Unit-3: Synchronous Machine I

SYLLABUS:

Constructional features, Armature winding, EMF Equation, Winding coefficients, equivalent

circuit and phasor diagram, Armature reaction, O. C. & S. C. tests, Voltage Regulation using
Synchronous Impedance Method, MMF Method, Potier’s Triangle Method, Parallel Operation of
synchronous generators.

*******

A synchronous generator is also called as 3-phase alternator. The stator consisting of

balanced 3-phase star connected winding and rotor consisting of electro-magnets. Rotor is
coupled to a prime mover (i.e. a DC motor or an Induction motor or a turbine etc.) The magnets
are rotated at a constant speed. Alternator is working on the principle of electro-magnetic
induction (EMI) producing statically induced EMF.
Relationship between Frequency, Speed and Number of Poles:

Fig. (i). One cycle is produced when a coil passes through a pair of poles

In Fig. (i) , a machine is shown having P number of poles on the rotor revolving at a speed
at Ns rpm When a conductor passes through a pair of poles one cycle of EMF is induced in it.
No. of cycles of EMF produced per revolution = P/2
No. of revolutions per second =Ns/60
No. of cycles per second = (No. of cycles/revolution)*(No. of revolutions/s)
P N s PN s
f = * =
2 60 120

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 PN s
f = Cycles/s or Hz
120
Advantages of Rotating Field System and stationary armature over Stationary Field System:
Only in small synchronous machines the field system is placed on stator and armature
winding on rotor, but in larger machines, the field winding is placed on the rotor and armature
winding is placed on the stator. The rotating field and stationary armature system is preferred
over stationary field and rotating armature system.
Following are the important advantages of rotating field system over stationary field
system:
(i) The armature winding is more complex than the field winding. Therefore, it is easy to place
armature winding on stationary structure.
(ii) In the modern alternators (synchronous generators), high voltage (11 kV or 33 kV) is
generated, therefore, heavy insulation is provided and it is easy to insulate the high voltage
winding when it is placed on stationary structure.
(iii) The size of the armature conductors is much more to carry heavy current; therefore, high
centrifugal stresses are developed. Thus, it is preferred to place them on stationary structure.
(iv)The size of the slip rings depends upon the magnitude of flow of current; therefore, it is easy
to deliver small current for excitation, through slip rings of smaller size when rotating field
system is used.
(v) It is easier to build and properly balance high speed rotors when they carry the lighter field
system.
(vi) The weight of the rotor is small when field system is provided on rotor and as such friction
losses are produced.
(vii) Better cooling system can be provided when the armature is kept stationary.
Constructional Features of Synchronous Machines:
The important parts of a synchronous machine are given below:
1. Stator
2. Rotor
3. Miscellaneous
1. Stator:

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 The outer stationary part of the machine is called stator; it has the following important
parts:
(i) Stator frame:
It is the outer body of the machine made of cast iron and it protects the inner parts of
the machine. It can be also made of any other strong material since it will not to carry the
magnetic field. Cast iron is used only because of its high mechanical strength.

Fig. Alternator stator frame

(ii) Stator Core:
The stator core is made of silicon steel material. It is made from number of stamping
which are insulated from each other. Its function is to provide an easy path for the magnetic
lines of force and accommodate the stator winding.

Fig. Alternator stator core

(iii) Stator Winding:
Slots are cut on the inner periphery of the stator core in which three-phase or one-phase
winding is placed. Enameled copper is used as winding material.
2. Rotor:
The rotating part of the machine is called rotor. From construction point of view, there
are two types of rotors named as
(i) Salient pole type rotor;

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(ii) Non-salient pole type rotor.
(i) Salient pole type rotor:
In this case, projected poles are provided on the rotor. The cost of construction of salient
pole type rotors is low, moreover sufficient space is available to accommodate field winding but
these cannot bear high mechanical stresses at high speeds. Therefore, salient pole type of
construction is suited for medium and low speeds and they are usually employed at hydro-
electric and diesel power plants as synchronous generators. Since the speed of these machines
(generators) is quite low, to obtain the required frequency, the machines have large number of
poles as shown in Figs. 1 and Fig. 2. To accommodate such a large number of poles, these
machines have larger diameter and small length. For a speed of 200 rpm (alternators coupled
with water turbines) the diameter of the machines is as large as 14 meter and length is only 1
meter.

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 Fig. 1. Salient pole type alternator

Fig. 2. Parts of rotor of salient pole alternator

The salient pole type rotor has the following important parts:
(a) Spider:

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 Spider is made of cast iron to provide an easy path for the magnetic flux. It is keyed to
the shaft at the outer surface; pole core and pole-shoe are keyed to it [see Fig. 3].

Fig.3. Spider
(b) Pole core and pole shoe:
It is made of laminated sheet material [see Figs. 2(b) and Fig. 4]. Pole core provides least
reluctance path for the magnetic field and pole shoe distributes the field over the whole
periphery uniformly to produce sinusoidal wave form of the generated EMF.
(c) Field winding or Exciting winding:
Field winding [see Fig. 2(c)] is wound on the former and then placed around the pole core.
DC supply is given to it through slip rings. When direct current flows through the field winding, it
produces the required magnetic field.

Fig. 4. Pole core and pole shoe

(d) Damper winding:

At the outermost periphery, holes are provided [see Fig. 4] in which copper bars are
inserted and short-circuited at both the sides by rings forming damper winding. Generally, the

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segments on individual poles are joined together to form common rings resulting in a short-
circuited squirrel cage winding similar to that used in induction machines with squirrel cage
rotors. Salient pole machines are frequently provided with a damper winding on the rotor to
damp rotor oscillations during transient-conditions and to facilitate smooth operation under
unbalanced load conditions.
At hydro-electric power plants, usually, salient pole type alternators are placed with
their shafts in vertical position.
(ii) Non-salient pole type rotor:
A non-salient pole alternator is shown in Fig. 5. In this case, there are no projected poles
but the poles are formed by the current flowing through the rotor (exciting) winding. Non-salient
pole type construction is suited for the high speeds. The steam turbines rotate at a high speed
(3000 rpm). When these turbines are used as prime-mover for this machine working as a
generator, a less number of poles are required for given frequency. Hence, these machines have
smaller diameter and larger length. Non salient pole type rotors have the following parts:
(a) Rotor core:
Rotor core is made of silicon steel stampings. It is keyed to the shaft. At the outer
periphery slots are cut in which exciting coils are placed. It provides an easy path to the magnetic
flux.
(b) Rotor winding or Exciting winding:
It is placed in rotor slots and current is passed through the winding in such a way that
poles are formed according to the requirement (see Fig. 6).

Fig. 5. Non-salient pole alternator

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 Fig. 6. Non-salient pole type rotor

3. Miscellaneous Parts:
The following are few important miscellaneous parts;
(i) Brushes:
Brushes are made of carbon and these just slip over the slip rings. DC supply is given to
the brushes. From brushes current flows to the slip rings and then to the exciting winding.
(ii) Bearings:
Bearings are provided between the shaft and outer stationary body to reduce the friction.
The material used for their construction is high carbon steel.
(iii) Shaft:
Shaft is made of mild steel. Mechanical power is taken or given to the machine through
shaft. Some Special Features of Salient and Non-salient Structures
Usually the salient pole field structure has the following special features:
(i) These are of larger diameter and shorter length.
(ii) Usually, 2/3rd of the pole pitch is covered by the pole shoes
(iii) To reduce eddy current losses, the poles are laminated.
(iv)The machine having such structure are employed with hydraulic turbines or with diesel
engines which are usually operated at low speeds (100 to 375 rpm)
(v)More number of poles are provided
The non-salient field structure has the following special features:
(i) They are of smaller diameter and of very long axial length.
(ii) Robust construction and noiseless operation.

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(iii) Less windage (air-resistance) loss.
(iv) Better in dynamic balancing.
(v) High operating speed (3000 rpm).
(vi) Nearly sinusoidal flux distribution around the periphery, and therefore, gives a better EMF
waveform than that obtainable with salient poles field structure.
(vii) There is no need of providing damper windings (except in special cases to assist in
synchronizing) because the solid field poles themselves act as efficient dampers.
(viii)Less number of poles are provided
Air-gap and its Significance:
A very small air-gap decreases the stray-load loss and synchronous reactance Xd. A large
air-gap needs larger excitation current. Therefore, a compromise has to be made. Generally the
ratio of air gap to the pole pitch is between 0.008 and 0.02.
Excitation Systems:
Since the field winding is on rotor, a special arrangement is necessary to connect DC
source to the field. In small size synchronous machines, generally the field winding is excited
from a separate DC source through slip rings and brushes. Slip rings are metal rings completely
encircling the shaft of the machine, but insulated from it. A brush rides and slips over each slip
ring. The positive end of a DC voltage source is connected to one brush and negative end is
connected to another brush. In large machines, various schemes are employed to supply DC
excitation to the field winding. Some of the most important excitation systems are given below:
1. DC Exciters
2. Static Excitation System
3. Brushless Excitation System

Armature Winding:
In the large synchronous machines, stationary part is the armature. On the inner
periphery of the stator core number of slots (mostly open parallel sided slots) are provided. In
these slots armature winding is placed.
Types of Armature Winding:

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 Various types of winding schemes can be adopted to wound the armature of an
alternator, a few of them are given below:
1. Single-phase and poly-phase windings:
When only one winding is placed on the armature and only one EMF is obtained at the
output, winding is called single-phase winding. When more than one windings are placed on the
armature and EMFs induced are more than one, displaced from each other by some angle, the
winding is called poly-phase winding. Mostly three-phase winding is provided on the armature.
2. Concentrated and distributed windings:
When one slot per pole or slots equal to the number of poles are employed
(Slots/Pole=1=Concentrated winding), the windings thus obtained are called concentrated
windings. Such windings give maximum induced EMFs for given number of conductors but the
wave form of induced EMF is not exactly sinusoidal. When number of slots per pole is more than
one (Slots/Pole>1=Distributed winding), the windings thus obtained are called distributed
windings. Such windings give slightly less than maximum induced EMF for a given number of
conductors but the wave form of induced EMF is more sinusoidal.
3. Single layer and double layer windings:
When only one coil side is placed in a slot, the winding is called single layer winding.
However, when two coil sides are placed in one slot, one over the other, the winding is called
double layer winding.
4. Full pitched and short pitched windings:
When the two coil sides of the same coil are 180 electrical degrees apart, the winding is
called full pitch winding. When the two sides of the same coil are less than 180 electrical degrees
apart, the winding is called short pitch winding.
The EMF induced in each coil is the maximum with short pitch winding scheme for the
following reasons:
(i) It decreases the length at the end-connections and thus amount of copper required is saved.
(ii) It reduces the slot reactance and thus improves the wave shape of the generated EMF, i.e.,
the generated EMF can be made to approximately sinusoidal more easily by properly chording
the winding.

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(iii) It reduces or eliminates distorting harmonics in the wave form of generated EMF. The only
disadvantage of short pitch winding is that a few more turns are used to obtain the same voltage
as it would be induced in full pitch winding.
5. Concentric (or spiral), Lap and Wave windings:

Fig. 10. Concentric winding

When each group of coils under a pole is arranged into a sort of concentric shape i.e.,
when the current flow is traced through one such properly connected set of coils that the
conductors seem to form a spiral around a portion of the core (see Fig. 10) the winding is called
concentric or chain or spiral winding. This type of winding scheme is preferred for large
diameter, low speed synchronous machines (Salient pole type).
In the alternators, the lap and wave windings give the same EMF as long as the other
conditions are the same. In case of lap winding as shown in Fig. 11, coils or coil sides overlap the
other consecutively and connections are made.
Whereas in wave winding, as shown in Fig. 12 the coils are always forward connected.
The connections of a lap winding are simpler to that of the wave winding; therefore lap winding
is exclusively used.

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 Fig. 11. Lap winding

Fig. 12. Wave winding

Important Terms Used in Armature Winding:

Some of the important terms used in the armature winding are given below:
(i) Electrical angle:
When a conductor passes through a pair of poles, one cycle of EMF is induced in it. Thus
a pair of poles represents an angle of 360 electrical degrees. There is a perfect relation between
electrical and mechanical angle. Electrical angle = Mechanical angle*Pair of poles.
(ii) Pole pitch:
Distance between two neutral axis (or similar points) of adjacent poles is called poles
pitch. The pole pitch can be expressed as number of slots per pole or electrical degrees (i.e., 180°
elect.), refer to Fig. 14.
If S is the number of slots on the whole periphery of armature and P is the number of
poles, Then, Pole pitch = No. of slots per pole = S/P.
(iii) Coil:

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 Fig. 13. Single and multi-turn coils

Two conductors placed in the two slots displaced by pole pitch (in full pitch winding) or
less than pole pitch (in short pitch winding), connected at one side by the end connections form
a single turn coil as shown in Fig. 13(a). When number of turns is connected in series and each
side (coil side) is placed in the slot, it is called a multi-turn coil as shown in Figs. 13(b) and (c). The
multi-turn coil is shown in Fig. 13(d) by a single line diagram.
(iv) Coil pitch or coil span:

Fig. 14. Distributed winding

The distance between two active sides of a coil is called coil span. It is expressed in terms
of number of slots or electrical degrees. Refer to Fig. 14.
(v) Slot pitch:
The distance between center points (or similar points) of two consecutive slots or teeth
is called slot pitch. It is expressed in electrical degrees. Refer to Fig. 14.

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 180 0
Slot .. pitch =  =
Number..of ..slots.. per.. pole
(vi) Phase spread:
The angle or space of pole face over which coil sides of the same phase are spread is called
phase spread, as shown in Fig. 14. In a distributed winding, the conductors of one phase under
one pole are spread in number of slots so that each phase has equal distribution.
In a three phase winding:
180
Phase..spread = = 60..electrical .. deg rees
3
Or
Phase..spread = Slots / pole / phase

Coil Span Factor or Coil Pitch factor:

Fig. 15. Short pitched coil

𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = <1
𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
In a full pitch winding the coil span or coil pitch is always equal to the pole pitch which
is equal to 180 electrical degrees. When the coil span is less than 180 electrical degrees, the
winding is called short pitched or fractional pitch or chorded winding as shown in Fig. 15.
Let ‘e’ be the induced EMF in each of the two sides of the same coil. For a full pitch
winding the EMF induced in two sides of the coil i.e., OA and AB are 180 electrical degrees apart
as shown in Fig. 16. However, when the winding is short pitched by an angle  electrical degrees,

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the EMF induced in the two sides of the coil are OA and AC, i.e., (180 –) electrical degrees apart
of shown in Fig. 16.

Fig. 16. Phasor diagram

Angle at o and C=180-Angle at A=180-(180-)=

But angle at O=angle at C=/2
For a full pitch winding,
Total induced EMF in the coil = OA + AB = e + e = 2e
For a short pitch winding,
Total, induced EMF in the coil = OC = OD + DC
= OA cos /2 + AC cos /2 (where AD is ⊥ on OC)
= e cos /2 + e cos /2
= 2 e cos /2
The ratio of induced EMF in a coil when the winding is short pitched to the induced EMF
in the same coil when it is full pitched is called a coil span factor or pitch factor or chorded factor
and it is generally denoted be Kc. It is always less than unity.
𝛽
2𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠( 2 ) 𝛽
𝐾𝑐 = 𝐾𝑝 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠( 2 )<1
2𝑒

𝛽
𝐾𝑐 = 𝐾𝑝 = cos ( )
2
Distribution Factor:
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
= <1
𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

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 In a concentrated winding, all the conductors of any one phase lie under a single pole are
placed in a single slot. But in distributed winding, the conductors of one phase lie under a single
pole are placed in several slots of the other pole. A distributed winding is shown in Fig. 17 in
which there are 12 slots per pole for a three-phase winding or four slots per pole per phase.
In a distributed winding, the number of coils representing each phase is connected in
series and is called a coil group.

Fig. 17. Distributed winding

The EMFs induced in the conductors lying in two adjacent slots is similar in wave shape
and magnitude but there is a phase difference between them. This phase difference is equal to
the angular displacement between two adjacent slots, i.e., slot pitch.
For the winding scheme considered here,
180 0 180 0
Slot angle= Slot .. pitch =  = ..electrical .. deg rees = = 150
Number..of ..slots / pole 12
Let there be m coils connected in series in a coil group placed in adjacent slots and  be
the angle between two adjacent slots in electrical degrees.

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 Fig. 18. Phasor diagram
The EMFs induced in the coil group are shown vectorially in Fig. 18.
Where
m = No. of slots/pole/phase = 4 and

180 0
= ..electrical .. deg ree = 150..elect
Number..of ..slots / pole
AB = BC = CD = DE
= EMF induced in each coil side.
AE = Vector sum of EMFs of m coils.
A, B, C, D and E are the points laying on the circle of radius r having center at point ‘O’. Drop a
perpendicular OF on AB and OG on AE.
Now AF = FB and
AB = AF + FB = 2AF
In right angle triangle OAF,
AF = r sin /2
AB = 2r sin /2
Total induced EMF in the coil group when all the coil sides are concentrated in one slot.
ea = Arithmetic sum of the induced EMF in each coil
= AB + BC + CD + DE = 4 AB
For m coils
ea= m . AB = 2m r sin /2 (For concentrated winding)
Now AG = GE and
AE = AG + GE = 2GE
In right angle triangle OGE,
GE = r sin m/2
AE = 2GE = 2r sin (m/2) (For distributed winding)
Total induced EMF in the coil group when the winding is distributed in number of slots
to the induced EMF in the coil group when the winding is concentrated in one slot is called a
distribution factor or breadth factor and it is generally denoted by Kd. It is always less than unity.

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 𝑚𝛼 𝑚𝛼
𝑒𝑣 2𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛( 2 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 2 )
𝐾𝑑 = 𝐾𝑏 = = =
𝑒𝑎 2𝑚𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼) 𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼 )
2 2
Winding Factor:
The combined effect of coil span factor and distribution factor is known as winding factor.
In fact, winding factor is the product of coil span factor and distribution factor.
Kw = Kc Kd

Generation of three-phase EMF:

In a three-phase system, there are equal voltages (or EMFs) of the same frequency having
a phase difference of 120°. These voltages can be produced by a three-phase AC generator having
three identical windings (or phases) fixed on the some spindle and displaced by 120° electrical.
When these windings are rotated in a stationary magnetic field as shown in Fig. 19(a) or when
these windings are kept stationary and the magnetic field is rotated [see Fig. 19(b)], an EMF is
induced in each winding or phase. These EMFs are of same magnetic and frequency but are
displaced from one another by 120° electrical.
Consider three identical coils a1 a2, b1 b2 and c1c2 mounted on the rotor as shown in Fig.
10(a) or placed on the stationary armature as shown in Fig. 19 (b). Here, a1, b1 and c1 are the
start terminals, whereas, a2, b2 and c2 are finish terminals of three coils. It may be noted that a
phase difference of 120° electrical is maintained between the corresponding start terminals a1,
b1 and c1.
Let the three coils mounted on the same axis be rotated (or the magnetic field system be
rotated keeping coils stationary) is ant i-clockwise direction at ω radians/second, as shown in Fig.
19(a) and (b) respectively. Three EMFs are induced in the three coils respectively. Their
magnitude and direction, at this instant are given below:
(i) The emf induced in coil a1 a2 is zero and is increasing in the positive direction as shown by
wave a1 a2 in Fig. 19(c).
(ii) The coil b1 b2 is 120° (electrical) behind the coil a1 a2. The EMF induced in this coil is negative
and is becoming maximum negative as shown by the wave b1 b2 in Fig. 19(c).
(iii) The coil c1c2 is 120° (electrical) behind b1 b2 or 240° (electrical) behind a1 a2. The EMF
induced in this coil is positive and is decreasing as shown by wave c1 c2 in Fig. 19(c).

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Phasor diagram: The EMFs induced in three coils are of the same magnitude and frequency but
are displaced by 120° (electrical) from each other as shown in phasor diagram [see Fig. 19(d)].
These can be represented by the equations:
e a1a 2 = Em sin t

2
e b1b 2 = E m sin( t − ) = E m sin( t − 120 0 )
3
4
e c1c 2 = E m sin( t − ) = E m sin( t − 240 0 ) = E m sin( t + 120 0 )
3

Fig. 19. Generation of 3-phase EMFs

EMF Equation:
Let
P = No. of poles;
Φ= Flux per pole in Wb;
Ns = Synchronous speed or rotor speed or speed of the magnetic poles in rpm;
f = frequency in Hz;
Zph = No. of conductors connected in series per phase

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Tph = No. of turns connected in series per phase
Kc = Coil span factor;
Kd = Distribution factor
Flux cut by each conductor during one revolution = P Φ Wb
Time take to complete one revolution = 60/Ns second
d P PN s
Average EMF induced per conductor = = =
dt 60 / N 60
Average EMF induced per phase,
PN s PN s
= * Z ph = * 2T ph (Since Z Ph = 2T ph )
60 60
R.M.S. values of EMF induced per phase,
Eph = Average value * form factor
PN s
E ph = ( * 2T ph ) * K f (1)
60
For a sine wave Kf=1.11 and
120 f
Ns = (2)
P
Substituting (2) in (1) we get
120 f
P ( )
E ph =( P * 2T ) *1.11
ph
60
E ph = 4.44fTph (3)

Taking into consideration the coil span factor (KC) and distribution factor (Kd) of the winding.
Actual EMF induced per phase
𝐸𝑝 = 4.44𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑑 ∅𝑓𝑇𝑝
Problems:
1.The armature coils of a 3-phase, 4-pole, 24-slot alternator are short pitched by one slot.
Determine (i) distribution factor and (ii) pitch factor.
Solution:
Given: Phase=3, P=4, slots=24, short pitch=1 slot, Kd=?, Kp=?

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 24
m = slots / pole / phase = 24 / 4 / 3 = =2
4*3

180 0 180 0
= ..electrical .. deg ree = = 30 0
Number..of ..slots / pole 24 / 4
sin( m / 2) sin( 2 * 30 / 2)
Distributi on.. factor = K d = = = 0.96
m sin(  / 2) 2 sin( 30 / 2)

Slots/Pole=24/4=6

β=180/6=300

 = short .. pitched ..by..1slot =  = 30 0

Coil ..span.. factor = K c = K p = cos(  / 2) = cos( / 2) = cos(30 / 2) = 0.9659

2.Calculate the no-load terminal voltage of a 3-phase, 8-pole, star connected alternator running
at 750 rpm having following data: Sinusoidal distributed flux per pole = 55 m Wb, Total No. of
armature slots = 72, Number of conductors/slot = 10, Distribution factor = 0·96, Assume full pitch
windings.
Solution:
Given: Eph=?, Phases=3, P=8, star connected, Ns=750 RPM, Ø=55 mWb, slots=72, cond/slot=10,
Kd=0.96, Kp=1
m=slots/pole/phase=72/8/3=3
Ztotal=(cond/slot)*slots=10*72=720
Zph=720/3=240
Zph=2Tph
Tph=Zph/2=240/2=120
PN s 8 * 750
f = = = 50..Hz
120 120
𝐸𝑝 = 4.44∅𝑓𝑇𝑝 𝐾𝑝 𝐾𝑐 = 4.44 ∗ 55𝑚 ∗ 50 ∗ 120 ∗ 0.96 ∗ 1 = 1406.59 𝑉

𝐸𝐿 = √3𝐸𝑝 = √3 ∗ 1406.59 = 2436.28 𝑉

3.Calculate the voltage per phase for a 3-phase 1500 rpm, 4-pole alternator having a double layer
winding with 16 conductors per slot. The slots per pole per phase are 8 and the coil span is 20
slots. The phase spread is 60° and the flux per pole is 25·8 mWb.
Solution:

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Given: Eph=?, Phase=3, P=4, Ns=1500 RPM, double layer, conductors/slot=16,
slots/pole/phase=m=8, coil span=20, phase spread=600, Ø=25.8 mWb
Pole pitch=slots/pole=m*phase=8*3=24
No. of slots by which coil is short pitched=pole pitch-coil span=24-20=4 slots

180 0 180 0
= = = 7.50
Number..of ..slots / pole 24
 = 4 = 4 * 7.50 = 30 0
K c = K p = cos(  / 2) = cos(30 / 2) = 0.9659

sin( m / 2) sin( 8 * 7.5 / 2)

Kd = = = 0.955
m sin(  / 2) 8 * sin( 7.5 / 2)
PN s 4 *1500
f = = = 50..Hz
120 120
Given
Conds/slot=16
For double layer, conds/slot=16*2=32
For double layer, Turns/slot=32/2=16
Slots=(slots/pole/phase)*phase*pole=8*3*4=96
Total turns=(turns/slot)*slots=16*96=1536
Turns/phase=1536/3=512

E ph = 4.44K c K d fTph = 4.44 * 0.9659 * 0.955 * 25.8 *10 −3 * 50 * 512 = 2713.74..V

4.Determine the useful flux per pole required to develop 6600 V across the terminals of a 3-
phase, star connected, 50 Hz, 4-pole alternator having 60 slots with 2 conductors per slot. The
coils are short pitched such that if one coil side lies in slot No.1 and the other lies in slot No.13.
Assume a double-layer winding.
Solution:
Given: Ø=?, EL=6600 V, Phase=3, star connected, f=50 Hz, P=4, slots=60, conds/slot=2, short
pitched coil=?, one coil side in slot1 and other in slot13, double layer
Pole pitch=Slots/pole=60/4=15
Coil pitch=13-1=12 slots

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Short pitched slots=15-12=3

180 0 180 0
= = = 12 0
Number..of ..slots / pole 15
Short pitched angle==3*120=360
K c = K p = cos(  / 2) = cos(36 / 2) = 0.95

m=slots/pole/phase=60/4/3=5
sin( m / 2) sin( 5 *12 / 2)
Kd = = = 0.9566
m sin(  / 2) 5 * sin( 12 / 2)
Given
Conds/slot=2
Conductors=(Conds/slot)*slots=2*60=120*2=240
Turns=240/2=120
Turns/phase=Tph=120/3=40
EL 6600
E ph = = = 3810.5..V
3 3
E ph = 4.44 K c K d fTph
𝐸 3810.5
∅ = 4.44𝐾 𝐾𝑃 = 4.44∗0.95∗0.9566∗50∗40 =0.472 Wb
𝑐 𝑑 𝑓𝑇𝑝ℎ

5.A 10 MVA, 11 kV, 50 Hz, three-phase, star-connected alternator is driven at 300 rev/min. The
stator winding is housed in 360 slots and has 6 conductors per slot. The coils spanning five-sixth
of a pole pitch. Calculate:
(i) The sinusoidal distributed flux/pole required to give a line voltage of 11 kV on open circuit;
and (ii) the full load current per conductor.
Solution:
Given: 10 MVA, EL=11 kV, f=50 Hz, Phase=3, star connected, Ns=300 RPM, Slots=360,
Conds/slot=6, coil span=5/6*Pole pitch, Ø=?, Ifl/cond=?
120 f 120 * 50
P= = = 20
Ns 300

Pole pitch=slots/pole=360/20=18
Coil span=5/6*Pole pitch=5/6*18=15

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Short pitch slots=18-15=3

180 0 180 0
= = = 10 0
Number..of ..slots / pole 18
=3*=3*10=300
K c = K p = cos(  / 2) = cos(30 / 2) = 0.965

Slots/pole/phase=m=18/3=6
sin( m / 2) sin( 6 *10 / 2)
Kd = = = 0.956
m sin(  / 2) 6 * sin( 10 / 2)
Conds=(Conds/slot)*slots=6*360=2160
Turns=2160/2=1080
Tph=1080/3=360
EL 11000
Ep = = = 6350.85V
3 3
E ph 6350.85
= = = 86..mWb
4.44 K c K d fTph 4.44 * 0.965 * 0.9566 * 50 * 360

P 10 *10 6
I L / cond = = = 524.86.. A
3VL 3 *11000

Wave Shape:
The flux distribution in the air-gap of an alternator is not well distributed. Moreover, if
the winding is concentrated and full-pitched, the wave shape of the induced EMF is not
sinusoidal. The wave shape can be made sinusoidal by proper designing of salient pole shoes
and using short pitch and distributed winding.
Harmonics in Voltage Wave Form:
The harmonics in the output voltage wave form are developed due to non-sinusoidal
wave form of the field flux. These are also developed due to variation in the reluctance of the
air-gap because of slotting of stator core.
Suppression of Harmonics:
Harmonics can be suppressed or eliminated by various methods as mentioned below:
(i) By well distributing the armature winding.
(ii) By using short-pitched winding.

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(iii) By skewing the poles by one slot-pitch.
(iv) By using fractional slot winding.
(v) By using slightly larger air-gap length to increase the reluctance.
Rating of Alternators:
The rating of an alternator depends upon, the maximum current it can deliver without
overheating at the designed voltage. The power factor of the load is not considered to give its
rating. Hence, alternators are rated in kVA and not in kW.
Armature Resistance:
The resistance per phase is armature resistance of an alternator. The resistance of a
winding, depending upon resistivity of winding material, length and area of cross-section
l
(R = ) r is called DC resistance of the winding. The actual or AC resistance is nearly 1·25 to
a
1·75 times the DC resistance. This is because of unequal distribution of alternating current (Skin
effect) over the cross-section of the conductor. Voltage drop (IR) occurs in the winding because
of this resistance which is in-phase with the current phasor. However, the value of this resistance
is very small as compared to synchronous reactance of the machine, which is why, many times;
its voltage drop effect is neglected. Heavy copper losses occur in the machine because of
armature resistance.
Armature Leakage Reactance:

Fig. 20. Leakage fluxes

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 When current flows through the armature conductors, local fluxes are set at various
places. The flux which links only with the armature winding but not with rotor field winding is
called leakage flux.
The total leakage flux which links with the armature winding (conductors) gives rise to
inductance. The magnitude of the inductance is given as
N
L= Henry
i
Where
Φ is the leakage flux in Weber, N is the number of turns and i is the armature current. This
inductance L, when multiplied by ω gives the leakage reactance XL. Hence,
XL = ωL = 2πfL Ohms
A voltage drop (IXL) occurs in the winding because of this reactance. This voltage drop is
in quadrature to the current vector.
Accordingly,
    
E = V + I Z = V + I ( R + jX L )

Armature Reaction:
At no-load, the only field (MMF) acting in the synchronous machine (alternator) is the
main field Fm’ produced by the exciting winding. When load is connected to the alternator,
current flows through the armature conductors and produces a field (MMF) called armature field
Fa. This field affects the main magnetic field Fm. Thus, the effect of the armature field on the
main magnetic field is known as armature reaction.
The current flowing through the armature conductors depends upon the power factor
of the load. Therefore, the armature reaction will be studied at three extreme conditions of the
p.f., i.e., unity, zero lagging and zero leading.
1. The armature reaction flux (Øa=1.5Øarm) is constant in magnitude and rotates at synchronous
speed.
2. When generator supplies a load at unity pf (Resistive), the armature reaction is cross-
magnetizing.

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3. When generator supplies a load at zero pf lagging (inductive), the armature reaction in
demagnetizing.
4. When generator supplies a load at zero pf leading (Capacitive), the armature reaction is
magnetizing.
5. In all the cases, if the armature-reaction flux is assumed to act independently of the main field
flux, it induces voltage in each phase which lags the respective phase current by 90°. Hence
armature reaction causes an armature reactance drop.
Effect of Armature Reaction on EMF of Alternator:
To see the effect of armature reaction on the EMF induced in the alternator.
Let,
E0 = EMF induced per phase by the main field (flux) at no-load.
Ea = EMF induced per phase by the armature field (flux).
E = Net EMF induced per phase i.e., resultant of E0 and Ea.
  
E = E0 + E a

Equivalent Circuit of an Alternator and Phasor Diagram:

Fig. 24. Equivalent circuit

Fig. 25. Simplified equivalent circuit

The equivalent circuit of an alternator is shown in Fig. 24.

Where,

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R = Armature resistance,
XL = Leakage reactance,
Xa = Armature reaction reactance,
I = Load current
E0 = Induced EMF in the armature (voltage at no-load) and
V = Terminal voltage
(Note: All quantities are phase values in case of three-phase machines.)
i.e., XS = XL + Xa and
ZS is the synchronous impedance.
ZS = R +jXs

Z s = R 2 + X s2

The simplified equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 25, where Xs is the synchronous reactance.
From circuit diagram:
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ +𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸0 = 𝑉 𝑍𝑠
Phasor Diagram:
From the simplified equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 26(b), phasor diagram of an alternator can be

drawn. The total EMF formula ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ +𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐸0 = 𝑉 𝑍𝑠 will be used to draw the vector diagram for different
loads. The phasor diagram depends upon the type of load. The load may be non-inductive,
inductive or capacitive.
The phasor diagrams for non-inductive, inductive and capacitive load are shown in Fig.
26a, Fig. 26b and Fig. 26c, respectively.

Fig. 26. Phasor diagram

While drawing phasor diagram, following steps are followed:

(i) Terminal voltage V is taken as the reference vector.

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(ii) Load current I is drawn in phase with voltage vector V for non-inductive load. For inductive
load, it is drawn so that it lags behind the voltage vector by an angle Ø, whereas for capacitive
load it leads the voltage vector by an angle Ø, where Ø is the power factor angle.
(iii) Draw voltage drop vector IR parallel to current vector from point A.
(iv)Draw voltage drop vector IXS from point B perpendicular to vector AB since it is in quadrature
to current vector.
(v) Join point O and C, where OC is the EMF E0 which is induced due to the main field Øm or the
terminal voltage at no-load and is the vector sum of V, IR and IXS.
Expression for no-load terminal voltage:
To deduce an expression for no-load terminal voltage, complete the phasor diagrams for
various loads as shown in Fig. 6.49. The no-load terminal voltage E0 is the actual induced EMF in
the armature produced by the main magnetic field Φm. It is the vector sum of terminal voltage
at load, drop in resistance and drop in synchronous reactance. From phasor diagram of alternator
at different load conditions, we can deduce the expression for no-load terminal voltage.
(i) For non-inductive load (unit p.f.): Considering Fig. 27, from the right angle triangle OBC, we
get,

Fig. 27. Phasor diagram for unity PF

OC = (OA + AB) 2 + BC 2

𝐸𝑜 = √(𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝐼𝑋𝑠 )2

(ii) For inductive load (lagging p.f.):
Considering Fig. 28, from the right angle triangle ODC,we get,

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 Fig. 28. Phasor diagram for lagging PF

OC = (OE + ED) 2 + ( DB + BC ) 2 = (OE + ED) 2 + ( EA + BC ) 2

𝐸𝑜 = √(𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ + 𝐼𝑋𝑠 )2

(ii) For capacitive load (leading p.f.): Considering Fig. 29, from the right angle triangle ODC, we
get,

Fig. 29. Phasor diagram for leading PF

𝑂𝐶 = √(𝑂𝐸 + 𝐸𝐷)2 + 𝐷𝐶 2 = √(𝑂𝐸 + 𝐸𝐷)2 + (𝐷𝐵 − 𝐵𝐶)2 = √(𝑂𝐸 + 𝐸𝐷)2 + (𝐸𝐴 − 𝐵𝐶)2

𝐸𝑜 = √(𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ − 𝐼𝑋𝑠 )2

Voltage Regulation:
We have seen that because of the voltage drop in the armature resistance and
synchronous reactance, the terminal voltage of synchronous generator depends upon the load
and its p.f. The rise in terminal voltage when the given load is thrown off, the excitation and
speed remaining constant is called the voltage regulation of a synchronous generator
(alternator).
If E0 = no-load terminal voltage and V = terminal voltage at a given load.

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 E0 − V
Then voltage regulation = %VR = *100
V
The voltage regulation is positive both at unity and lagging p.f. because this causes rise
in terminal voltage when the load is thrown off (removed). However, in case of leading p.f. the
terminal voltage may fall when the load is thrown off. Therefore, at leading p.f. voltage
regulation may be negative.
Determination of Voltage Regulation:
To determine the voltage regulation of smooth cylindrical rotor type alternators, the
following methods may be used:
1. Direct load test 2. Indirect Method
1. Direct load test:
Direct load test is performed only on small alternators (say 5 kVA). In this case, the
alternator is run at synchronous speed with the help of a prime-mover and its terminal voltage is
adjusted to its rated value V and the load is varied until the ammeter and wattmeter indicate the
rated values at given power factor.
Then the load is removed keeping the speed and field excitation constant. At open circuit
i.e., at no-load, the terminal voltage E0 is recorded. Then voltage regulation is determined as
under:
𝐸𝑜 −𝑉
Percentage voltage regulation =%𝑉𝑅 = ∗ 100
𝑉

2. Indirect method:
For large size alternator, indirect methods are used to determine voltage regulation.
These methods are:
(i) Synchronous impedance method or EMF method
(ii) Ampere-turn method or MMF method
(iii) Zero power factor method or Potier method.
(i) Synchronous Impedance Method or EMF Method:
This method is based on the concept of replacing the effect of armature reaction by a
fictitious reactance. For a synchronous generator
  
V = E0 − I Z s

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Where
Z s = R + jX s

To determine synchronous impedance, open-circuit and short circuit tests are

performed and armature resistance is measured by ammeter-voltmeter method. By using these
parameters, the regulation of the alternator can be determined at any load.
Determination of Synchronous Impedance:
To determine the value of synchronous impedance of an alternator experimentally, the
following two tests are performed on the machine:
(i) Open circuit test (ii) Short circuit test.
(i) Open circuit test:
To perform open circuit test, the terminals of the alternator are kept open and is rotated
by the prime-mover at synchronous speed. A DC supply is given to the field winding through a
rheostat. A voltmeter is connected across the terminals of the alternator to measure open circuit
voltage EL and an ammeter is connected in the field circuit to measure field current If as shown
in Fig. 27. The field current If (excitation) is gradually varied (increased in steps) and the voltage
across the terminals of the alternator E is recorded for every change in the field current till rated
voltage of alternator. A graph is plotted taking If along abscissa and E along the ordinate called
open circuit characteristics (O.C.C.). The O.C.C. curve so obtained is shown in Fig. 30. The curve
rises steeply and then flattened due to saturation of the magnetic circuit.
Note: In case of three-phase star-connected alternator, to plot the curve phase value of the
terminal voltage E = EL/ 3 is to be considered.

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 Fig. 27. Circuit diagram for open circuit test on three phase alternators

Modern Alternators:
When the terminals of the alternator are short circuited due to any fault (short circuit
fault) a short circuit current Isc flows through the armature conductors. This current depends
upon the induced EMF E0 and the synchronous impedance Zs of the alternator i.e.,
E0
Zs =
I sc
This short circuit current may damage the armature winding of the alternator if ZS is very
small. Therefore, to limit the short circuit current, the modern alternators are designed for
higher synchronous impedance. The resistance cannot be increased because it would increase
the losses in the machine. Thus modern alternator is designed for higher synchronous reactance
(or leakage reactance) but smaller resistance. The value of synchronous reactance is some times
more than 20 times the armature resistance. Therefore, for all practical purposes the voltage
drop due to armature resistance is neglected as compared to voltage drop due to synchronous
reactance.
(ii) Short circuit test:
To perform short circuit test, the terminals of the alternator are short circuited by a thick
strip or an ammeter as shown in Fig. 28. And its rotor is rotated by the prime-mover at
synchronous speed. The field current (till rated current) If is gradually increased and the short
circuit current Isc is recorded for every change in the field current with the help of ammeter
connected across the alternator terminals. A graph is plotted taking If along abscissa and Isc along
with ordinate called short circuit characteristics (S.C.C.). The S.C.C. curve so obtained is shown in
Fig. 29 which is almost a straight line.
It should be noted that both the O.C.C. and S.C.C. curves are drawn on a common field
current If as shown in Fig. 29.

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 Fig. 28. Circuit diagram for short circuit test on three phase alternators

Fig. 29. Open circuit and short circuit characteristics

Determination of Synchronous Impedance:

To determine synchronous impedance of the alternator, let OA be the field current If. For
this field current OA, open circuit voltage is AB (i.e., E) and for the same field current the short
circuit current is AC (i.e., Isc). When the alternator is short circuited terminal voltage is zero.
Therefore, at short circuit, whole of the induced voltage E is being utilized for circulating the short
circuit current Isc through the synchronous impedance Zs.
𝐸 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝐴𝐵)
𝑍𝑠 = 𝐼 = 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴𝐶) at the same field current
𝑠𝑐

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 The value of synchronous impedance is not constant. Its value is slightly high at low
magnetic saturation. An approximate graph of Zs against field current If is drawn by the dotted
line as shown in Fig. 29.
Note: The value of synchronous impedance is usually determined at the field current which
provides the rated EMF of the machine
Determination of Synchronous Reactance:
To determine the value of synchronous reactance, first of all armature resistance is
calculated by voltmeter–ammeter method, circuit shown in Fig. 30. Since the value of armature
resistance is very small, a low DC supply voltage is connected across the terminals of a one-phase
Vdc
alternator. The value of armature resistance ( Rdc = ) is the DC resistance. The actual
I dc
resistance of the armature of an alternator is 1.25 to 1.75 times to that of DC resistance.
R = 1.25Rdc

Synchronous reactance 𝑋𝑠 = √𝑍𝑠2 − 𝑅2

Fig. 30. Voltmeter–ammeter test to determine armature resistance

Imp. Note: In case of three-phase, star connected alternators, DC source, ammeter and voltmeter
are connected across the terminals, then the measured resistance comes out to be the resistance
of two phases.
DC Resistance per phase, Rdc = measured resistance/2
Also, all the vector diagrams are drawn considering the phase quantities whether the
alternator is single-phase or three-phase. To determine the regulation, all the quantities must be
phase value.
Short-Circuit Ratio (SCR):

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 The ratio of field current to produce rated voltage on open-circuit to the field current
required to circulate rated current on short-circuit while the machine is driven at synchronous
speed is called short-circuit ratio (SCR) of a synchronous machine.

Fig. 31.OCC and SCC for an alternator

From OCC and SCC shown in Fig. 31, Short-circuit ratio,

𝐼𝑓1 𝑂𝐴
𝑆𝐶𝑅 = =
𝐼𝑓2 𝑂𝐷
𝑂𝐴 𝐴𝐸
From similar triangles OAE and ODC we can write 𝑂𝐷 = 𝐷𝐶
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸 1
Therefore 𝑆𝐶𝑅 = 𝐷𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵/𝐴𝐸

AB Per..unit ..voltage..on..open..circuit
Where = = Xs
AE Corresponding .. per..unit ..current ..on..short ..circuit
1
SCR =
Xs

Thus, SCR is just reciprocal of per unit synchronous reactance Xs of the machine. The value
of synchronous reactance depends upon saturated conditions of the machine whereas, SCR is
specific and defined at rated voltage.
Significance of SCR:
Smaller is the value of SCR, larger is the value of synchronous reactance which limits the
short circuit current to smaller value. But it causes difficulty during parallel operation of the
machines owing to smaller value of synchronizing power (EV/Xs).

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As SCRXsIsc(EV/Xs)
Larger value of SCR increases the stability of the machine and improves its voltage
regulation. Usually, the SCR of a high speed non-salient pole alternators lies between 0.5 and
0.75 whereas it lies between 1.0 and 1.5 for low speed salient pole type alternators.
As SCRXsIsc(EV/Xs)StabilityVR
Therefore, the salient pole type alternators are more stable than non-salient pole type
alternators.
(ii) Ampere-Turn (or MMF) Method:
The synchronous impedance method is based on the concept of replacing the effect of
armature reaction by a fictitious reactance. Accordingly, some assumptions were made. But due
to those assumptions, the voltage regulation obtained by that method was higher than the
actual value. In ampere-turn or MMF method, the effect of armature leakage reactance is to be
replaced by an equivalent additional armature reaction MMF. This additional MMF is combined
with the armature reaction MMF.
To determine the regulation of an alternator by MMF method, the following information
is required.
(i) The resistance of the stator winding per phase.
(ii) Open-circuit characteristics at synchronous speed.
(iii) Short-circuit characteristics.
All these information can be obtained by performing the same tests as preformed in EMF
method i.e., open circuit test, short circuit test and ammeter–voltmeter method for finding
armature resistance. The open circuit and short circuit characteristics are shown in Fig. 31, where
field current If1; is determined to give rated voltage V on no-load, neglecting armature resistance
drop, the field current If2 is determined to cause short-circuit current, equal to full load current,
on short circuit. On short circuit, the field excitation If2 , balances the impedance drop in addition
to armature reaction on full load. But, as we know that R is usually very small and XL is also small
for low voltage on short circuit, so impedance drop can be neglected. Hence pf on short circuit is
almost zero lagging and the field amp-turns are used entirely to overcome the armature reaction.
Therefore, If2 , gives demagnetizing amp-turns at full load.

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 Now, let us consider that the alternator is supplying full load current at a pf of cosΦ. Draw
a line OA representing If1 to give full load rated voltage, V [actually it is equal to V + I R cosΦ] as
shown in Fig. 32. Then draw AB at an angle (90° ± Φ) representing If2 to give full load current on
short circuit; + ve sign for lagging pf and -ve sign for leading pf. Now find field current If
measuring OB, which will give open-circuit EMF E0, which can be determined from OCC. Then
percentage regulation can be determined from the relation,
E0 − V
% Regulation = %VR = *100
V

Fig. 32. Phasor diagram at different power factors

This method of determining synchronous impedance is known as optimistic method since

it gives voltage regulation values lower than actual values. It is because the excitation to
overcome armature reaction is determined on unsaturated part of the magnetizing curve.
(iii) Zero Power Factor or Potier Method:
The regulation obtained by synchronous impedance (or EMF) method and ampere-turn
(or MMF) method is based on the total synchronous reactance i.e., (the sum of reactance due to
armature leakage flux and due to armature reaction effect). This introduces error due to vector
addition of magnetic fluxes. Whereas, the zero power factor method is based on the separation

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of reactance due to leakage flux and that due to armature reaction flux, therefore, it gives more
accurate results.
For determining voltage regulation by this method, the following data is required:
(i) Effective resistance of armature winding
(ii) open-circuit characteristic
(iii) Short circuit test to pass field current to circulate full-load current in the stator and
(iv) Zero-power factor full-load voltage characteristic—a curve plotted between terminal
voltage and field current while the machine is being running on synchronous speed and delivering
full-load current at zero power factor.
The first three requirements can be fulfilled by performing open circuit test, short circuit
test and resistance measurement test, as discussed earlier. The curve of zero power factor
characteristic can be obtained by taking various steps as explained below:
1. The machine is rotated at rated synchronous speed by a prime-mover.
2. A pure inductive load (variable load reactors or an under-excited synchronous motor) is
connected across the armature terminals and the excitation or field current of the alternator is
raised so as to cause flow of full-load armature current. Usually, the alternator is loaded by an
under-excited synchronous motor while plotting zero pf full-load curve.
3. The value of the reactance is then increased step by step and adjust the excitation current to
pass full-load rated armature current to flow. In the process, the armature terminal-voltage is
decreased from 125 % to 25 % of the rated voltage in steps, maintaining the speed and rated
armature current constant throughout the test.
4. Note down the armature terminal voltage and excitation current at each step.
5. Draw a curve between terminal voltage and excitation current, as shown in Fig. 33. It gives the
zero power factor (lagging) characteristic.
Now, the zero power factor (lagging) characteristic can be used for obtaining the Potier
reactance, it is sufficient to determine the point representing rated armature current and rated
voltage. This is indicated by point B in Fig. 33.
From OCC and zero power factor curve there is a definite relationship between the zero
power factor (lagging) characteristic and open-circuit characteristic of an alternator. The zero

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power factor characteristic curve is of exactly the same shape, as that of OCC but it is shifted
vertically downward by leakage reactance drop IXL and horizontally, by the armature reaction
MMF.
Zero power factor full-load voltage-excitation characteristic can be drawn by knowing two
points A and B. Point A is obtained from a short-circuit test with full-load armature current.
Hence OA represents excitation (field current) required to overcome demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction and to balance leakage reactance drop at full load. Point B is obtained when
field current is varied to pass full load armature current so that wattmeter reads zero.

Fig. 33. OCC of the alternator with zero PF full-load curve

(DF=leakage reactance drop=IXL, FB=armature reaction excitation=IXa)

From point B, line BC is drawn equal and parallel to AO. Then a line is drawn through C
parallel to initial straight part of OCC (parallel to extended OG), intersecting the OCC at D. BD is
joined and a perpendicular DF is dropped on BC. The triangle BFD is imposed at various points of
OCC to obtain corresponding points on the zero factor curve.
In triangle BFD, the length FB represents armature reaction excitation and the length DF
represents leakage reactance drop (IXL). This is known as Potier reactance voltage drop and the
triangle is known as Potier triangle. The Potier reactance is given, as
XP = DF (voltage drop per phase)/Zero power factor armature current per phase
It is observed that in case of cylindrical rotor machines, Potier reactance is nearly equal
to armature leakage reactance (XP=XL), but in case of salient pole machines, the magnetizing

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circuit is more saturated and the armature leakage reactance is smaller than the Potier reactance
(XL<XP).
Potier regulation diagram:

Fig. 34. Phasor diagram for Potier regulation method

(OF=If1 corresponding to get voltage E=OD and FG=FB=If2=equivalent to f.l. armature reaction)

To determine voltage regulation, Potier regulation diagram (Fig. 34) is drawn as follows:
(i) OV is drawn horizontally to represent terminal voltage, V on full load and OI is drawn to
represent full load current at a given power factor. (say lagging).
(ii) Draw IRa parallel to OA and IXL perpendicular to phasor.
(iii) Join OD, where OD represents generated EMF E.
(iv) From OCC find field excitation If1 corresponding to generated EMF E.
(v) Draw OF = If1 perpendicular to phasor OE to represent excitation required to induce EMF OD
on open circuit.
(vi)Draw FG=If2=FB (Fig. 33) parallel to load current phasor OI to represent excitation equivalent
to full-load armature reaction.
(vii) Join OG = If which gives total excitation required. If the load is thrown off, then terminal
voltage will be equal to generated EM-E0 corresponding to field excitation OG = If
Hence, EMF E0 may be determined from OCC corresponding to field excitation OG = If.
Where, the phasor E0=OL will lag behind phasor OG by 90°. Here, DL=IXa represents voltage drop
due to armature reaction. Now regulation can be obtained from the relation.
E0 − V
% Regulation = %VR = *100
V
Parallel Operation of synchronous generators:
Necessity of Parallel Operation of Alternators:

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 To meet with the demand of electrical power, several alternators are operated in parallel.
Synchronization of Alternators:
The procedure of connecting an alternator in parallel with another or with common bus-
bars, to which a number of alternators are already connected, is called synchronizing of
alternators.
Conditions for Proper Synchronization of alternators:
For proper synchronizing of alternators, the following conditions must be fulfilled:
1. The terminal voltage of the incoming alternator must be equal to that of the bus-bar voltage.
2. The speed or frequency of the incoming alternator must be such that its frequency is equal to
that of bus-bar frequency.
3. In case of three-phase alternators the phase of the incoming alternator must be identical with
the phase of the bus-bars. In other words, the phase sequence of the incoming alternator must
be same as that of the bus-bars.
Synchronizing Three-phase Alternators using Synchroscope:
To satisfy the phase sequence of incoming alternator with bus-bar, there are three
methods.
1. Three dark lamps method (For low voltage alternators)
2. Two bright and one dark lamp method (For low voltage alternators)
3. Synchroscope method (For high voltage alternators)
High voltage alternators are generally synchronized with the help of synchroscope. A
synchroscope is an instrument which has been devised, with a rotating pointer and a fixed index.
The pointer indicates whether the incoming machine is slow or fast. In fact, it shows the precise
instant of synchronization when the paralleling switch should be closed.

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 Fig. 35. Synchronizing of three-phase alternators by using synchroscope

In this method of parallel operation two additional bus-bars, known as synchronizing bus-
bars are necessary by means of which synchroscope is connected through potential transformers
(P.T.) to the two alternators to be synchronized and to the main bus-bar as shown in Fig. 35. The
secondary windings of the potential transformers are connected to the synchronizing bus-bars.
The incoming alternator is allowed to run at its rated speed and its voltage is adjusted equal to
the main bus-bars voltage. The two plugs are inserted in the secondary of the potential
transformers so that the synchroscope is acted upon by the voltages of both the incoming
alternator and the main bus-bars. The greater the difference in frequency between bus-bars and
the incoming alternators, the greater will be the movement of the pointer. If the incoming
alternator runs slower the pointer rotates in anti-clockwise direction and if the incoming
alternator runs faster its pointer rotates in clockwise direction.
The speed of the incoming alternator is now adjusted until the pointer assumes a vertical
position and thus indicates that the two alternators can be put into synchronism. At this instant
3 pole paralleling switch P.S. is closed.
Shifting of Load:
The load is shifted from the existing alternator to the incoming alternator by increasing
the mechanical power input to the prime-mover of the incoming alternator and simultaneously
reducing the mechanical power input to the prime-mover of existing alternator. In case of

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steam machines this may be readily done by admitting more steam (by opening the steam inlet
valve) to the steam-turbine of incoming alternator and simultaneously closing the steam valve of
existing alternator. Thus, any load can be shifted to incoming alternator from existing alternator.
Generally it is shifted as per their respective ratings.
If the existing alternator is to be disconnected from the bus-bars the process continues
till whole of the load is shifted to the incoming alternator as indicated by the ammeter and
wattmeter in the circuits. Then the line circuit breaker (main switch) and field breaker (field
switch) of the existing alternator are opened.
The most important point, to be emphasized, is that load cannot be shifted from one
machine to the other by adjusting the excitation. Once the alternator is connected to the bus-
bars, the change in excitation only changes the power factor of the alternator it does not affect
the load sharing.
Problems:
1.A three-phase star-connected non-salient pole alternator has an armature resistance of 0·1
ohm per phase. When excited to 173·3 V line voltage and on short circuit the alternator gave 200
A. Determine the no-load voltage E0 in order to maintain a terminal potential difference of 400 V
with 100 A armature current at 0·8 power factor lagging?
Solution:
Given: Phase=3, star connected, R=0.1 Ω, V0,Ph=173.3 V, Isc=200A, E0,L=?, VL=400 V, I=100A, 0.8
PF lagging
𝑉0,𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 173.3
𝑉0,𝑃ℎ = = = 100 𝑉
√3 √3
𝑉0,𝑃ℎ 100
𝑍𝑠 = = = 0.5 Ω
𝐼𝑠𝑐 200

X s = Z s2 − R 2 = 0.52 − 0.12 = 0.5.. /phase

E0 at 0.8 PF lagging
Cos(Ø)=0.8, Ø=36.860, sin(36.86)=0.6
VL 400
V ph = = = 230.9..V
3 3

𝐸𝑜 = √(𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ + 𝐼𝑋𝑠 )2

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𝐸𝑜𝑝 = √(230.9 ∗ 0.8 + 100 ∗ 0.1)2 + (230.9 ∗ 0.6 + 100 ∗ 0.5)2 = 271 𝑉

𝐸𝐿 = √3 ∗ 271 = 469.38 𝑉
2.A three-phase star connected 1200 kVA, 3300 V, 50 Hz, non-salient pole alternator has
armature resistance of 0·25 ohm per phase. A field current of 40 A produces a short circuit current
of 200 A and an open circuit EMF of 1100 V between lines. Determine voltage regulation on full
load 0·8 power factor lagging.
Solution:
Given: Phase-3, star connected, 1200 kVA, VL=3300 V, f=50 Hz, R=0.25 Ω, If=40 A, Isc=200 A,
V0,L=1100 V, %VR at f.l. 0.8 PF lagging
𝑉0,𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 100
𝑉0,𝑃ℎ = = = 635 𝑉
√3 √3
𝑉0,𝑃ℎ 635
𝑍𝑠 = = = 3.175 Ω
𝐼𝑠𝑐 200

X s = Z s2 − R 2 = 3.1752 − 0.25 2 = 3.16..

%VR at 0.8 PF lagging

Cos(Ø)=0.8, Ø=36.860, sin(36.86)=0.6
VL 3300
V ph = = = 1900.52..V
3 3
1200,000
IL = = 210.. A
3 * 3300

E0, ph = (V cos  + IR) 2 + (V sin  + IX s) 2

= (1900.52 * 0.8 + 210 * 0.25) 2 + (1900.51 * 0.6 + 210 * 3.16) 2 = 2393.35..V

E 0, ph − V ph 2393.35 − 1900.52
%VR = *100 = *100 = 25.93%
V ph 1900.52

3.A three-phase, star connected, 20 MVA, 11 kV, 50 Hz non-salient pole alternator produces a
short-circuit current equal to full-load current when a field current of 70 A passes through its field
winding. The same field current produces an EMF of 1820 V (line to line) on open circuit. If the
alternator has a resistance between each pair of terminals as measured by DC is 0.16 Ω and the

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effective resistance is 1.5 times the Ohmic resistance, what will be its full-load regulation at (i)
0.707 pf lagging.
Solution:
Given: Phase=3, star connected, 20 MVA, VL=11 kV, f=50Hz, Isc=Ifl, If=70A, V0,L=1820 V, RDC=0.16/2
Ω=0.08 Ω, Rac=1.5RDC=1.5*0.08=0.12 Ω, %VR at f.l. 0.707 pf lagging and (ii) 0.8 pf leading.
𝑉0,𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 1820
𝑉0,𝑃ℎ = = = 1050.77 𝑉
√3 √3
20 *106
I L, fl = = 1049.72.. A
3 *11000
𝑉0,𝑃ℎ 1050.77
𝑍𝑠 = = =1Ω
𝐼𝑠𝑐 1049.72

X s = Z s2 − R 2 = 12 − 0.12 2 = 0.99..

%VR at f.l. 0.707 pf lagging

cosØ=0.707, Ø=45, sin(45)=0.707
VL 11000
V ph = = = 6350.85..V
3 3

E0, ph = (V cos  + IR) 2 + (V sin  + IX s) 2

= (6350.85 * 0.707 + 1049.72 * 0.12) 2 + (6350.85 * 0.707 + 1049.72 * 0.99) 2 = 7202.81..V

E 0, ph − V ph 7202.81 − 6350.85
%VR = * 100 = * 100 = 13.41%
V ph 6350.85

4.A three-phase, star-connected, 10 kVA, 230 V non-salient pole alternator has an armature
resistance of 0.5 Ω per phase and a synchronous reactance of 1.2 Ω per phase. Calculate the
percentage voltage regulation at full load at power factors of (a) 0.8 lagging, (b) 0.8 leading,
Solution:
Given: Phase=3, star connected, 10 kVA, VL=230V, R=0.5 Ω, Xs=1.2 Ω, %VR at f.l. 0.8 PF lagging=?,
%VR at f.l. 0.8 PF leading=?
%VR at f.l. 0.8 PF lagging
VL 230
V ph = = = 132.79..V
3 3

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 10 *10 3
I L, fl = = 25.1.. A
3 * 230
Cos(Ø)=0.8, Ø=36.860, sin(36.86)=0.6

E0, ph = (V cos  + IR) 2 + (V sin  + IX s) 2

= (132.79 * 0.8 + 25.1 * 0.5) 2 + (132.79 * 0.6 + 25.1 *1.2) 2 = 161.75..V

E 0, ph − V ph 161.75 − 132.79
%VR = *100 = * 100 = 21.8%
V ph 132.79

%VR at f.l. 0.8 PF leading

E0, ph = (V cos  + IR) 2 + (V sin  − IX s) 2

= (132.79 * 0.8 + 25.1 * 0.5) 2 + (132.79 * 0.6 − 25.1 *1.2) 2 = 128.7..V

E 0, ph − V ph 128.7 − 132.79
%VR = *100 = *100 = −3.08%
V ph 132.79

*****

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