNT-equivalent weight of the explosive (UFC charts are established based on TNT).
▪ Standoff distance.
▪ Blast category (unconfined/external: free-air; air; surface or confined/internal: fully
vented, partially vented, fully confined).
▪ Angle of incidence.
 3
Blast Pressure on buildings
❑ Blast pressures vary based on the type of blast and the location and orientation of the
target surface with respect to the center of the blast.
❑ The blast load distribution depends on:
▪ The magnitude of explosion (charge weight)
▪ Location of center of burst relative to the building (stand-off)
▪ Geometric configuration of structure (angle of incidence becomes important)
▪ Building orientation with respect to the center of the detonation (angle of incidence…)

❑ Depending on the location of interest

for the building, the blast pressure
may result in reflected overpressure,
side-on (incident) overpressure,
dynamic pressure (blast wind), and
negative pressure.
 4

Blast Pressure on Buildings

▪ Explosive materials create the highest Confined
blast

Decreasing pressures
pressures in confined blasts, followed by
surface blasts, and the least intense
pressures are from air blasts. Surface
burst
▪ For reference, 100 kg (220 lbm) TNT at
10 m (32.8 ft) generates an incident
pressure (Pso) of 172 kPa in an air blast
situation. Whereas the incident pressure Air burst

(Pso) is equal to 242 kPa for a surface

blast.
 5

Blast Pressure Distribution on Buildings

❑ Blast pressure decreases with time
and distance. Even for the same
building, the pressure at a point
closer to the explosion will have
higher pressure. For example, for a
side wall, locations closer to the
explosion will have higher Po
pressure than locations near the
end of the wall.
The distance between the peak overpressure and the point when
the pressure reaches ambient value is the wavelength (Lw).
 6
Blast Pressure Distribution on Buildings
❑ The location of the target
surface and its orientation with
respect to the direction of the
blast determines the magnitude
of blast pressures.
❑ Reflection phenomenon occurs
on surfaces that have an angle
of incidence of less than 90
degrees (90 degree means the
wall is parallel to the shockwave
direction of travel)
 7

Blast Pressure on Buildings

❑ At any point of interest on the wall surface, Point of
Interest
the angle between the normal vector of the
Angle of
wall surface and the line from the center of Incidence

burst (COB) to the point of interest is called

the angle of incidence (). Normal
Vector 

❑ Reflected pressures are highest for an angle

COB
of incidence of 0 degrees (i.e. the normal Line connecting
COB and point of
line from the point of interest passes through interest

COB).
 8

Blast Pressure Distribution on Buildings

Blast pressure is not uniform due to change in distance and angle of incidence. We may use
average pressure, depending on the location of the wall and the critical elements.
 Blast Pressure Distribution on Buildings 9

❑In a structure, there

are side walls, roof
and rear wall as
well. It is necessary
to obtain the blast Side View
COB
pressures acting on
these walls and to
determine design COB
Plan View
loads.

Source: ASCE, 2010

 10

Front Wall Loading

❑Front wall, facing explosion,
experiences a reflected overpressure.
The pressure increases rapidly with the
angle of incidence  = 0 (normally
reflected pressure).
❑The reflected pressure decays to the
S = Clearing distance, smaller of H or B/2
stagnation pressure Ps within the H= Building height B=Building width
clearing time, tc. U= Shock front velocity tc = Clearance time
3𝑆 Cd= Drag coefficient td = Duration of pressure
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑠𝑜 + 𝐶𝑑 𝑞0 𝑡𝑐 = < 𝑡𝑑 qo= Peak dynamic (blast wind) pressure
𝑈
2 (kPa)
𝑞0 = 0.0032𝑃𝑠𝑜 𝑈 = 345(1 + 0.0083𝑃𝑠𝑜 ) 0.5 (m/s) Cd = 1.0 (for front wall of a
rectangular buildings)
 11

Front Wall Loading

𝑃𝑟 = 𝐶𝑟 𝑃𝑠𝑜 Where Cr is reflection coefficient

𝐶𝑟 = (2 + 0.0073𝑃𝑠𝑜 ) where 𝑃𝑠𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑃𝑎

▪ Clearing time (tc) is defined as the time when

reflected pressure (Pr) decreases to the value
of stagnation pressure (Ps) at that time.
▪ A triangular idealization of the pressure-time
curve can be obtained by equating the
𝐼𝑤 = 0.5 𝑃𝑟 − 𝑃𝑠 𝑡𝑐 + 0.5𝑃𝑠 𝑡𝑑 = 𝑃𝑟 𝑡𝑒 /2
impulse under the bi-linear pressure-time
curve (Iw) to that of the linear (triangular) 𝑡𝑑 − 𝑡𝑐 𝑃𝑠
𝑡𝑒 = + 𝑡𝑐
relationship. 𝑃𝑟
 Side Wall Loading 12

❑ The side walls of a building will experience less blast loading than the front wall.
This is because the incident overpressure does not reflect on the side wall.
Furthermore, the blast wave attenuates with distance from the explosion
source.
❑ As a blast wave travels along the length of a structural element, the peak side-on
overpressure will not be applied uniformly. It varies with both time and
distance. If the length of the side wall is equal to the length of the blast wave,
then the far end may reach the peak side-on overpressure when the near end of
the wall has returned to ambient.
❑ A reduction factor, Ce, is used to account for this effect in design. Values of Ce
(equivalent load factor) are dependent on the length of the structural element (L)
in the direction of the traveling blast wave.
 13

Side Wall Loading

Where; 𝐿𝑊 = 𝑈𝑡𝑑
LW= Blast wavelength corresponding to
the duration of overpressure
L = Building side wall length parallel to
the blast shock wave
Note that as the shock wavelength (Lw)
becomes much longer than the building, Ce
becomes 0.9.

𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒: 1, 𝐿𝑤 ≫ 𝐿 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒: 2, 𝐿𝑤 ≈ 𝐿 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒: 3, 𝐿𝑤 ≪ 𝐿

𝑐𝑒 ≈ 1 𝑐𝑒 ≈ 0.45 𝑜. 2 ≤ 𝑐𝑒 ≤ 0.45
 14

Side Wall Loading

▪ Pressure vs. time history for side wall
❑ The effective side wall pressure is: loading is as shown.
Pa = Ce Pso + Cd qo
tr = L / U 𝑡𝑜 = 𝑡𝑟 + 𝑡𝑑
▪ A drag coefficient, Cd of -0.4 is
used, but it may be decreased for
higher incident pressures.

Cd : Drag coefficient, -0.4 to -0.2 for side wall

to : duration of pressure
tr : rise time
qo : Peak dynamic pressure (blast wind)
U : Shock front velocity
L : Length of building in the direction of traveling blast wave
Image source: UFC 3-340-02
 15

Roof Loading
❑ For flat roofs with pitch less than 10o the reflection can be ignored. The roof will
then experience similar pressure as the side wall; i.e., the combination of the side-
on overpressure and the dynamic wind pressure.
𝑃𝑎 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑃𝑠𝑜 + 𝐶𝑑 𝑞0
𝐿
𝑡𝑟 = 𝑡𝑜 = 𝑡𝑟 + 𝑡𝑑
𝑈

Cd : Drag coefficient, -0.4 to -0.2 for roof

to : duration of pressure
qo : Peak dynamic pressure (blast wind)
U : Shock front velocity
L : Length of building
 16

Rear Wall Loading

❑ Rear wall loading is in the opposite direction of blast wave direction and can
often be neglected conservatively. Their effect can be considered for finding the
net load on the building structural system.
❑ The rear wall blast load lags the front wall load due to the difference in arrival
time. This time lag is equal to L/U, which is the time for the blast wave to travel
the length L.
❑ The blast pressure on the rear of the building is considered to be the extension
of the roof pressure with different rise time and duration. The effective
overpressure coefficient Ce is found for Lw/S at the stagnation point.
 17

Rear Wall Loading

𝑃𝑏 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑃𝑠𝑜𝑏 + 𝐶𝑑 𝑞0

𝐿 𝑆
𝑡𝑟 = + 𝑡𝑜 = 𝑡𝑟 + 𝑡𝑑
𝑈 𝑈
L/U
Cd : Drag coefficient, -0.4 to -0.2 for rear wall
to : duration of pressure (end of positive phase)
qo : Peak dynamic pressure (blast wind)
U : Shock front velocity
L : Length of building
S= Clearing distance equal to lesser of B/2 or H
B = Building width perpendicular to shock wave direction
H = Building height
 18

Net Blast Load on Structural Framing System

❑ During the blast, the structural
framing system will experience
diffraction loads. It will be
subjected to a combination of
front wall and rear wall loads,
the resultant of which will Pso+Cdqo
generate the net frame loading.
The structure will initially be
subjected to large reflected
front loads, and after a time lag
of L/U, the front load effect will L/U
be partially offset by the rear
wall loading.
 19

Application of Blast Loads for Structural Design

❑Assume separate bomb blasts (Blast Blast 1
1 and Blast 2) occurring separately
and independently, positioned at d1
smaller standoff distances. Blast 2
d2 d4
❑Conduct separate analysis in
longitudinal and transverse
directions. d3
❑Neglect the effects of negative
Perimeter
pressure and pressure on rear of the
d1, d2, d3, d4: Standoff distances
building.
 20

Front Wall Loading

EXAMPLE: Determine the reflected blast pressure for the front wall of the building
shown and establish the idealized triangular pressure-time relationship for blast
analysis. The incident pressure (Pso) is equal to 41 kPa and the duration td is 0.05 s.
Assume that the pressure on the front face is uniform.
𝑃𝑟 = 𝐶𝑟 𝑃𝑠𝑜 𝐶𝑟 = 2 + 0.0073𝑃𝑠𝑜 = 2.3 4.5 m

𝑃𝑟 = 2.3𝑥41 = 94.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑆
𝑡𝑐 = 3 < 𝑡𝑑 S = smaller of H or B/2 ; S=4.5 m
𝑈 Blast

𝑈 = 345(1 + 0.0083𝑃𝑠𝑜 )0.5 H=4.5 m L=20.4 m B=28.4

𝑈 = 345(1 + 0.0083𝑥41)0.5 = 400𝑚/𝑠
 21

Front Wall Loading

EXAMPLE (Cont’d):
4.5
𝑡𝑐 = 3 = 0.034 𝑠 < 0.05
400
2 = 0.0032(41)2 = 5.4 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑞0 = 0.0032𝑃𝑠𝑜

𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑠𝑜 + 𝐶𝑑 𝑞0 = 41 + 1.0 5.4 = 46.4 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝑡𝑑 − 𝑡𝑐 𝑃𝑠
𝑡𝑒 = + 𝑡𝑐
𝑃𝑟
0.05−0.034 46.4
𝑡𝑒 = + 0.034 = 0.042 s
94.3
 22

Side Wall Loading

EXAMPLE: Determine the blast pressure for the side wall of the building shown and
establish the triangular pressure-time relationship for blast analysis. The incident
pressure (Pso) is equal to 41 kPa and the duration td is 0.05 s. Side wall

4.5 m
Plan Rear wall
View

Blast Compute the relationship for

the first 1.0 m segment of the
H=4.5 m L=20.4 m B=28.4
side wall shown (L = L1 = 1.0 m). Side wall
1.0 m
 Side Wall Loading 23

EXAMPLE (Cont’d):
𝑈 = 345(1 + 0.0083𝑃𝑠𝑜 )0.5
𝑈 = 345(1 + 0.0083𝑥41)0.5 = 400𝑚/𝑠

𝐿𝑊 = 𝑈𝑡𝑑 = 400 0.05 = 20 𝑚

𝐿𝑤 20
= = 20
𝐿1 1.0
For Lw/L1 = 20; the effective overpressure The drag coefficient
coefficient Ce = 1.0 from the chart. Cd = - 0.4 for the side wall.
2 = 0.0032(41)2 = 5.4 (𝑘𝑃𝑎)
𝑞0 = 0.0032𝑃𝑠𝑜
𝑃𝑎 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑃𝑠𝑜 + 𝐶𝑑 𝑞0 = 1.0 41 + −0.4 5.4 = 39 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝐿1 1
𝑡𝑟 = = = 0.0025 𝑠 𝑡𝑜 = 𝑡𝑟 + 𝑡𝑑 = 0.0025 + 0.05 = 0.0525 𝑠
𝑈 400
 24

Side Wall Loading

EXAMPLE (Cont’d):
If an average overpressure over the entire side wall is needed, the value of L1 would
then be the length of the building (L = 20.4). The value of Ce would then be less than
one, reducing the value of Pa. The rise time would become significant.

For Lw/L = 20/20.4 = 0.98; the effective overpressure coefficient Ce = 0.45

from the chart

𝑃𝑎 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑃𝑠𝑜 + 𝐶𝑑 𝑞0 = 0.45 41 + −0.4 5.4 = 16 𝑘𝑃𝑎

𝐿 20.4
𝑡𝑟 = = = 0.051 𝑠 𝑡𝑜 = 𝑡𝑟 + 𝑡𝑑 = 0.051 + 0.05 = 0.101 𝑠
𝑈 400
 Roof Loading 25

EXAMPLE: Determine the blast pressure for the roof of the building shown and establish the
triangular pressure-time relationship for blast analysis. The roof is supported by beams
placed in the transverse direction. The first beam has a tributary length of 2.4 m. The incident
Side wall
pressure (Pso) is equal to 41 kPa and the duration td is 0.05 s.

4.5 m
Blast
Roof Rear wall

Blast
Compute the relationship 1.0 m
for 2.4 m segment of the
roof to establish loading
on the first row of beams.
H=4.5 m L=20.4 m B=28.4 (L = L1 = 2.4 m) Side wall
2.4 m
 26

Roof Loading
EXAMPLE (Cont’d):

For Lw/L = 20/2.4 = 8.3; the effective overpressure coefficient Ce = 0.9 from the chart

The drag coefficient Cd = - 0.4 for the roof of a

rectangular building.

𝑃𝑎 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑃𝑠𝑜 + 𝐶𝑑 𝑞0 (𝑞𝑜 = 5.4 𝑘𝑃𝑎)

𝑃𝑎 = 0.9 41 + −0.4 5.4 = 35 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝐿1 2.4
𝑡𝑟 = = = 0.006 𝑠 (𝑈 = 400 𝑚/sec)
𝑈 400
𝑡𝑜 = 𝑡𝑟 + 𝑡𝑑 = 0.006 + 0.05 = 0. 056 𝑠
 27

Rear Wall Loading

EXAMPLE: Determine the blast pressure for the rear wall of the building shown below
and establish the triangular pressure-time relationship for blast analysis. The incident
pressure (Pso) is equal to 41 kPa and the duration td is 0.05 s.

𝑞𝑜 = 5.4 𝑘𝑃𝑎 𝑈 = 400 𝑚/sec The drag coefficient Cd = - 0.4 for rear
wall of a rectangular building.

Equivalent load coefficient:

4.5 m
𝐿𝑤 20 Therefore Ce = 0.88
= = 4.4
𝑆 4.5

Equivalent peak pressure:

Blast
𝑃𝑏 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑃𝑠𝑜 + 𝐶𝑑 𝑞0 = 0.88 41 + (−0.4)(5.4)= 34 kPa
H=4.5 m L=20.4 m B=28.4
 28
Rear Wall Loading
EXAMPLE (Cont’d):

Arrival time (beginning of positive phase):

𝐿 20.4
= = 0.051 𝑠
𝑈 400

Time at peak:
𝐿 𝑆 4.5
𝑡𝑟 = + = 0.051 + = 0.062 𝑠 L/U
𝑈 𝑈 400
𝑡𝑜 = 𝑡𝑟 + 𝑡𝑑 = 0.062 + 0.05 = 0.112 𝑠 (end of positive phase)

𝐿
𝑡𝑜 − = 0.112 − 0.051 = 0.061 𝑠 (positive phase duration)
𝑈
 29

From Threat (W and R) to Blast Loads for Structural Design

❑ Risk assessment for a specific asset (building) gives design basis threat (DBT),
which leads to the identification of charge weight (W) and standoff distance (R).
❑ Relationships between scaled distance (Z=R/W1/3) and the blast parameters
were established by the US Department of Defense. These relationships are
available and can be used to determine blast loads.
❑ These relationships are available in the form of charts in imperial and metric
units. Different charts are available for different types and positions of blasts
(See UFC 3-340-02)
 30

Pso (MPa): Peak incident pressure

TNT in Free Air is (MPa-ms): Incident specific impulse
(Spherical) Pr (MPa): Peak normally reflected
pressure
ir (MPa-ms): Normally reflected
specific impulse
ta (ms): Shock arrival time
to (ms): Positive phase duration
U (m/ms): Shock front velocity
Lw (m): Positive wavelength
 31

Pso (MPa): Peak incident pressure

TNT on Ground Surface is (MPa-ms): Incident specific impulse

(Hemispherical) Pr (MPa): Peak normally reflected
pressure
ir (MPa-ms): Normally reflected
specific impulse
ta (ms): Shock arrival time
to (ms): Positive phase duration
U (m/ms): Shock front velocity
Lw (m): Positive wavelength
 32

Free Air Explosion Surface Explosion

(Spherical Wave) (Semispherical Wave)
 33

From Threat (W and R) to Blast Loads for Structural Design

▪ The variation of positive phase pressure can be plotted using the following
expressions (Smith and Hetherington 1994).
𝑡 −𝛼𝑡𝑡
P t = 𝑃𝑠𝑜 (1 − )𝑒 0
𝑡𝑜

Where  is waveform parameter.

It can be computed using the
values in the following table as a
function of impulse fraction
(Kinney and Graham 1985).
 34
EXAMPLE:
Waveform parameter 
 is/(Psoto)  is/(Psoto) A 200 kg car bomb is detonated 30 m away from a building.
Determine the pressure-time curve for positive phase.
W = 200 kg R = 30 m Z = 5.1 m/kg1/3

Pso = 41.3 kPa is = 338.6 kPa-ms to = 22.4 ms

is/(Psoto) = 338.6/(41.3x22.4) = 0.366  = 1.0

Incident pressure, kPa

50
𝑡 𝑡
−𝛼
P t = 𝑃𝑠𝑜 (1 − )𝑒 𝑡0 40
𝑡𝑜
30
𝑡 𝑡
−22.4
P t = 41.3 (1 − )𝑒 20
22.4
10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25

Time, ms
 35

From Threat (W and R) to Blast Loads for Structural Design

❑While previous researchers suggested expressions to compute overpressure
caused by blast shock waves, the most commonly used approach involves the
use of relationships and charts mentioned in the previous slides and is known as
UFC 3-340-02 charts.
❑Computer software was developed for use of these relationships or using the
equations (Vector-Blast, ATBlast-ARA, Conwep, BlasTDOF, SBEDS). The most
popular software is CONWEP.
❑Software was also developed by Dr. Eric Jacks, formerly a PhD student at
uOttawa, currently Assistant Professor at Virginia Tech, USA. The software is
called “Overpressure” and it uses the UFC 3-340-02 method.
Software “Overpressure” 36
 37

From Threat (W and R) to Blast Loads for Structural Design

EXAMPLE (using UFC charts and software)
A van containing 1000 kg of TNT is detonated 10 m away from a high-rise
building with masonry infill walls providing building envelop. Determine the
idealized triangular pressure distributions on the front wall of the
i) first storey walls and ii) second storey walls:
a) Using software “Overpressure”.
b) Using the UFC Charts
6m 1000 kg
4m
10 m
4m 30 m

20 m
 38

EXAMPLE (Cont’d)
i) Front wall at the first floor level. Note that the pressure is normally reflected
( = 0)
a) Using software “Overpressure” (See next slide)

Pso = 1357 kPa; Pr

Pr = 8113 kPa;
ir = 6996 kPa-ms
te = 2ir/Pr
= 2(6996)/8113 = 1.7 ms
te
EXAMPLE (Cont’d) 39
 40

EXAMPLE (Cont’d)
b) Using the UFC charts:
Z=R/W1/3; Z=10/10001/3=1.0
TNT on Ground Surface (Hemispherical)
Pso = 1.4 MPa = 1400 kPa
(Red line)
Pr = 8.1 MPa = 8100 kPa
(Green line)

ir/W1/3= 0.7 MPa-ms/kg1/3

(Blue line)
ir = 0.7 (1000)1/3 = 7 MPa-ms
ir = 7000 kPa-ms

te = 2ir/Pr=2(7000)/8100= 1.7 ms
 41

EXAMPLE (Cont’d)

b) Using the UFC Charts in Imperial Units:

Z = (10 m)(0.305)/[(1000 kg)(2.2)]1/3 = 2.35
(See the Chart)
Pso = 200 psi (1380 kPa);
Pr = 1200 psi (8280 kPa);
ir/W1/3 = 95 psi-ms/lb1/3;
ir =1235 psi-ms (8523 kPa-ms).
te = 8523(2)/8280 = 2.0 ms

Surface Explosion
(Semispherical Wave)
 42

Angle of incidence: tan  = 6.0m/10m  = 31o

EXAMPLE (Cont’d)
𝑅= (10)2 +(6)2 = 11.66 𝑚
ii) Front wall at the second floor level.

a) Using software
“Overpressure”

Pso = 974 kPa;

Pr = 4562 kPa;
ir = 4830 kPa-ms
te = 2ir/Pr =
2(4830)/4562 = 2.1 ms
 43

EXAMPLE (Cont’d)
b) Using the UFC Charts:
Z=R/W1/3; Z=11.7/10001/3=1.2 TNT on Ground Surface (Hemispherical)
Pso = 0.97 MPa = 970 kPa (Red line)
For  = 31o Cr = 4.7 (See next chart)
Pr = CrPso=4.7 (970)= 4559 kPa
Using the UFC Charts in Imperial Units:
For Pso = 140 psi Cr = 4.7
ir/W1/3 = 55 psi-ms/lb1/3
ir =55 (1000x2.2)1/3 = 715 psi-ms
ir = 4936 kPa-ms
te = 2ir/Pr te = 2(4936)/4559
= 2.17 ms
44
45
46
 47

Blast loads on buildings – Front Wall

Example: Our client hired us to perform a blast
vulnerability analysis for a building and job
specification requires UFC charts for surface
9m 15 m
blasts to be used. The design basis threat (DBT)
is a pick up truck detonating 800 kg of TNT at a
1
standoff distance of 13m.
7m
We are required to obtain a) the equivalent 13 m

triangular b) simplified bilinear pressure vs. time

history at point 1 before examining other points
on the building.
 48

EXAMPLE (Cont’d)
▪ First, we need to calculate the scaled distance.
W = 800 kg = 1764 lbm
R = 13 m = 42.6 ft
Z = 42.6 / 1764(1/3) = 3.5 ft/lbm1/3

▪ From the surface blast chart, we obtain

Pr = 480 psi = 3309 kPa
P
1/3
ir/W = 65 psi / lb 1/3
3309 kPa
ir = 65 psi / lb1/3 * (1764lb)1/3
= 785 psi*ms =5,415 kPa*ms
tr = 2 * ir / Pr
tr = 2 * 5415 kPa*ms / 3,309 kPa 3.3 ms t
= 3.3 ms
 49

EXAMPLE (Cont’d)
To obtain bi-linear loading, we need Pso , qo , U , tc and td.
Pso= 95 psi = 655 kPa [1]
qo = 110 psi = 758 kPa
Ps = Pso + Cd * qo = 95 + 1* 110 = 205 psi
Ps = 1413 kPa
U = 2.9 ft/ms = 884 m/sec [1]
td / W1/3= 1.7 ms / lb1/3 [1]
td = 1.7 ms / lb1/3 * (1764lb)1/3 = 20.5 ms
P
S = Lesser of H = 15m and B/2 = 4.5 m
S = 4.5 m = 14.7 ft 480 psi
3309 kPa
tc = 3 * S / U = 3 * 14.7 ft / 2.9 ft/ms
tc = 15.3 ms < td OK!
205 psi
1413 kPa

tc =15.3 ms to =20.5 ms t
[1]: From previous slide
 50

EXAMPLE (Cont’d)
Let’s calculate the triangular pressure vs. time
history for point A (2nd floor).
Distance will increase due to point A being 7m
above the ground. Further, we will have to
consider the effect of the angle of incidence. 9m A 15 m

R = 132 + 7 2 = 14.7m = 48.4 ft

7m
 = a tan(7 /13) = 28.3deg ree
Z = 48.4 / 1764(1/3) = 4 ft/lbm1/3
Pso = 72 psi = 496 kPa (?) 7m
13 m
Cr = 4 (see next slide)
Pr = 72 psi * 4 = 288 psi = 1986 kPa
ir = 37 psi*ms/lb1/3 * 1764(1/3) = 447 psi*ms =
3082 kPa *ms (see next slide)
 51

EXAMPLE (Cont’d)

Pr = 1986 kPa
ir = 3,082 kPa*ms
tr = 3.1 ms

P
1986 kPa

3.1 ms t
 52

Blast loads on buildings – Side Wall

Example: Let’s consider the same building and DBT
and calculate the average side wall pressure (Pa)
and the peak overpressure at point 2.
9m 15 m
We already know Pso, qo from the previous example.

Pso = 95 psi = 655 kPa [1]

2
qo = 110 psi = 758 kPa [1]
2m
Lw = 0.8 ft/lb1/3 = 0.8 ft*(1764lb)1/3 = 9.7ft [1] 7m
13 m

Lw = 2.95 m

Lw / L = 2.95 m / 7 m = 0.27

Ce = 0.24 from chart [1]: From previous example

 53

EXAMPLE (Cont’d)

Cd = -0.2 (from table)

Pa = Ce*Pso + Cd*qo
Pa = 0.24 * 95 psi + -0.2 * 110 psi = 0.8 psi
Pa = 5.5 kPa
Note that average side wall pressure is low
due to the negative drag effect.

For point 2, we will use L = 2 m

Lw / L = 2.95 m / 2 m = 1.5
Ce = 0.55
P2 = 0.55 * 95 psi + -0.2 * 110 psi = 30 psi
P2 = 209 kPa

[1]: From the previous example

 54

Blast loads on buildings – Roof

Example: Let’s consider the same building and DBT
1m 3
and calculate the peak overpressure at point 3.

The average roof pressure is the same as average

9m 15 m
side wall pressure, Pa = 12 kPa

For point 3, we will use L = 1 m

Lw / L = 2.95 m / 1 m = 3
7m
Ce = 0.78 13 m

P3 = 0.78 * 95 psi + -0.2 * 110 psi = 52 psi

P3 = 359 kPa
[1]: From previous example
 Blast loads on buildings – Rear wall
55

Example: Let’s consider the same building and DBT and

calculate the peak overpressure at point 4, which is in the
middle of the rear wall.

We will need to calculate the incident pressure at the back side

of the roof. In this case, the standoff distance will be increased.

R = 13m + 7 m = 20 m = 65.6 ft 9m 15 m

4
Z = 5.43 ft/ lb1/3

Psob = 33 psi = 228 kPa [1]

qob = 20 psi = 138 kPa [1] 7m

13 m

Pb = 0.24 * 33 psi + -0.4 * 20 psi = 1.9 psi

Pb = 13.2 kPa [1]: See next slide

 56

EXAMPLE (Cont’d)
 57

Equations for blast pressures (parabolic)

▪ We can use the modified Friedlander equation to obtain the exponential
decay of the positive phase of blast pressures.

▪ This is an iterative process where  is determined by calculating the area

under the curve and setting it equal to the impulse.

  t − ta   −(t −ta )/

Ps (t ) = Pso 1 −   e for ta  t  ta + t0
  t0  

ta : time of arrival
to : duration of pressure
 : wavefront parameter
Pso : peak incident
overpressure
 58

Equations for blast pressures - Example

▪ Using the values from the first example with front loading, we can demonstrate
the use of this equation.
Pressure vs. Time

▪ Pso = 655 kPa, is = 5415 kPa*ms, to = 20.5 ms

700

600

▪ By iteration using MS Excel  = 0.0149 500

Incident Pressure, Ps, kPa

400

300
is is
 
kPa*ms kPa*ms 200

100
0.01 3948 0.014 5132
0
0.011 4229 0.0149 5419
0.012 4519 0.015 5452 -100
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Time, sec
0.013 4820 0.016 5779
 59

Summary
1. Front wall loading uses reflected pressure, which is considerably higher than
incident pressure.

2. Side wall and roof pressures are based on incident pressures and are calculated
in a similar way.

3. Rear wall (back wall) pressures are calculated using an increased standoff
distance (distance between the charge and back wall).

4. Almost all calculations are based on UFC charts, which are empirically obtained
charts. It is important to convert the units correctly.

5. The software developed by Dr. Eric Jacques, Overpressure, is a very useful tool.