1. The notion of CLIL, its aims and rationale.

The Concept of CLIL

CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) is a method of teaching where subjects are taught in a foreign
language (often a second language). This helps students learn both new information and a new language at the same
time. CLIL was created by David Marsh in the 1990s to help students prepare for a world with many languages and
cultures.

Aims of CLIL

1. Dual-Focused Learning
CLIL helps students learn both the subject and the language together.
2. Language Development
Students improve their language skills by using the language in real situations.
3. Cognitive Development
Students use their minds to think in different ways, such as solving problems and making decisions.
4. Cultural Awareness
Students learn about different cultures and how people live around the world.
5. Lifelong Learning Skills
CLIL teaches students to think critically, work together, and adapt to new challenges.

Why CLIL is Important

1. Integration of Content and Language

By learning in a second language, students learn both the subject and the language at the same time.
2. Motivational Benefits
Students are more interested in learning because they see the importance of both the subject and the language.
3. Cognitive Advantages
Learning in another language helps students think more clearly and remember better.
4. Preparation for a Globalized World
CLIL helps students get ready for jobs and study in different countries.
5. Better Language Skills
Students use language in real-life situations, so they get better at speaking and understanding.
6. Aligning with Modern Education
CLIL fits with current teaching methods, like bilingual education and learning skills for the 21st century.

Principles of CLIL
4Cs Framework
This framework shows how CLIL works by combining these four parts:
Content: The subject you are learning.
Communication: The language you need to talk about the subject.
Cognition: Using critical thinking to understand the subject.
Culture: Learning about different cultures and how people live.

Scaffolding
Teachers give support to students to help them learn step by step until they can work on their own.

Language Triptych
CLIL focuses on three types of language:
Language of learning: Words and grammar for the subject.
Language for learning: Words for talking in class.
Language through learning: New words learned while studying the subject.

Conclusion
CLIL is a method that helps students learn a subject and a language together. It gives students the skills they need to
succeed in school and prepare for a world where different languages and cultures meet.
 2. The history of CLIL. Canadian immersion. European integration.

The History of CLIL

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) developed to meet the need for effective language
learning in a world where knowing more than one language is very important. It started as a way to teach
both subjects and languages at the same time. Here's a simple overview of CLIL’s history:

1. Early Foundations of CLIL

CLIL began from bilingual education in the 20th century. In these programs, subjects were taught in two
languages to help students learn both the language and the subject.
One of the first and most important examples of this was the Canadian immersion programs.

2. Canadian Immersion Programs (1960s)

Origins: In 1965, in Quebec, Canada, parents wanted their children to learn French while still learning other
subjects. The first program started in St. Lambert, and it was very successful.
Key Features: In early immersion, most subjects were taught in French, and later English was slowly
introduced. Students became fluent in French while doing well in other subjects.
Impact on CLIL: These programs showed that teaching in a second language can help students learn better
and be more open to different cultures, which helped inspire the CLIL approach.

3. European Integration and the Rise of CLIL (1990s)

The Need for Multilingualism: When the European Union (EU) was created, there was more focus on
learning different languages. Being able to speak more than one language became important for working and
living in Europe.
The Birth of CLIL: In the early 1990s, David Marsh and his team introduced the term CLIL. They used it
to describe teaching content and a language at the same time.
EU Support for CLIL: The EU started programs like Lingua and Erasmus+ to encourage bilingual
education. Many European countries began using CLIL to teach subjects like science, history, and geography.

4. CLIL in the 21st Century

Global Expansion: Although CLIL started in Europe, it spread to countries like Japan, India, and China.
These countries wanted to teach students in English.
Research and Development: Studies show that CLIL is very good for learning both languages and
subjects. It helps prepare students for life in a global world.

Key Milestones in the History of CLIL

Year Event
1965 First Canadian immersion program in St. Lambert, Quebec.
1980s European countries start bilingual education.
1990s The term "CLIL" is created by David Marsh.
2000s EU supports CLIL in multilingual education.
Present CLIL is used in schools worldwide.

Conclusion

CLIL has grown from Canadian immersion programs to a global approach that helps students learn languages
and subjects together. It has been successful because it gives students the skills they need in a world where
many languages are spoken.
 3. CLIL Teachers: Their Goals and Challenges in Teaching

Goals of CLIL Teachers

CLIL teachers have two main responsibilities: teaching subject content and helping students develop
language skills. Here are their key goals:

1. Integrate Content and Language Learning

Teachers provide subject-specific content (like science or history) in the target language,
helping students understand the material and improve their language skills.
2. Develop Communicative Competence
Teachers aim to improve students' ability to use the target language for both academic and
daily purposes. This includes listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
3. Promote Cognitive Skills
Teachers encourage students to think critically, solve problems, and analyze information by
engaging them in tasks that require higher-level thinking.
4. Scaffold Learning
Teachers offer structured support, like visual aids or simplified language, to help students
understand challenging content until they can work independently.
5. Encourage Active Participation
Teachers create a classroom where students are encouraged to take part, collaborate, and
express themselves in the target language.
6. Build Intercultural Awareness
Teachers use real materials and content from different cultures to help students appreciate
different perspectives and develop global citizenship skills.
7. Assess Both Content and Language
Teachers design assessments that measure both students' understanding of the subject and
their language progress.

Challenges Faced by CLIL Teachers

Teaching in a CLIL environment can be difficult because it requires both subject knowledge and
strong language skills. Some common challenges include:

1. Balancing Content and Language

Teachers often struggle to make sure students understand the subject content while also
improving their language skills. They must balance academic rigor with language clarity.
2. Language Proficiency of Teachers
If teachers are not fluent in the target language, they may struggle to explain complex or
technical concepts clearly.
3. Diverse Student Proficiency Levels
In CLIL classrooms, students have different levels of language and subject knowledge,
which can make it hard to meet everyone's needs.
4. Lack of Suitable Teaching Materials
Finding or adapting materials that fit both subject content and language learning goals can be
time-consuming because many resources are not designed for CLIL contexts.
5. Increased Workload
Teachers need extra time to plan lessons that integrate both content and language objectives,
design support materials, and create assessments.
 6. Classroom Management
Managing a classroom where students struggle with language comprehension can lead to
frustration and a lack of participation.
7. Assessment Complexity
Creating assessments that fairly measure both content knowledge and language skills is
challenging, as traditional tests may not work well for CLIL.
8. Professional Development Needs
Many teachers need special training in CLIL methods, including how to integrate content
and language, scaffold learning, and assess both aspects.

Strategies to Overcome Challenges

1. Use Scaffolding Techniques

Provide support through visual aids, glossaries, and sentence frames to help students
understand both content and language.
2. Collaborate with Colleagues
Teachers can work with language teachers for language support strategies and with subject
teachers to ensure content accuracy.
3. Continuous Professional Development
Teachers can attend workshops, webinars, and training programs focused on CLIL methods
and materials.
4. Differentiate Instruction
Teachers can adjust tasks to fit students' different levels of language and subject knowledge
by offering various difficulty levels or alternative formats.
5. Encourage Peer Support
Teachers can promote collaborative learning, where students help each other through group
work, discussions, and peer assessments.
6. Use Technology and Authentic Materials
Teachers can use digital tools, videos, and real-world content to create engaging lessons that
improve both language and subject learning.

Conclusion

CLIL teachers play an important role in helping students succeed academically and become global
citizens. Despite the challenges, with effective planning, collaboration, and ongoing professional
development, teachers can meet their goals and create a dynamic classroom environment.
 4. The 4 Cs.

The 4 Cs of CLIL

The 4 Cs framework, developed by Coyle (1999), is a fundamental model for understanding and
implementing Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). It emphasizes the
interconnectedness of four key components: Content, Communication, Cognition, and Culture.
These elements work together to ensure that both subject knowledge and language skills are
developed effectively in a CLIL classroom.

1. Content: Subject Knowledge

 Definition: Refers to the subject-specific knowledge and skills that students need to learn
(e.g., science concepts, historical events, or mathematical processes).
 Goal: To enable students to acquire and apply knowledge in the target subject area.
 Example: Teaching the water cycle in a geography class through English.
 Strategies:
o Use clear learning objectives.
o Break down complex concepts into manageable parts.
o Use visuals, real-life examples, and experiments to enhance understanding.

2. Communication: Language for Learning

 Definition: Involves the development of language skills needed to access, process, and
express subject content. This includes both academic and functional language.
 Goal: To help students use the target language as a tool for learning and interaction.
 Three Language Dimensions in CLIL:
1. Language of learning: Subject-specific vocabulary and grammar.
 Example: Terms like "evaporation" or "condensation" in a science lesson.
2. Language for learning: Language needed to participate in class activities.
 Example: Phrases like “Can you explain…?” or “I agree because…”.
3. Language through learning: New language that students acquire naturally during
the learning process.
 Example: Picking up phrases like “According to the data…” when discussing
results.
 Strategies:

o Introduce vocabulary and sentence frames.

o Encourage speaking, listening, reading, and writing in the target language.
o Provide opportunities for interaction and collaborative tasks.

3. Cognition: Thinking Skills

  Definition: Refers to the development of students’ cognitive skills, such as critical thinking,
problem-solving, and creativity, while engaging with content and language.
 Goal: To challenge students to think deeply and critically about the subject matter while
using the target language.
 Types of Cognitive Skills:
o Lower-order thinking skills (LOTS): Remembering, understanding, and applying.
o Higher-order thinking skills (HOTS): Analyzing, evaluating, and creating.
 Example:
o LOTS: Labeling parts of a plant in biology.
o HOTS: Designing an experiment to test how light affects plant growth.
 Strategies:
o Use Bloom’s Taxonomy to plan tasks that require different levels of thinking.
o Encourage problem-solving, analysis, and group discussions.
o Provide open-ended questions to stimulate deeper thinking.

4. Culture: Intercultural Understanding

 Definition: Refers to fostering awareness and appreciation of different cultures, helping

students connect their learning to the wider world.
 Goal: To promote global citizenship and intercultural competence by exposing students to
diverse perspectives and practices.
 Example: Discussing water conservation practices in different countries during a geography
lesson.
 Strategies:
o Incorporate authentic materials (e.g., news articles, videos) from various cultures.
o Compare cultural practices and encourage students to reflect on their own cultural
identity.
o Use projects that involve international or cross-cultural themes.

Integration of the 4 Cs

In a successful CLIL classroom, the 4 Cs are integrated seamlessly:

 Content provides the subject matter.

 Communication enables students to express and discuss their understanding.
 Cognition ensures that students engage deeply with the material.
 Culture connects learning to real-world contexts and fosters intercultural awareness.

Conclusion

The 4 Cs framework ensures a holistic approach to CLIL, balancing content mastery, language
development, cognitive growth, and cultural competence. By integrating these elements, teachers
create meaningful, engaging, and effective learning experiences that prepare students for the
demands of a multilingual and interconnected world.
 5. David March and Do Coyle about CLIL.

David Marsh and Do Coyle on CLIL

Both David Marsh and Do Coyle are key figures in the development and promotion of Content
and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). Their contributions have shaped the theoretical and
practical foundations of this educational approach, which has gained global recognition for fostering
bilingual and multilingual competence while enhancing subject learning.

David Marsh’s Contributions to CLIL

David Marsh is widely regarded as one of the pioneers of CLIL. He introduced the term in the mid-
1990s and provided a clear vision for its purpose and implementation.

Key Ideas and Perspectives:

1. Definition of CLIL:
o Marsh defines CLIL as “a dual-focused educational approach in which an additional language
is used for the learning and teaching of both content and language.”

2. Rationale for CLIL:

o CLIL is a response to globalization and the need for multilingualism in education.
o It provides students with the opportunity to learn subject content and a second language
simultaneously, preparing them for a multilingual world.

3. CLIL as a Flexible Model:

o Marsh emphasized that CLIL is not a one-size-fits-all method but a flexible framework that
can be adapted to different educational contexts, languages, and age groups.

4. Cognitive and Social Benefits:

o Marsh highlighted the cognitive advantages of CLIL, such as enhanced problem-solving and
critical thinking skills.
o He also stressed its role in fostering cultural awareness and intercultural competence.

Do Coyle’s Contributions to CLIL

Do Coyle is another leading figure in the field of CLIL, best known for developing the 4 Cs
framework that provides a practical structure for implementing CLIL in the classroom.

Key Ideas and Perspectives:

1. The 4 Cs Framework:
o Coyle’s model integrates Content, Communication, Cognition, and Culture to ensure a
balanced and holistic approach to CLIL.
  Content: Subject-specific knowledge and skills.
 Communication: Developing the language necessary for learning and interaction.
 Cognition: Promoting critical thinking and problem-solving.
 Culture: Fostering intercultural understanding and global citizenship.

2. Interdependence of the 4 Cs:

o Coyle emphasized that these four dimensions are interconnected and must work together
for CLIL to be effective.
o For example, students learn content through communication, apply cognitive skills to
understand and analyze it, and relate it to cultural contexts.

3. Scaffolding in CLIL:
o Coyle advocated for the use of scaffolding techniques to support students’ learning of both
content and language.
o This includes strategies like using visuals, breaking down tasks, and providing language
frames.

4. Transformative Potential of CLIL:

o Coyle viewed CLIL as a way to transform education, making it more engaging, interactive,
and relevant to students’ lives.
o She believed that CLIL promotes lifelong learning skills by encouraging students to think
critically and communicate effectively in a second language.

Key Similarities in Their Approaches

Both Marsh and Coyle share a vision for CLIL as a dual-focused approach that bridges content
learning and language acquisition. Key shared beliefs include:

 The importance of integrating content and language objectives in lessons.

 The need to prepare students for a multilingual and multicultural world.
 The role of CLIL in fostering higher-order thinking skills and intercultural competence.
 Recognition of the flexibility of CLIL and its adaptability to various educational contexts.

Differences in Focus

While their ideas complement each other, they emphasize different aspects of CLIL:

 David Marsh: Focused on the broad, theoretical underpinnings and the global need for multilingual
education.
 Do Coyle: Provided a practical framework (4 Cs) and emphasized classroom implementation and
pedagogical strategies.
Conclusion

David Marsh and Do Coyle have both made significant contributions to the development and spread
of CLIL. Marsh’s theoretical insights and advocacy for multilingual education, combined with
Coyle’s practical frameworks and pedagogical strategies, have made CLIL a widely recognized and
effective approach for integrating language and content learning. Together, their work continues to
shape CLIL practices worldwide.

6. Types of CLIL. Soft and Hard CLIL.

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is an educational approach where subjects are
taught through a foreign or second language. This method allows students to learn both the content
of the subject and the language simultaneously. CLIL can be categorized into Soft CLIL and Hard
CLIL, depending on the focus and depth of integration between content and language.

Soft CLIL

 Definition: Soft CLIL involves using a foreign or second language in specific lessons or
activities to support the learning of subject content. It is less intensive and often occurs in
mainstream language classes or as part of supplementary programs.
 Characteristics:
o Language classes include content-based topics (e.g., geography, history).
o Focus is primarily on language learning, with content being secondary.
o Often used in short-term projects or cross-curricular activities.
o Language teachers typically lead the instruction, integrating some subject-specific
content.
 Example:
o An English class where students learn vocabulary and phrases related to climate
change by reading and discussing articles on the topic.

Hard CLIL

 Definition: Hard CLIL is a more immersive approach where entire subjects or courses are
taught through a foreign or second language. The focus is on the subject content, with
language learning occurring naturally as a byproduct.
 Characteristics:
o Subject teachers (e.g., biology, math) deliver the curriculum entirely in the target
language.
o The focus is primarily on mastering the subject content, with language support
integrated as needed.
o Requires students to use the foreign language extensively, often mirroring immersion
programs.
 Example:
 o A history class taught entirely in French, where students learn about the French
Revolution while improving their French proficiency.

Key Differences Between Soft and Hard CLIL

Aspect Soft CLIL Hard CLIL

Focus Language learning with content support Subject content with language support
Intensity Partial or occasional integration Full integration of subject and language
Teachers Language teachers Subject specialists
Duration Short-term or intermittent Long-term or continuous
Language Role Supplementary Essential and primary medium

Both types of CLIL can be tailored to suit different educational contexts and objectives. While soft
CLIL is more accessible and easier to implement, hard CLIL provides a deeper and more immersive
experience, promoting bilingualism or multilingualism alongside subject knowledge.
 7. The Modular system. Its advantages and disadvantages.

The Modular System in Education

The modular system is an educational approach where a course or curriculum is divided into
smaller, independent units or "modules." Each module focuses on a specific topic or skill and can
often be completed and assessed separately. This system is widely used in secondary and higher
education, vocational training, and professional development programs.

Advantages of the Modular System

1. Flexibility:
o Students can progress at their own pace, completing modules as their schedule
allows.
o Modules can be tailored to meet individual learning needs and interests.
2. Focused Learning:
o Each module concentrates on a specific topic, enabling students to delve deeper into
particular areas of interest.
3. Ease of Assessment:
o Assessments are typically module-specific, making it easier to evaluate students'
understanding of distinct topics.
4. Interdisciplinary Opportunities:
o Modules from different disciplines can be combined, encouraging a broader and
more integrated learning experience.
5. Stackable Credentials:
o Students can earn certifications for individual modules, which may contribute to a
larger qualification, enhancing employability.
6. Efficient Resource Use:
o Modular courses often allow institutions to allocate resources more effectively,
focusing on areas of high demand or importance.
7. Encourages Lifelong Learning:
o Modules can be taken as standalone units, enabling professionals to upskill without
committing to a full degree or program.

Disadvantages of the Modular System

1. Fragmented Learning:
o The division of content into modules may lead to a lack of cohesion, making it harder
for students to see the connections between topics.
2. Reduced Depth:
o In some cases, the focus on completing modules quickly can limit the depth of
understanding.
3. Administrative Complexity:
 o Managing multiple modules, especially in large institutions, can be administratively
challenging and costly.
4. Lack of Continuity:
o Students may struggle with transitioning between modules, particularly if they are
not sequentially aligned.
5. Assessment Overload:
o Frequent assessments for each module can increase stress and workload for students
and educators.
6. Limited Interpersonal Interaction:
o Modular systems, especially in online formats, may reduce opportunities for peer
interaction and collaborative learning.
7. Risk of Superficial Knowledge:
o The focus on specific topics may result in students gaining surface-level knowledge
rather than a comprehensive understanding of the subject.

Conclusion

The modular system offers significant flexibility and customization, making it ideal for diverse
learning needs and professional development. However, its success depends on careful planning to
ensure coherence, depth, and effective integration between modules. Balancing these aspects can
help institutions and learners maximize the benefits while minimizing potential drawbacks.
 8. Principles of CLIL.

The principles of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) are designed to ensure
effective integration of content learning and language acquisition. CLIL is underpinned by the idea
that students learn a subject and a foreign or second language simultaneously, promoting both
academic and linguistic competence. The core principles of CLIL are often summarized through the
4Cs Framework: Content, Communication, Cognition, and Culture.

Principles of CLIL

1. Content: Learning the Subject

 Focuses on acquiring knowledge, skills, and understanding of specific subject matter (e.g., history,
science).
 Subject content is central, and language serves as the medium for learning it.
 Activities should align with curriculum standards and ensure academic progress.

2. Communication: Learning the Language

 Language is not only the medium of instruction but also a key learning objective.
 Emphasizes meaningful interaction in the target language, fostering both receptive (listening,
reading) and productive (speaking, writing) skills.
 Encourages using language for real-life, functional purposes rather than abstract grammar rules.

3. Cognition: Developing Thinking Skills

 Promotes higher-order thinking (e.g., analyzing, evaluating, creating) alongside basic cognitive skills
(e.g., remembering, understanding).
 Encourages critical thinking and problem-solving in the context of the subject.
 Tasks should be designed to challenge students cognitively, appropriate to their age and proficiency
levels.

4. Culture: Building Intercultural Awareness

 Highlights the importance of cultural context in language and subject learning.

 Encourages students to understand and respect diverse perspectives and global
interconnectedness.
 Develops students' ability to engage with and adapt to multicultural environments.

Supporting Principles of CLIL

5. Language Triptych

 Focuses on three types of language:

1. Language of learning: Subject-specific vocabulary and structures.
 2. Language for learning: Functional language needed to interact and complete tasks (e.g.,
asking questions, presenting findings).
3. Language through learning: New language that emerges naturally during the learning
process.

6. Scaffolding

 Provides structured support to help students succeed in challenging tasks.

 Includes strategies like visual aids, modeling, simplified language, and collaborative learning.
 Gradually reduces support as students become more confident and independent.

7. Integration of Content and Language

 Balances content and language objectives, ensuring neither is neglected.

 Teachers plan lessons with dual objectives: learning the subject matter and improving language
skills.

8. Active Learning

 Engages students in hands-on, interactive tasks that require them to use the target language
actively.
 Encourages collaboration, problem-solving, and participation.

9. Assessment for Learning

 Combines formative and summative assessments to evaluate both content understanding and
language proficiency.
 Uses diverse methods like peer assessments, presentations, and portfolios.

10. Adaptability

 CLIL programs are flexible and tailored to suit the linguistic and cognitive abilities of learners.
 Teachers adjust materials, activities, and language demands based on students' proficiency and
subject knowledge.

Conclusion

The principles of CLIL emphasize the dual-focused nature of the approach, integrating content and
language to enhance students' academic and linguistic abilities. By adhering to these principles,
educators can create meaningful, engaging, and effective learning experiences that prepare students
for global communication and collaboration.
 9. Language Triptych.

The Language Triptych is a central framework in Content and Language Integrated Learning
(CLIL) that organizes language use and learning into three interrelated dimensions. It helps teachers
identify the types of language learners need to successfully engage with both the subject content and
the learning process. The three dimensions are:

1. Language of Learning

 Definition: The subject-specific language required to access, understand, and express the
content of the lesson.
 Examples:
o Key vocabulary, phrases, and grammar related to the topic (e.g., "photosynthesis,"
"supply and demand").
o Sentence structures specific to the subject (e.g., "The equation for force is...").
 Purpose:
o Equips students with the terminology and expressions necessary to comprehend and
articulate the subject matter.
 Teacher's Role:
o Identify and explicitly teach the essential language students need to grasp the content.

2. Language for Learning

 Definition: The functional language needed to engage in classroom tasks, activities, and
interactions.
 Examples:
o Asking questions: "Can you explain...?" or "What does this mean?"
o Giving presentations: "In conclusion..." or "Our findings suggest..."
o Collaborating: "I agree with your point because..." or "Let’s consider another
example."
 Purpose:
o Enables students to participate actively in the learning process, interact with peers,
and use the language in meaningful ways.
 Teacher's Role:
o Provide scaffolding, such as sentence starters, role-play, or group discussions, to help
students use the target language for communication.

3. Language through Learning

 Definition: The emergent language that students acquire naturally while engaging with the
content and completing tasks.
 Examples:
 o New vocabulary or expressions learned through exposure to authentic materials or
teacher feedback.
o Unplanned language outcomes, such as understanding idiomatic phrases or
improving pronunciation.
 Purpose:
o Encourages students to expand their linguistic repertoire organically by encountering
and using language in context.
 Teacher's Role:
o Foster opportunities for incidental learning by creating rich language environments,
using authentic resources, and encouraging reflection on new language.

Interconnections Between the Dimensions

The three dimensions are interdependent and work together to support both content learning and
language acquisition:

 Language of learning provides the foundation for understanding the subject.

 Language for learning enables students to engage actively in tasks and collaborate.
 Language through learning expands and deepens students' language skills as they interact
with the content and peers.

Practical Application

For example, in a science lesson on "The Water Cycle":

 Language of Learning: Terms like "evaporation," "condensation," and "precipitation";

sentence structures like "Water changes state when..."
 Language for Learning: Phrases like "What happens next?" or "Can you describe the
process?"
 Language through Learning: New phrases or concepts students pick up during group work,
experiments, or discussions, such as "humid" or "cycle stages."

The Language Triptych ensures that CLIL lessons are not just about teaching subject content but
also about equipping students with the linguistic tools to learn effectively and grow as
communicators.
 10. Bloom’s taxonomy. Illustrate with your own examples the language levels.

Bloom's Taxonomy is a hierarchical framework for categorizing educational goals, particularly in

terms of cognitive skills. It consists of six levels, ranging from basic knowledge acquisition to
complex evaluation and creation. In language learning, Bloom’s Taxonomy can help design
activities that target different levels of thinking and language use.

Here’s a breakdown of the levels with examples specific to language learning:

1. Remembering (Knowledge)

Definition: The ability to recall facts, vocabulary, or basic concepts.

Language Focus: Memorization of vocabulary, grammar rules, and language structures.

Examples:

 List five synonyms for the word happy.

 Recall the past tense forms of ten irregular verbs.
 Match the following words with their definitions (e.g., arduous = difficult).

2. Understanding (Comprehension)

Definition: The ability to explain or interpret meaning in one's own words.

Language Focus: Demonstrating understanding of language in context.

Examples:

 Explain the meaning of the idiom "spill the beans."

 Summarize the main idea of a short story or news article.
 Identify the subject and predicate in a given sentence.

3. Applying (Application)

Definition: Using knowledge in new or real-life situations.

Language Focus: Practicing language in meaningful contexts.

Examples:

 Write a formal email to a professor requesting an extension for an assignment.

 Role-play a conversation at a restaurant, ordering food and asking about ingredients.
 Use new vocabulary words in sentences related to daily life (e.g., "Describe your morning
routine using these words: hurry, prepare, commute").
4. Analyzing (Analysis)

Definition: Breaking down information into parts and understanding relationships.

Language Focus: Exploring language structures, tone, or style critically.

Examples:

 Compare and contrast formal and informal writing styles in two emails.
 Analyze the tone of a persuasive speech—what words or phrases make it convincing?
 Identify and explain the function of conjunctions in a paragraph.

5. Evaluating (Evaluation)

Definition: Making judgments based on criteria and standards.

Language Focus: Critiquing language use, arguments, or ideas.

Examples:

 Assess whether a news headline uses biased language. Provide evidence.

 Critique a peer's essay for clarity, coherence, and grammar.
 Evaluate two advertisements for how effectively they use persuasive language.

6. Creating (Synthesis)

Definition: Combining elements to form a new whole; generating original ideas.

Language Focus: Producing language creatively in speech or writing.

Examples:

 Write a short story using at least five phrasal verbs.

 Create a podcast episode discussing a favorite book, using expressive language.
 Design a poster for a community event, incorporating persuasive and descriptive language.

Illustrated Example for a Lesson on “Environmental Issues”

1. Remembering: Define terms like "recycling," "pollution," and "sustainability."

2. Understanding: Explain why recycling is important in your own words.
3. Applying: Write a letter to the local council suggesting ways to reduce waste.
4. Analyzing: Compare two articles on climate change and identify their key arguments.
 5. Evaluating: Debate whether renewable energy is the best solution to environmental
problems.
6. Creating: Write a blog post imagining a future city with zero waste.

By aligning language activities with Bloom’s Taxonomy, teachers can scaffold learning, ensuring
that students build foundational knowledge and progress toward higher-order thinking and advanced
language skills.
 11. Variants of CLIL.

Variants of CLIL refer to the different ways this educational approach can be implemented,
depending on factors like teaching goals, available resources, and students' proficiency levels. CLIL
is a flexible framework, and its implementation can vary widely. Below are the main variants of
CLIL:

1. Subject-Led CLIL

 Description: The primary focus is on the subject content, with language learning occurring
naturally as students engage with the material.
 Key Features:
o Content is prioritized over language.
o Often used in secondary and higher education.
o Teachers are usually subject specialists.
 Example:
o A history lesson taught entirely in English, where students analyze historical events
and develop their language skills incidentally.

2. Language-Led CLIL

 Description: The primary focus is on language development, with subject content serving as
a context for language learning.
 Key Features:
o Language objectives are prioritized over content.
o Common in language classes where topics from other subjects are integrated.
o Teachers are usually language specialists.
 Example:
o An English lesson using geography topics (e.g., describing weather patterns) to teach
comparative adjectives.

3. Modular CLIL

 Description: A short-term or project-based approach where specific modules are taught in a

foreign or second language.
 Key Features:
o Limited in scope and duration.
o Often focuses on cross-curricular themes or specific topics.
o Can be implemented alongside traditional teaching methods.
 Example:
o A two-week science module on "Renewable Energy" taught in French.
4. Partial Immersion

 Description: A portion of the curriculum is taught in the target language, allowing students
to engage with content and language without full immersion.
 Key Features:
o Combines traditional and CLIL approaches.
o Subjects like art, music, or physical education are often chosen for partial immersion.
 Example:
o Students study math in their native language but learn biology in Spanish.

5. Full Immersion CLIL

 Description: The entire curriculum or a significant portion of it is delivered in a foreign or

second language.
 Key Features:
o Aims to develop bilingual or multilingual proficiency.
o Often implemented in international or bilingual schools.
o Requires high levels of language support for students.
 Example:
o A school where all subjects, except the native language, are taught in English.

6. Team-Taught CLIL

 Description: Involves collaboration between a language teacher and a subject teacher to

deliver content and language instruction together.
 Key Features:
o Combines expertise from both subject and language perspectives.
o Encourages interdisciplinary planning and teaching.
 Example:
o A geography teacher and an English teacher co-teach a lesson on climate change,
integrating language skills with subject content.

7. Bilingual CLIL

 Description: Subjects are taught in two languages, with a balanced approach to content
delivery in each language.
 Key Features:
o Promotes bilingual proficiency.
o Alternates between languages for different topics or lessons.
 Example:
 o Students learn physics in English and chemistry in German.

8. Cross-Curricular CLIL

 Description: Combines elements from multiple subjects, integrating them into a single CLIL
lesson or project.
 Key Features:
o Encourages interdisciplinary learning.
o Topics often address global issues or themes (e.g., sustainability, technology).
 Example:
o A project on "Space Exploration" integrating science, history, and language skills.

9. Vocational CLIL

 Description: Focuses on teaching vocational or technical subjects in a foreign language,

often targeting specific professional contexts.
 Key Features:
o Tailored to meet industry or workplace needs.
o Common in vocational education and training (VET).
 Example:
o A hospitality course where students learn about customer service and menu design in
English.

10. CLIL for Younger Learners

 Description: Adapted for primary or early secondary education, with simplified content and
a focus on interactive and playful learning.
 Key Features:
o Emphasizes visual aids, songs, and hands-on activities.
o Language demands are kept age-appropriate.
 Example:
o A primary school art lesson taught in French, where students learn colors and shapes.

Conclusion

The diversity of CLIL variants allows for flexible implementation tailored to different educational
contexts, student needs, and institutional goals. Whether the focus is on full immersion, short-term
projects, or vocational training, CLIL fosters meaningful integration of content and language
learning.
 12. Alternative methods of learning: PPP, TBL, ESA.

Alternative Methods of Learning: PPP, TBL, and ESA

These three teaching methods are widely used in language learning and other educational contexts.
Each approach has unique features, focuses, and applications, allowing teachers to select or adapt
them based on students’ needs, lesson objectives, and learning environments.

1. PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production)

Description:

PPP is a structured, teacher-centered approach that gradually shifts responsibility to students. It

involves three stages:

1. Presentation: The teacher introduces new language (grammar, vocabulary, or structures) through
examples, explanations, or demonstrations.
2. Practice: Students practice the language in controlled activities (e.g., gap-fills, drills).
3. Production: Students use the language in freer, more communicative activities (e.g., role-plays,
discussions).

Advantages:

 Clear structure helps beginners understand and apply new concepts.

 Focuses on accuracy before fluency.
 Allows for systematic error correction.

Disadvantages:

 May limit creativity in the production phase if overly rigid.

 Can be too teacher-centered in the early stages.
 Less emphasis on real-world communication.

Example:

 Presentation: The teacher explains the use of the past simple tense and provides examples like
"Yesterday, I went to the park."
 Practice: Students complete a worksheet filling in blanks with the correct past tense forms.
 Production: Students discuss what they did last weekend in pairs.

2. TBL (Task-Based Learning)

Description:

TBL is a learner-centered approach that focuses on completing meaningful tasks rather than
explicitly teaching language forms. It involves three main stages:

1. Pre-task: The teacher introduces the topic and task, activating prior knowledge and preparing
students for the task.
2. Task: Students work on a communicative task (e.g., solving a problem, making a plan). Language use
is natural and spontaneous.
3. Post-task: The teacher provides feedback, highlights useful language, and may focus on form if
necessary.

Advantages:

 Promotes authentic communication and fluency.

 Encourages collaboration and problem-solving.
 Helps students use language in real-world contexts.

Disadvantages:

 Can be challenging for beginners without sufficient language knowledge.

 Less structured, which may lead to gaps in accuracy or understanding.
 Teachers need to carefully plan tasks to ensure learning objectives are met.

Example:

 Pre-task: The teacher introduces the topic of planning a holiday and provides relevant vocabulary
(e.g., "budget," "destination," "itinerary").
 Task: In groups, students create a holiday plan for a specific budget and present it to the class.
 Post-task: The teacher gives feedback on language use and corrects common errors.

3. ESA (Engage, Study, Activate)

Description:

ESA, developed by Jeremy Harmer, is a flexible approach combining elements of both PPP and
TBL. It consists of three stages that can be arranged in various orders:

1. Engage: The teacher motivates students and gets them interested in the topic through activities like
discussions, videos, or games.
2. Study: Students focus on specific language forms or structures, with explicit teaching and practice.
3. Activate: Students use the language freely in creative or communicative activities.

Advantages:

 Flexible structure allows teachers to adapt lessons to learners' needs.

 Combines accuracy (study phase) and fluency (activate phase).
  Keeps students engaged with varied activities.

Disadvantages:

 Requires careful planning to balance all three stages.

 May not suit all learners if the engage phase is too lengthy or unrelated to the language focus.

Example:

 Engage: The teacher shows pictures of different foods and asks students about their favorite meals.
 Study: The teacher introduces vocabulary for cooking methods (e.g., "boil," "fry," "bake") and
practices pronunciation.
 Activate: Students role-play as chefs and customers in a restaurant, using the new vocabulary.

Comparison of PPP, TBL, and ESA

Aspect PPP TBL ESA

Focus Language accuracy Real-world tasks and fluency Balanced accuracy and fluency

Structure Fixed and linear Flexible and task-oriented Flexible and adaptable

Gradual shift to Active participant in task- Active and engaged

Learner Role
independence solving throughout

Teacher Role Centered in early stages Facilitator and guide Guide and motivator

Conclusion

Each method has strengths and limitations, making them suitable for different contexts. Teachers
can mix and match elements of these approaches to create engaging and effective lessons tailored to
their learners' needs.
 13. Environmentally induced variants

Environmentally Induced Variants refer to variations in teaching and learning approaches that
arise due to differences in the environment where education occurs. These environments can include
physical settings, cultural contexts, technological access, institutional frameworks, and learners'
social or economic backgrounds. Such factors shape how teaching methodologies, like CLIL or
other frameworks, are adapted and implemented. Below are some key environmentally induced
variants in education:

1. Physical Environment Variants

Description:

The physical setup of the learning environment influences teaching methods and learning
experiences.

 Traditional Classrooms: Fixed seating arrangements may limit interactive or task-based approaches
like TBL.
 Open or Flexible Spaces: Enable group work, role-play, or collaborative activities.
 Outdoor Learning: Incorporates nature or real-world settings to enhance experiential learning.

Examples:

 Teaching environmental science outdoors to directly observe ecosystems.

 Using a computer lab for language learning through multimedia tools.

2. Cultural and Linguistic Environment Variants

Description:

Cultural and linguistic contexts impact the choice of content, materials, and teaching styles.

 Monolingual Environments: Focus more on immersive methods, such as CLIL or full language
immersion.
 Multilingual Environments: Require flexible approaches that respect and integrate multiple
languages and cultures.

Examples:

 In a multicultural classroom, teaching environmental topics by comparing global and local issues
(e.g., deforestation in different countries).
 Adjusting idioms or cultural references in language lessons to match learners’ cultural backgrounds.
3. Technological Environment Variants

Description:

The availability and use of technology significantly affect teaching approaches.

 High-Tech Environments: Use tools like interactive whiteboards, VR, or online platforms for hybrid
or flipped learning.
 Low-Tech or No-Tech Environments: Rely on traditional resources like textbooks, blackboards, and
face-to-face interaction.

Examples:

 In a high-tech environment, using simulations to teach environmental changes over time.

 In a low-tech environment, employing storytelling or role-playing to discuss climate change.

4. Socioeconomic Environment Variants

Description:

The socioeconomic background of learners influences their access to resources and readiness for
specific methodologies.

 Affluent Environments: Students may have access to private tutors, advanced tools, and
international curricula.
 Underprivileged Environments: Teachers may need to adapt methods to accommodate limited
resources and larger class sizes.

Examples:

 Adapting CLIL for a low-resource school by using locally available materials for subject content (e.g.,
teaching geography using handmade maps).
 Incorporating project-based learning in well-funded schools using 3D printing for environmental
prototypes.

5. Institutional Environment Variants

Description:

The policies, curricula, and goals of educational institutions shape the teaching approach.

 Traditional Institutions: Tend to follow structured methods like PPP, focusing on exam-oriented
learning.
 Innovative Institutions: Encourage flexible, student-centered methods like ESA or TBL.
Examples:

 A traditional school may use PPP to teach English grammar for standardized tests.
 An innovative institution may integrate environmental projects into a TBL framework to enhance
creativity and problem-solving.

6. Psychological and Emotional Environment Variants

Description:

The emotional and psychological atmosphere in a classroom influences learning outcomes.

 Supportive Environments: Foster active participation and risk-taking in language use.

 Stressful or Competitive Environments: May lead to anxiety, limiting communicative methods like
TBL or ESA.

Examples:

 In a supportive classroom, students collaborate on group projects about renewable energy.

 In a high-pressure environment, teachers may emphasize drills and repetition to build confidence
gradually.

7. Geographical and Climatic Variants

Description:

The geographical location and climate can shape the accessibility and focus of educational content.

 Urban Environments: May emphasize technology and global topics like industrial pollution.
 Rural Environments: Focus more on local issues, like sustainable farming or water conservation.

Examples:

 In rural areas, teaching environmental science by involving students in planting trees.

 In urban schools, using air quality monitoring as a task in a CLIL or TBL lesson.

Conclusion

Environmentally induced variants highlight the need for adaptability in teaching methods. By
understanding and addressing the specific characteristics of their teaching context, educators can
create effective, inclusive, and meaningful learning experiences. This ensures that methodologies
like CLIL, PPP, TBL, or ESA remain relevant and impactful across diverse settings.
 14. Typologically induced variants.

Typologically Induced Variants refer to differences in teaching and learning approaches that arise
due to the typological features of the languages involved. Language typology examines how
languages differ and resemble one another in terms of structure, grammar, syntax, phonology, and
other linguistic characteristics. These typological differences influence how languages are taught
and learned, particularly in multilingual or second-language learning contexts.

Key Typological Features Affecting Language Teaching

1. Phonological Typology: Differences in sound systems (e.g., tones, consonant clusters).

2. Morphological Typology: Variations in word formation (e.g., inflectional vs. agglutinative
languages).
3. Syntactic Typology: Differences in sentence structure (e.g., word order: SVO, SOV).
4. Lexical Typology: Variations in vocabulary (e.g., the presence of loanwords, idiomatic expressions).
5. Orthographic Typology: Differences in writing systems (e.g., alphabets, logograms, or syllabaries).

Typologically Induced Variants in Language Learning

1. Phonological Variants

 Description: Teaching methods adapt to the phonological differences between the learners' first
language (L1) and the target language (L2).
 Examples:
o Teaching English to Mandarin speakers may focus on distinguishing /l/ and /r/ sounds.
o Introducing tonal recognition exercises when teaching tonal languages (e.g., Chinese, Thai)
to non-tonal language speakers.

2. Morphological Variants

 Description: Differences in word formation require specific teaching strategies for morphology.
 Examples:
o For learners of agglutinative languages (e.g., Turkish, Finnish), lessons might emphasize how
affixes combine to convey meaning.
o Teaching English to speakers of highly inflectional languages (e.g., Russian) may focus on
articles and prepositions, which are less prominent in their L1.

3. Syntactic Variants

 Description: Word order differences between L1 and L2 influence teaching methods.

 Examples:
 o Teaching English (SVO) to Japanese learners (SOV) might emphasize sentence structure and
word order exercises.
o Introducing subject-verb agreement to learners of languages where this is not a
grammatical feature (e.g., Chinese).

4. Lexical Variants

 Description: Vocabulary teaching varies based on lexical differences between languages.

 Examples:
o Teaching cognates to speakers of related languages (e.g., Spanish speakers learning English:
nation/nación).
o Addressing false cognates (e.g., embarazada in Spanish means "pregnant," not
"embarrassed").
o Introducing idiomatic expressions and collocations for non-Indo-European language
learners.

5. Orthographic Variants

 Description: Differences in writing systems influence literacy instruction and language learning
strategies.
 Examples:
o Teaching alphabetic writing systems (e.g., English) to learners of logographic systems (e.g.,
Chinese) may require focusing on phoneme-grapheme correspondence.
o Helping Arabic speakers learning English understand left-to-right writing direction and
spaces between words.
o Teaching stroke order and character formation for Chinese or Japanese learners.

6. Semantic and Pragmatic Variants

 Description: Cultural and linguistic variations in meaning and language use influence
communication and teaching.
 Examples:
o Teaching politeness strategies in English to speakers of languages with formal pronouns
(e.g., usted in Spanish or vous in French).
o Highlighting indirect language use in English compared to more direct languages (e.g.,
Russian).

Typologically Induced Variants in Teaching Approaches

1. Contrastive Analysis Approach

 Description: Focuses on comparing L1 and L2 to identify potential areas of difficulty or ease.

 Application:
 o Designing exercises that address common errors due to typological differences (e.g., verb
tense usage in English for Chinese speakers).

2. Error Analysis

 Description: Identifies typology-related errors to inform corrective teaching.

 Application:
o Correcting word order mistakes for learners of English whose L1 uses a different syntax.

3. Input and Practice Customization

 Description: Adjusting input and practice activities to address typological challenges.

 Application:
o Using drills for phonemes that do not exist in the learner's L1 (e.g., English /θ/ for French
speakers).

Advantages of Addressing Typologically Induced Variants

 Increases learner awareness of linguistic differences.

 Reduces common L1 interference in L2 learning.
 Facilitates targeted instruction and efficient language acquisition.

Challenges

 Requires teachers to have knowledge of both L1 and L2 linguistic features.

 May overlook individual learner differences in favor of typological generalizations.

Conclusion

Typologically induced variants underscore the importance of adapting language teaching to address
structural differences between learners' L1 and L2. By understanding these typological contrasts,
educators can create more effective, learner-centered instruction that bridges linguistic gaps and
fosters language acquisition.
15. The notion of scaffolding. Multimodality.
The Notion of Scaffolding

Definition:

Scaffolding is a teaching strategy where educators provide temporary, structured support to learners
to help them achieve a task or understand a concept they cannot manage independently. As learners
gain proficiency, the support is gradually reduced, fostering autonomy and mastery.

Key Features:

1. Temporary Support: The assistance is designed to be phased out as the learner becomes more
competent.
2. Tailored to Learners' Needs: Scaffolding adapts to the individual or group’s current level of
understanding.
3. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Coined by Vygotsky, scaffolding operates within the ZPD,
which is the range of tasks a learner can complete with guidance but not alone.

Types of Scaffolding:

1. Conceptual Scaffolding:
o Guides learners in understanding key concepts.
o Example: Providing a graphic organizer to help structure an essay.
2. Procedural Scaffolding:
o Supports learners in completing tasks or processes.
o Example: Demonstrating a science experiment before asking students to replicate it.
3. Linguistic Scaffolding:
o Focuses on language support, particularly in second language learning.
o Example: Modeling sentence structures or providing vocabulary lists.
4. Strategic Scaffolding:
o Helps learners develop problem-solving strategies.
o Example: Asking guiding questions during a math problem.

Examples of Scaffolding in Practice:

 Language Learning:
o A teacher provides sentence starters like "I think that..." or "In my opinion..." during a
debate.
 STEM Education:
o Using visual aids, such as diagrams, to explain a complex concept like photosynthesis.

Advantages:

 Builds confidence and reduces frustration.

  Encourages active engagement and gradual independence.
 Helps learners internalize strategies and concepts.

Challenges:

 Requires careful planning and knowledge of learners’ abilities.

 Over-scaffolding can lead to dependency.

Multimodality

Definition:

Multimodality refers to the use of multiple modes (visual, auditory, textual, gestural, spatial, etc.) to
communicate and enhance learning. It recognizes that meaning is created through the interaction of
various modes rather than relying solely on text or speech.

Modes of Communication:

1. Visual: Images, diagrams, charts, colors, and videos.

2. Auditory: Speech, music, sound effects, or podcasts.
3. Textual: Written language, including digital text.
4. Gestural: Body language, facial expressions, and movements.
5. Spatial: The arrangement of objects and the use of space (e.g., seating arrangements, digital
interfaces).

Multimodality in Education:

 Interactive Lessons: Combining videos, infographics, and group discussions.

 Digital Tools: Using apps and platforms that integrate text, audio, and visuals (e.g., educational
videos with subtitles and narration).
 Collaborative Learning: Students create multimodal projects, such as presentations or digital
storytelling.

Examples of Multimodal Activities:

1. Science: Using simulations, videos, and lab experiments to explain scientific phenomena.
2. Language Learning: Incorporating audio recordings, role-plays, and subtitles to teach pronunciation
and vocabulary.
3. History: Analyzing historical events through documentaries, primary source texts, and interactive
timelines.
Advantages:

 Appeals to diverse learning styles (visual, auditory, kinesthetic).

 Enhances engagement and retention by presenting information in multiple formats.
 Prepares learners for real-world communication, which is inherently multimodal.

Challenges:

 Requires resources and technical expertise.

 Balancing modes to avoid overwhelming learners can be complex.

Relationship Between Scaffolding and Multimodality

 Scaffolding Through Multimodality: Teachers can scaffold learning by integrating multimodal

resources. For example, a teacher explaining a new concept can use visuals, gestures, and simplified
language to make the content accessible.
 Gradual Independence: Multimodal scaffolding can be reduced over time as learners become
familiar with content and concepts.

Conclusion

Both scaffolding and multimodality are essential strategies for creating effective, inclusive, and
engaging learning environments. Scaffolding provides the necessary support for learners to progress,
while multimodality ensures that teaching addresses diverse needs and learning preferences.
Together, they foster deeper understanding and meaningful learning experiences.

16 . Differentiation vs. scaffolding.

In the context of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), differentiation and
scaffolding are complementary strategies aimed at addressing diverse student needs while
promoting both content knowledge and language development. Here’s how they differ:

Differentiation

 Definition: Differentiation involves tailoring teaching methods, materials, and activities to

meet the varied abilities, interests, and learning styles of students in a CLIL classroom.
 Focus: It emphasizes adapting the learning experience based on:
o Content: Simplifying or enriching subject matter.
o Process: Offering varied tasks (e.g., visual aids for beginners, extended research for
advanced learners).
 o Product: Allowing multiple ways for students to demonstrate learning (e.g., oral
presentations, written reports, or creative projects).
 Goal: Ensures all students engage meaningfully with the content at their own level.

Scaffolding

 Definition: Scaffolding provides temporary support to help students perform tasks they
might not be able to achieve independently, focusing on gradual skill development.
 Focus: It emphasizes:
o Language support: Providing sentence starters, key vocabulary, and model answers.
o Cognitive support: Breaking complex tasks into manageable steps.
o Visual tools: Using diagrams, charts, and other aids to make content comprehensible.
 Goal: Helps students gradually gain confidence and autonomy in applying new knowledge
and language.

Key Differences

Aspect Differentiation Scaffolding

Purpose Adapting to diverse learner needs. Supporting learners to progress step-by-step.
Customizing based on individual Providing temporary support to build
Focus
abilities. competence.
Application Long-term, ongoing adjustments. Temporary, specific interventions.

In CLIL

 Differentiation might involve providing simpler texts for beginners or advanced projects for
high-achievers.
 Scaffolding could include pre-teaching vocabulary, using sentence frames, or modeling
problem-solving strategies during lessons.

Both strategies are vital for ensuring that all students succeed in a CLIL environment, bridging the
gap between their current abilities and the dual demands of learning content and language.

17. Scaffolding techniques: occasion-related and systemic need for assistance

for language work.

In the context of CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning), scaffolding techniques can
address both occasion-related needs (immediate, situational support) and systemic needs (planned,
long-term language support). Below is a breakdown of these two types of scaffolding for language
work:

Occasion-Related Scaffolding
Definition: Support provided spontaneously or in response to immediate challenges during the
learning process.

Techniques:

1. Modeling Language Use:

o Teacher provides examples of how to use specific language structures in context (e.g., "To
compare these concepts, you can say: 'X is similar to Y because...'").

2. Prompting and Cueing:

o Offering sentence starters or hints when students struggle to express ideas (e.g., "Can you
start with 'The main idea is...'?" or "What do you think happens next?").

3. Recasting:
o Reformulating a student’s incorrect utterance into correct language while maintaining its
meaning (e.g., Student: "He go to school every day." Teacher: "Yes, he goes to school every
day.").

4. Clarification Requests:
o Encouraging students to elaborate or clarify their statements (e.g., "Can you explain that
idea in more detail?").

5. Real-Time Visual Support:

o Using diagrams, gestures, or highlighting key words during discussions to aid
comprehension.

Systemic Scaffolding

Definition: Pre-planned, structured assistance designed to address recurring or predictable language

challenges over time.

Techniques:

1. Pre-Teaching Vocabulary:
o Introducing key subject-related words and phrases before tackling new content (e.g.,
creating word banks or flashcards).

2. Sentence Frames and Language Templates:

o Providing structured phrases for specific tasks, such as debates, comparisons, or writing
conclusions (e.g., "The experiment shows that...," "One significant difference is...").

3. Scaffolded Writing Tasks:

o Breaking writing assignments into smaller steps with guided practice (e.g., brainstorming
ideas, drafting outlines, and using graphic organizers).

4. Language Ladders:
 o Gradually introducing complex language structures by building on simpler ones (e.g., from
"X is important" to "X is significant because...").

5. Cumulative Practice:
o Designing activities that revisit and reinforce previously learned language in different
contexts (e.g., regular use of subject-specific vocabulary in various tasks).

6. Collaborative Learning:
o Pairing students for peer support, with stronger language users helping less confident peers
through structured group tasks.

Examples in Practice

 Occasion-Related: If a student struggles to describe a process, the teacher might provide

immediate verbal prompts or draw a quick flowchart to visualize the steps.
 Systemic: Over several lessons, the teacher integrates vocabulary-building exercises and
sentence starters tailored to describe processes, ensuring all students develop this skill
systematically.

By combining both occasion-related scaffolding (to address immediate hurdles) and systemic
scaffolding (to build long-term skills), teachers can effectively support language development in a
CLIL environment.
18. 18. The main scaffolding techniques for the subject teacher according to

Echevarria, Vogt & Short.

According to Echevarria, Vogt, and Short, the creators of the SIOP Model (Sheltered Instruction
Observation Protocol), subject teachers can use specific scaffolding techniques to support students
in acquiring both content knowledge and language skills. These techniques are categorized into
three main types: verbal scaffolding, procedural scaffolding, and instructional scaffolding.
Here’s a breakdown of each:

1. Verbal Scaffolding

This involves using language to support students' understanding and encourage active participation.

 Techniques:
1. Paraphrasing: Restating student responses or content in simpler terms.
2. Prompting: Offering cues or hints to help students recall information or express
ideas (e.g., “What do you think happens next?”).
3. Think-Alouds: Modeling how to approach a problem or process content aloud.
4. Repetition: Reinforcing key concepts or phrases by repeating them.
5. Expansion: Adding details to student responses to build academic language (e.g.,
"Yes, photosynthesis is about plants making food, but it’s also about converting light
energy into chemical energy.").

2. Procedural Scaffolding

This focuses on structuring the learning process and tasks to make content accessible.

 Techniques:
1. Chunking Information: Breaking complex material into smaller, manageable parts.
2. Guided Practice: Leading students through activities step-by-step before letting
them work independently.
3. Think-Pair-Share: Encouraging students to discuss ideas with a partner before
sharing with the class.
4. Gradual Release of Responsibility: Moving from teacher-led instruction to student
independence (“I do, we do, you do”).
5. Visual Aids: Using graphic organizers, charts, and images to simplify content.

3. Instructional Scaffolding

This involves providing tools and resources to support comprehension and language use.
  Techniques:
1. Pre-Teaching Vocabulary: Introducing essential terms before a lesson.
2. Providing Sentence Frames: Offering templates for academic language (e.g., “The
main idea is... because…”).
3. Using Exemplars: Showing samples of completed work to guide students.
4. Language Objectives: Explicitly stating language goals alongside content goals.
5. Scaffolded Questioning: Starting with basic recall questions and progressing to
higher-order thinking (e.g., Bloom’s Taxonomy).

Example in Practice

For a science lesson on ecosystems:

 Verbal Scaffolding: Paraphrase and model academic language (e.g., “When we say
‘habitat,’ we mean the place where an organism lives.”).
 Procedural Scaffolding: Use a graphic organizer to show relationships between organisms.
 Instructional Scaffolding: Pre-teach key terms like "producer," "consumer," and
"decomposer" with visuals and sentence starters.

These scaffolding techniques ensure subject teachers support both content and language
development, aligning with the dual-focus of CLIL or sheltered instruction methods.
19. General pedagogical features in CLIL.

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) combines subject learning and language
acquisition, requiring specific pedagogical features to ensure both goals are effectively met. Here are
the general pedagogical features in CLIL:

1. Dual-Focused Approach

 CLIL emphasizes integrating content and language learning.

 Both subject objectives (e.g., history concepts) and language objectives (e.g., using past
tense verbs) are planned and taught simultaneously.

2. Active Learning

 Student-centered activities encourage learners to engage actively with content and

language.
 Examples: group discussions, project-based learning, debates, and inquiry-based tasks.

3. Scaffolding

 Temporary support structures help learners access both content and language.
 Techniques include:
o Pre-teaching vocabulary.
o Providing sentence frames.
o Using visuals or graphic organizers to simplify complex concepts.

4. Multimodal Input

 CLIL lessons rely on varied input sources (text, visuals, videos, and audio) to cater to diverse
learning styles.
 This makes content accessible and aids language comprehension.

5. 4Cs Framework

CLIL integrates four key dimensions:

1. Content: Mastering subject-specific knowledge and skills.

 2. Communication: Developing and using the target language to express subject learning.
3. Cognition: Engaging in higher-order thinking skills (e.g., analyzing, evaluating, and
creating).
4. Culture: Promoting intercultural awareness and global perspectives.

6. Differentiation

 Lessons are tailored to meet the needs of students with varying levels of language
proficiency and content knowledge.
 Strategies include tiered tasks, varied materials, and flexible grouping.

7. Language-Supportive Practices

 Teachers explicitly address language demands by:

o Identifying subject-specific vocabulary and grammar.
o Developing all four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing).
o Encouraging meaningful communication through task-based activities.

8. Collaborative Learning

 Pair and group work encourage interaction, allowing students to practice both language and
subject skills.
 Peer support is integral to fostering engagement and learning.

9. Integration of Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)

 Activities require learners to move beyond memorization, applying critical thinking and
problem-solving to subject content.
 Example: Debating a historical event in the target language.

10. Assessment for Learning

 Formative and summative assessments evaluate both language and content acquisition.
 Teachers use tools like rubrics, self-assessment, and peer assessment to ensure learning
outcomes are met.
11. Intercultural Awareness

 CLIL encourages exploration of cultural contexts related to the subject and language,
fostering global citizenship and empathy.

12. Authenticity

 Real-world materials and tasks make learning meaningful and relevant.

 Example: Reading scientific articles, creating travel brochures, or solving real-world math
problems.

By integrating these features, CLIL creates a dynamic, inclusive, and effective learning environment
where students develop both subject knowledge and language skills in parallel.
20. The L4C model (languages four/for CLIL) by Erwin Gierlinger. BICS vs.

CALP.

The L4C Model by Erwin Gierlinger: Languages Four/For CLIL

Erwin Gierlinger’s L4C model (Languages Four/For CLIL) focuses on language development in
CLIL environments, emphasizing the integration of content and language learning. It categorizes
language use into four key dimensions, aligning with the dual demands of subject content and
language acquisition.

1. Content-Embedded Language (L1)

 Definition: The language naturally used within a specific subject to explain or discuss
content.
 Example: In a biology class, terms like “photosynthesis,” “cell,” or “respiration.”
 Focus: Developing subject-specific vocabulary and terminology.

2. General Academic Language (L2)

 Definition: The language necessary for academic purposes across subjects, such as
transitions, connectors, and general academic verbs.
 Example: Words like “analyze,” “compare,” “summarize,” or phrases like “on the other
hand.”
 Focus: Teaching academic discourse skills to help students access curriculum content.

3. Procedural Language (L3)

 Definition: The language used to manage classroom activities, tasks, and routines.
 Example: “Open your books to page 15,” “Work in pairs,” or “What do you think about
this?”
 Focus: Ensuring students can navigate classroom instructions and interactions.

4. Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (L4)

 Definition: Everyday conversational language used for social interaction.

 Example: “How are you?” “Can I borrow your pen?” or “Let’s start!”
 Focus: Supporting students in building social language for classroom rapport and peer
interaction.
BICS vs. CALP (Cummins, 1979)

The concepts of Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic
Language Proficiency (CALP) are essential for understanding the language demands in CLIL and
their relation to the L4C model.

Aspect BICS CALP

Everyday conversational
Definition Academic language required for school success.
language.
Focus Social interaction. Academic understanding and critical thinking.
Language
Informal, context-embedded. Formal, context-reduced.
Features
Examples “Can I borrow this?” “Explain the process of mitosis.”
Acquisition 1-2 years for conversational
5-7 years for academic fluency.
Time fluency.
Aligns with L4 (Basic Aligns with L1 (Content-Embedded) and L2
Relation to L4C
Interpersonal). (General Academic Language).

Application in CLIL

 Balancing BICS and CALP: While conversational fluency (BICS) is essential for social
engagement, CLIL prioritizes CALP to help students succeed in content learning.
 L4C Model's Role: The model ensures students develop both BICS (L4) and CALP (L1 and
L2) while navigating procedural (L3) demands of the classroom.

By integrating L4C and addressing the BICS vs. CALP gap, teachers in CLIL environments can
create a balanced approach that supports both everyday communication and academic success.
21. The notion of collaboration in CLIL. Collaboration vs. cooperation.

The Notion of Collaboration in CLIL

In Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), collaboration is a fundamental

pedagogical principle. It involves both students and teachers working together to achieve shared
goals in language acquisition and subject knowledge. Effective collaboration in CLIL enhances
language development, promotes intercultural awareness, and deepens understanding of content.

Key Features of Collaboration in CLIL

1. Student Collaboration:
o Learners work in groups or pairs to complete tasks, solve problems, and share
knowledge.
o Examples: Group projects, peer teaching, and debates that require both content and
language use.
2. Teacher Collaboration:
o Subject teachers and language teachers collaborate to design lessons that integrate
content and language objectives.
o Example: A history teacher works with an English teacher to prepare materials that
address both historical analysis and academic writing.
3. Scaffolding Through Interaction:
o Collaborative activities allow students to scaffold one another’s learning by
exchanging ideas and practicing language in meaningful contexts.
4. Intercultural Collaboration:
o Students may engage with peers from different cultural backgrounds, fostering global
competence and appreciation for diversity.

Collaboration vs. Cooperation

Aspect Collaboration Cooperation

Joint effort where individuals work
Divided effort where individuals complete
Definition together to achieve shared goals, often
separate tasks to achieve a shared goal.
interdependent and dynamic.
Focus Collective creation and problem-solving. Task division and individual contributions.
Emphasizes interaction, negotiation, and Focuses on efficiency and individual
Process
shared responsibility. accountability.
A group creates a presentation on climate Each student researches a different aspect
Example in
change, discussing and negotiating content of climate change and combines their
CLIL
and language as a team. findings in one presentation.
Greater emphasis on learning through
Outcome Focus on completing the task efficiently.
interaction and collaboration.
Importance of Collaboration in CLIL

1. Promotes Language Development:

o Collaborative activities require students to use the target language meaningfully in
both academic and social contexts.
2. Enhances Critical Thinking:
o Joint problem-solving and negotiation develop higher-order thinking skills.
3. Encourages Inclusivity:
o Collaboration fosters peer support, ensuring all students can contribute, regardless of
language proficiency.
4. Builds 21st-Century Skills:
o Teamwork, communication, and intercultural competence are essential skills nurtured
through collaboration.

Practical Strategies for Collaboration in CLIL

 Think-Pair-Share: Students think individually, discuss in pairs, and share ideas with the
class.
 Jigsaw Tasks: Each student learns and shares a part of the content, creating
interdependence.
 Project-Based Learning: Teams work on real-world projects that require both content
mastery and language use.
 Debates: Collaborative discussions that develop critical thinking and language fluency.

Conclusion

While both collaboration and cooperation play roles in CLIL, collaboration is particularly
emphasized for its focus on shared responsibility, interaction, and deeper learning outcomes. This
approach aligns with CLIL's dual goals of integrating content and language development in
meaningful and engaging ways.
22. CLIL lesson framework.

A CLIL lesson framework ensures the effective integration of content and language learning by
organizing lessons in a structured way. It helps teachers balance subject-specific objectives with
language goals, enabling learners to achieve both simultaneously. Below is a typical CLIL lesson
framework:

1. Lesson Planning Stage

 Content Objectives: Define what students should learn about the subject (e.g.,
understanding the water cycle in geography).
 Language Objectives: Identify the language structures and skills required to achieve content
goals (e.g., vocabulary: evaporation, condensation; grammar: cause-and-effect structures).
 4Cs Framework: Ensure the lesson incorporates Content, Communication, Cognition,
and Culture.

2. Introduction (Engagement/Activation)

 Aims: Activate prior knowledge, engage students, and set the context for learning.
 Activities:
o Use visuals, videos, or realia to introduce the topic.
o Brainstorm or discuss what students already know.
o Pre-teach key vocabulary and concepts.
 Language Support:
o Provide word banks, sentence starters, or guiding questions.

3. Input (Content Delivery)

 Aims: Present new content in an accessible, multimodal way.

 Activities:
o Use teacher explanations, videos, images, and diagrams.
o Provide written texts or auditory materials tailored to students' language proficiency.
 Language Support:
o Highlight and explain subject-specific vocabulary.
o Offer comprehension aids like glossaries, graphic organizers, or annotated texts.

4. Processing (Guided Practice)

 Aims: Help students engage with the content and practice language skills.
  Activities:
o Group work: Think-Pair-Share, jigsaw tasks, or collaborative problem-solving.
o Language tasks: Fill-in-the-blanks, matching exercises, or summarizing.
o Content tasks: Analyzing data, completing diagrams, or comparing ideas.
 Language Support:
o Provide sentence frames (e.g., “The diagram shows that...”).
o Encourage use of academic language through prompts and scaffolding.

5. Production (Output/Independent Practice)

 Aims: Encourage students to apply their knowledge and use language meaningfully.
 Activities:
o Writing: Reports, summaries, or reflections on the lesson.
o Speaking: Presentations, debates, or role plays.
o Project Work: Creative tasks combining content and language (e.g., creating a poster
or video).
 Language Support:
o Offer checklists or rubrics for language and content.
o Encourage peer feedback on accuracy and fluency.

6. Consolidation (Review and Reflection)

 Aims: Summarize learning, assess understanding, and encourage self-reflection.

 Activities:
o Class discussion to revisit key points.
o Exit tickets or quick quizzes.
o Reflection journals (e.g., “What did I learn about the topic? What new words did I
use?”).

7. Assessment (Formative and Summative)

 Aims: Evaluate students' progress in both content knowledge and language skills.
 Strategies:
o Formative: Observations, questioning, peer/self-assessment.
o Summative: Tests, presentations, or written assignments.
 Criteria:
o Include both content (e.g., accuracy of scientific explanation) and language (e.g.,
correct use of vocabulary and structures).

Example Framework for a CLIL Lesson on the Water Cycle

 1. Introduction: Show a short video on the water cycle; brainstorm what students already
know; introduce vocabulary (e.g., precipitation, evaporation).
2. Input: Explain the stages of the water cycle using a diagram.
3. Processing: Students label a water cycle diagram and discuss its stages in pairs.
4. Production: Groups create a poster explaining the water cycle and present it.
5. Consolidation: Use an exit ticket with prompts like “The most important thing I learned
is...”
6. Assessment: Evaluate posters based on accuracy of content and correct language use.

This framework ensures a balanced, engaging, and systematic approach to achieving both content
and language objectives in CLIL lessons.
23. CLIL lesson planning. The main principles.

Main Principles of CLIL Lesson Planning

Effective CLIL lesson planning integrates subject content and language learning while addressing
the diverse needs of learners. The following principles guide teachers in designing lessons that
balance these dual objectives:

1. Integration of Content and Language

 Plan Dual Objectives: Each lesson should have content objectives (e.g., understanding
photosynthesis) and language objectives (e.g., using subject-specific vocabulary and
sentence structures).
 Language as a Tool: Language is not only the medium for learning but also a learning
outcome.

2. The 4Cs Framework

 Incorporate the four core dimensions of CLIL:

1. Content: Focus on subject-specific knowledge and skills.
2. Communication: Promote meaningful use of the target language.
3. Cognition: Develop higher-order thinking skills (analyzing, evaluating, creating).
4. Culture: Foster intercultural understanding and global perspectives.

3. Scaffolding for Learning

 Provide temporary support to help students achieve challenging tasks.

 Examples of scaffolding:
o Pre-teaching key vocabulary.
o Using visuals, graphic organizers, or realia.
o Providing sentence starters or language frames (e.g., “The graph shows...”).
o Gradually removing support as students gain confidence.

4. Active and Cooperative Learning

 Engage Learners: Design tasks that encourage active participation, interaction, and
collaboration.
 Examples:
o Think-Pair-Share activities.
 o Jigsaw reading or problem-solving tasks.
o Group projects requiring both content application and language use.

5. Multimodal Input and Output

 Use a variety of resources to make learning accessible to all learners:

o Texts, videos, images, infographics, or real-life materials.
 Encourage multimodal output to allow students to demonstrate understanding in various
ways:
o Writing reports, creating posters, or delivering presentations.

6. Focus on Academic Language

 Identify and teach content-obligatory language (specific to the subject) and content-
compatible language (general academic terms).
 Develop all four language skills:
o Listening: Understanding teacher explanations or videos.
o Speaking: Group discussions or presentations.
o Reading: Text comprehension with support tools like glossaries.
o Writing: Reports, essays, or summaries.

7. Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)

 Incorporate tasks that go beyond memorization to develop critical thinking.

 Examples:
o Analyzing data, comparing perspectives, or debating.
o Asking questions that promote creativity (e.g., “How would you design a model to
represent this concept?”).

8. Differentiation

 Adapt lessons to meet the needs of students with varying levels of language proficiency and
content knowledge.
 Strategies include:
o Providing different levels of materials (texts, tasks).
o Offering additional language support or extending tasks for advanced learners.

9. Assessment of Content and Language

  Include both formative and summative assessments.
 Align tasks with learning objectives for content and language.
 Use rubrics that evaluate subject knowledge (e.g., accuracy of concepts) and language use
(e.g., correct terminology, grammar).

10. Authenticity and Real-World Relevance

 Use real-life examples and tasks to make learning meaningful.

 Examples: Reading a news article, solving a real-world problem, or preparing a presentation
on a current issue.

Steps in CLIL Lesson Planning

1. Define Objectives: Clearly outline content and language objectives.

2. Identify Key Vocabulary and Structures: Select essential terms and grammar needed for
the lesson.
3. Activate Prior Knowledge: Use warm-up activities to connect with students’ existing
knowledge.
4. Present Content: Use multimodal input to introduce new information.
5. Guide Practice: Scaffold students’ engagement with the material through structured tasks.
6. Encourage Output: Design activities that require students to use language meaningfully
while demonstrating content understanding.
7. Consolidate Learning: Summarize the lesson and reflect on key takeaways.
8. Assess Progress: Evaluate content mastery and language skills using formative or
summative methods.

Example of CLIL Lesson Principles in Action

Topic: The Water Cycle (Geography)

 Content Objective: Understand the stages of the water cycle (evaporation, condensation,
precipitation).
 Language Objective: Use cause-and-effect structures to describe processes (e.g., “When
water evaporates, it turns into vapor”).

Activities:

 Watch a video with captions on the water cycle (multimodal input).

 Discuss in pairs: “What happens after evaporation?” (collaborative learning).
 Complete a diagram with labeled stages (scaffolding).
 Write a short paragraph explaining the cycle (focus on academic language).
By adhering to these principles, CLIL lesson planning ensures a balanced and engaging approach to
integrating content and language learning.
24. Classroom Management in CLIL

Effective classroom management is essential in Content and Language Integrated Learning

(CLIL) to ensure smooth integration of content and language learning. It involves creating an
organized, inclusive, and engaging environment that supports students’ cognitive and linguistic
needs.

Key Principles of Classroom Management in CLIL

1. Establish Clear Rules and Expectations

o Clearly communicate classroom rules, routines, and expectations for behavior and
participation.
o Use visuals, symbols, or multilingual explanations to ensure all students understand.
o Example: A poster displaying classroom rules like "Raise your hand before speaking"
or "Speak in the target language as much as possible."
2. Create a Language-Supportive Environment
o Provide consistent opportunities for students to use the target language without fear
of making mistakes.
o Use content-compatible language for classroom instructions and encourage students
to do the same.
o Display word walls, sentence starters, and key phrases to assist language production.
3. Use Multimodal Communication
o Supplement verbal instructions with gestures, visuals, or written prompts.
o Break down complex tasks into smaller, manageable steps.
o Example: Use diagrams to explain scientific processes alongside verbal instructions.
4. Build Positive Relationships
o Foster a supportive classroom atmosphere where students feel valued and respected.
o Encourage peer collaboration through group work and projects.
o Provide positive reinforcement to build confidence, especially in language use.
5. Differentiate Instruction
o Adapt tasks, materials, and support to meet diverse student needs.
o Group students strategically, pairing stronger and weaker language users to facilitate
peer support.
6. Encourage Active Participation
o Use interactive teaching strategies to keep students engaged.
o Examples:
 Think-Pair-Share: Encourage students to think independently, discuss in
pairs, and share with the class.
 Jigsaw Tasks: Divide content into parts, assign groups to learn different
sections, and have them teach each other.
7. Scaffold Learning
o Gradually build students’ ability to handle complex content and language by
providing structured support.
o Use graphic organizers, sentence starters, and language frames to guide
comprehension and production.
 8. Manage Time Effectively
o Allocate sufficient time for both content and language tasks.
o Use timers or clear transitions to maintain focus during activities.
9. Monitor and Provide Feedback
o Actively circulate during tasks to monitor progress and provide immediate feedback.
o Offer corrective feedback in a constructive way, balancing attention to content and
language.
o Example: If a student says, “Water evaporates because sun hot,” respond with, “Yes,
water evaporates because the sun heats it.”
10. Incorporate Cultural Sensitivity
o Be mindful of students’ cultural backgrounds and create activities that reflect their
diverse perspectives.
o Encourage students to share their own experiences and viewpoints.

Strategies for Managing Common Challenges in CLIL Classrooms

1. Low Language Proficiency

o Provide translations or simplified instructions when necessary.
o Use visual aids, gestures, and repetition to reinforce understanding.
2. Mixed-Ability Groups
o Pair students of varying abilities to encourage peer learning.
o Offer differentiated tasks, such as varying the complexity of reading materials.
3. Off-Task Behavior
o Engage students with hands-on, interactive tasks.
o Redirect attention using a calm and positive tone.
4. Overuse of L1 (First Language)
o Set clear expectations for when and how to use the target language.
o Provide sentence frames to help students express themselves in the target language.

Conclusion

Effective classroom management in CLIL creates a structured, supportive, and engaging

environment that promotes both content mastery and language development. By combining clear
rules, scaffolding, and inclusive practices, teachers can address the diverse needs of CLIL learners
and ensure active participation and success.
25. Material selection and design.

Material Selection and Design in CLIL

In Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), the selection and design of teaching
materials are critical for successfully integrating subject content and language learning. Materials
should engage learners, support both content and language objectives, and accommodate diverse
learning needs.

Key Principles of Material Selection and Design in CLIL

1. Dual Focus on Content and Language

o Materials must address both subject-specific knowledge and language development.
o Example: A science worksheet explaining photosynthesis might include key
vocabulary (e.g., "chlorophyll," "oxygen") and sentence frames ("Photosynthesis
occurs when...").
2. Alignment with the 4Cs Framework
o Ensure materials support the four dimensions of CLIL:
 Content: Subject knowledge and skills.
 Communication: Opportunities to use the target language.
 Cognition: Tasks that challenge thinking skills (e.g., analyzing, evaluating,
creating).
 Culture: Exposure to cultural perspectives or global issues related to the
topic.
3. Cognitive and Linguistic Accessibility
o Match materials to the learners' cognitive abilities and language proficiency.
o Simplify language without oversimplifying content.
o Example: Use visuals, diagrams, or simplified texts to explain complex ideas.
4. Scaffolding Learning
o Design materials that provide temporary support to learners, gradually reducing it as
their confidence grows.
o Examples of scaffolding:
 Pre-teaching vocabulary lists.
 Providing graphic organizers or sentence starters.
 Annotating texts with glossaries.
5. Authenticity and Relevance
o Use authentic materials (e.g., news articles, videos, charts) that reflect real-life
language use.
o Ensure materials are relevant to learners' interests and experiences to maintain
engagement.
6. Multimodal Learning
o Incorporate various modes of input and output to cater to different learning styles.
o Examples: Texts, videos, infographics, hands-on experiments, and group discussions.
7. Encouraging Interaction
o Materials should promote student collaboration and communication.
 o Example: Task cards for role-plays or problem-solving activities that require group
discussion.
8. Fostering Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)
o Design tasks that go beyond basic recall to involve analyzing, comparing,
synthesizing, or creating.
o Example: Instead of asking students to list parts of a plant, challenge them to design
an experiment demonstrating how plants grow.

Steps for Designing CLIL Materials

1. Define Learning Objectives

o Specify both content objectives (e.g., "Students will understand the process of
evaporation") and language objectives (e.g., "Students will use cause-and-effect
sentences to describe processes").
2. Identify Key Vocabulary and Language Structures
o Select content-specific terminology and functional language (e.g., comparing,
hypothesizing) needed for the lesson.
3. Select Input Materials
o Choose appropriate texts, videos, or visuals that align with objectives.
o Adapt authentic materials if needed by simplifying language or adding annotations.
4. Design Activities for Comprehension
o Include tasks to check understanding of both content and language.
o Examples:
 Labeling diagrams.
 Answering comprehension questions.
 Matching vocabulary to definitions.
5. Incorporate Interactive Tasks
o Design activities that encourage collaboration and meaningful communication.
o Example: Group discussions where students explain concepts to peers.
6. Plan Output Tasks
o Include opportunities for students to demonstrate understanding and use language
creatively.
o Examples:
 Writing a report.
 Creating a poster or infographic.
 Giving a presentation.
7. Include Assessment Opportunities
o Design formative and summative assessment tasks that evaluate content knowledge
and language use.

Adapting Materials for CLIL

1. Simplify Language
o Use shorter sentences and simpler grammar for lower proficiency levels.
 o Provide glossaries or translations for complex vocabulary.
2. Add Visual Aids
o Enhance comprehension by using images, diagrams, charts, or videos.
3. Provide Context
o Ensure students understand the context of the material through pre-teaching or
introductory activities.
4. Include Scaffolding
o Offer sentence starters, guiding questions, or templates to support language
production.

Examples of CLIL Materials

1. Science Lesson: The Water Cycle

o Input: Diagram of the water cycle with labeled stages (evaporation, condensation,
precipitation).
o Task: Label an unlabeled diagram and write sentences describing each stage using
sentence frames.
o Output: Students create a poster explaining the water cycle.
2. History Lesson: Ancient Civilizations
o Input: Simplified text about the daily life of the Egyptians with images.
o Task: Answer comprehension questions and compare with modern life using a Venn
diagram.
o Output: Group presentation on key aspects of Egyptian society.

Conclusion

Effective material selection and design in CLIL is a careful balance of content accessibility,
language support, and cognitive challenge. By aligning materials with learning objectives and
ensuring relevance and engagement, teachers can create lessons that promote both subject
knowledge and language proficiency.
26. ‘8 CLIL Teaching Techniques’ suggested by David Marsh.

David Marsh, a key figure in the development of Content and Language Integrated Learning
(CLIL), has outlined several effective techniques for teaching in CLIL contexts. Here are 8 CLIL
teaching techniques commonly attributed to him:

1. Scaffolding
o Provide temporary support to help students complete tasks just beyond their current
ability. This could include using visual aids, glossaries, or sentence starters.
Gradually reduce the support as students gain confidence.
2. Cognitive Engagement
o Encourage students to actively engage in problem-solving, critical thinking, and
higher-order cognitive tasks. For example, use activities like debates, group
discussions, and analyzing case studies.
3. Active Learning
o Create opportunities for students to learn by doing, through project-based tasks, role-
playing, or collaborative group work. This makes learning more interactive and
engaging.
4. Language Support
o Teach subject-specific vocabulary, language structures, and functions explicitly. Use
language frames, word banks, and visual organizers to make content comprehensible.
5. Integration of Skills
o Combine listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills in a meaningful context. For
example, have students read a text, discuss it in groups, and then write a summary or
present findings.
6. Task-Based Learning (TBL)
o Design lessons around meaningful tasks that require using both language and content
knowledge. For example, students might plan a science experiment or create a
historical timeline.
7. Culture and Context
o Incorporate cultural elements and real-world contexts to make learning relevant and
relatable. This helps students connect classroom content to their own experiences.
8. Formative Assessment
o Use ongoing assessments to monitor student progress and provide feedback. This
might include peer evaluations, self-assessments, or quick quizzes to ensure both
language and content objectives are met.

These techniques aim to balance the dual focus of CLIL: fostering subject knowledge while
simultaneously improving language proficiency.
27. The roles of a teacher and a learner in a CLIL classroom.

In a CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) classroom, the roles of both the teacher and
the learner shift to accommodate the dual focus on content and language. Here’s an outline of their
roles:

Roles of a Teacher in a CLIL Classroom

1. Facilitator of Learning
o Teachers guide students in exploring content and language rather than delivering
information directly. They create opportunities for active learning and critical
thinking.
2. Language Support Provider
o Teachers scaffold language learning by introducing key vocabulary, grammar, and
functional phrases. They model academic language and provide strategies for
language development.
3. Content Expert
o Teachers ensure that students understand the subject matter by presenting content in a
clear and engaging way. They adapt materials to suit the language level of their
learners.
4. Designer of Learning Tasks
o Teachers create tasks that integrate content and language objectives. These tasks
encourage collaboration, problem-solving, and the practical use of both content
knowledge and language skills.
5. Monitor and Assessor
o Teachers assess both content understanding and language development. They use
formative assessments to provide feedback and adjust their teaching strategies.
6. Cultural Mediator
o Teachers introduce cultural aspects related to the subject matter and help students
appreciate the global context of their learning.

Roles of a Learner in a CLIL Classroom

1. Active Participant
o Learners take an active role in their education by engaging in discussions, group
work, and hands-on activities. They are encouraged to ask questions and seek
clarification.
2. Language User
o Learners use the target language to acquire and express subject knowledge. They
develop their language skills through meaningful communication in various contexts.
3. Collaborator
 o Learners often work in pairs or groups, sharing ideas and supporting each other’s
learning. This collaborative approach enhances both content comprehension and
language use.
4. Problem-Solver
o Learners are encouraged to think critically and solve problems related to the subject
matter. They apply both content and language knowledge to complete tasks.
5. Autonomous Learner
o Learners take responsibility for their own learning by using resources such as
glossaries, visual aids, or online tools to deepen their understanding.
6. Cultural Explorer
o Learners explore cultural perspectives embedded in the content, broadening their
understanding of global issues and intercultural communication.

In essence, the teacher in a CLIL classroom creates a supportive environment that fosters both
content mastery and language development, while learners actively engage with and take ownership
of their learning process.
28. Formative vs. summative assessment.

Formative vs. Summative Assessment

Both formative and summative assessments are essential components of the learning process, but
they serve different purposes. Here's a comparison:

1. Purpose

 Formative Assessment
o Aimed at monitoring and improving learning during the instructional process.
o Helps teachers identify gaps in understanding and adjust teaching strategies
accordingly.
o Provides students with feedback to improve their learning.
 Summative Assessment
o Aimed at evaluating student learning at the end of an instructional unit or course.
o Determines whether students have met specific learning objectives or standards.
o Typically used for assigning grades or certifying achievement.

2. Timing

 Formative Assessment
o Conducted during the learning process.
o Continuous and regular (e.g., weekly quizzes, classroom discussions, or peer
reviews).
 Summative Assessment
o Conducted after a learning period or unit of study.
o Usually occurs at fixed points (e.g., end-of-term exams, final projects, or
standardized tests).

3. Feedback

 Formative Assessment
o Provides immediate, specific, and actionable feedback.
o Encourages improvement and supports student growth.
 Summative Assessment
o Provides overall feedback on achievement, often in the form of grades or scores.
o Feedback may be limited and focused on the final outcome rather than the process.
4. Examples

 Formative Assessment
o Exit tickets
o Class polls or Q&A sessions
o Peer or self-assessments
o Draft submissions with teacher feedback
o Ongoing projects or journal entries
 Summative Assessment
o End-of-unit tests
o Final essays or research papers
o Midterm or final exams
o Standardized tests
o Final presentations or portfolios

5. Role in Learning

 Formative Assessment
o Diagnostic and supportive, helping both teachers and students focus on areas for
improvement.
o Promotes a growth mindset by emphasizing learning as a process.
 Summative Assessment
o Evaluative and judgmental, providing a summary of what students have achieved.
o Often used to make decisions about progression, certification, or accountability.

Key Differences in Focus

Aspect Formative Assessment Summative Assessment

Goal Improve learning Measure achievement
Timing Ongoing At the end
Feedback Type Detailed, frequent Overall, occasional
Examples Quizzes, feedback loops Final exams, projects

Conclusion

Both formative and summative assessments are vital for effective teaching and learning. Formative
assessments support the learning process, while summative assessments evaluate its outcomes. A
balanced use of both ensures a comprehensive understanding of student progress.
29. Assessment vs. evaluation. Types of assessment.

Assessment vs. Evaluation

1. Assessment

Assessment is the process of gathering information about student learning to understand their
progress, strengths, and areas for improvement.

 Purpose: To enhance learning by identifying gaps and providing feedback for improvement.
 Focus: On the process of learning (formative or summative).
 Nature: Diagnostic, ongoing, and constructive.
 Example: Grading a student’s assignment with detailed feedback to guide further improvement.

2. Evaluation

Evaluation is the process of judging or interpreting the results of assessment to determine overall
performance or achievement.

 Purpose: To make decisions, such as grading, certification, or program effectiveness.

 Focus: On the outcome of learning.
 Nature: Summative, conclusive, and judgmental.
 Example: Assigning a final grade for a course based on cumulative assessments.

Aspect Assessment Evaluation

Goal Improve learning Measure performance

Focus Process of learning Results or outcomes

Timing Ongoing Final or conclusive

Feedback Detailed, constructive Overall judgment or score

Types of Assessment

1. Based on Purpose

 Formative Assessment
o Conducted during learning to monitor progress.
o Examples: Quizzes, discussions, peer reviews.
  Summative Assessment
o Conducted at the end of a learning period to evaluate achievement.
o Examples: Final exams, standardized tests, projects.

2. Based on Scope

 Diagnostic Assessment
o Conducted before instruction to determine students’ prior knowledge and identify learning
gaps.
o Examples: Pre-tests, surveys, interviews.

 Placement Assessment
o Used to place students into appropriate levels or groups based on their skills or abilities.
o Examples: Language placement tests, aptitude tests.

3. Based on Method

 Objective Assessment
o Involves questions with clear right or wrong answers.
o Examples: Multiple-choice, true/false, matching.

 Subjective Assessment
o Involves open-ended responses, where judgment is required to evaluate.
o Examples: Essays, short-answer questions, oral presentations.

4. Based on Mode of Delivery

 Traditional Assessment
o Paper-based or written tests focusing on academic knowledge.
o Examples: Written exams, problem-solving tasks.

 Alternative Assessment
o Focuses on real-world tasks and application of skills.
o Examples: Portfolios, project-based learning, role-plays.

5. Based on Interaction

 Self-Assessment
o Students evaluate their own work to reflect on their learning.
o Example: Reflective journals, checklists.

 Peer Assessment
o Students assess each other’s work to provide constructive feedback.
o Example: Group work reviews, peer grading.
Conclusion

Assessment focuses on improving the learning process, while evaluation judges the outcome. A
variety of assessment types, tailored to different purposes, ensures a well-rounded understanding of
student progress and achievement.
30. Material adaptation. Error correction.

Material Adaptation

Material adaptation refers to the process of modifying existing teaching materials to meet the
specific needs, levels, and interests of learners, while ensuring alignment with lesson objectives. It
helps create a more effective and engaging learning experience.

Reasons for Material Adaptation

1. Level of Difficulty: To match students' language proficiency or cognitive ability.

2. Cultural Relevance: To make content relatable to students’ backgrounds.
3. Time Constraints: To fit lesson duration or eliminate unnecessary sections.
4. Learning Styles: To cater to visual, auditory, or kinesthetic learners.
5. Curriculum Alignment: To ensure consistency with syllabus or exam requirements.
6. Engagement: To make materials more interactive and appealing.

Techniques for Material Adaptation

1. Simplification
o Adjust language complexity, shorten texts, or reduce task difficulty.
o Example: Replace complex vocabulary with simpler synonyms.

2. Extension
o Add extra tasks or activities to deepen understanding.
o Example: Include additional speaking practice after reading.

3. Reduction
o Remove parts of the material that are unnecessary or too challenging.
o Example: Skip overly detailed grammar explanations.

4. Replacement
o Substitute content with something more relevant or suitable.
o Example: Replace unfamiliar cultural references with local examples.

5. Reordering
o Change the sequence of activities to better suit the learning flow.
o Example: Do a listening task before a reading activity to build context.

6. Personalization
o Include activities or examples that connect to students’ lives and interests.
o Example: Use students’ hobbies as themes for writing tasks.
Error Correction

Error correction involves addressing students' mistakes in language use to help them improve their
accuracy and fluency.

Types of Errors

1. Linguistic Errors
o Related to grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation.
o Example: “He go to school” (grammar).

2. Content Errors
o Related to factual or conceptual understanding.
o Example: Misunderstanding historical dates.

3. Pragmatic Errors
o Related to the inappropriate use of language in context.
o Example: Using informal language in a formal setting.

Approaches to Error Correction

1. Explicit Correction
o The teacher directly points out the error and provides the correct form.
o Example: “You said ‘He go,’ but it should be ‘He goes.’”

2. Implicit Correction (Recasting)

o The teacher reformulates the error without explicitly pointing it out.
o Example:
 Student: “He go to school.”
 Teacher: “Yes, he goes to school every day.”

3. Elicitation
o The teacher prompts the student to self-correct.
o Example: “Can you try that again?” or “What’s the correct verb form?”

4. Repetition
o The teacher repeats the student’s error with questioning intonation to draw attention to it.
o Example: “He go?”

5. Peer Correction
o Other students are encouraged to correct the error.
o Example: “Does anyone know the correct way to say that?”

6. Delayed Correction
o Errors are noted and addressed later, often in a summary or feedback session.
o Example: Reviewing common mistakes after a group activity.
Strategies for Effective Error Correction

 Focus on key errors that hinder communication or are relevant to the lesson objectives.
 Use a positive tone to maintain students’ confidence and motivation.
 Balance between accuracy and fluency—avoid interrupting fluency-building activities excessively.
 Encourage self-correction to promote learner autonomy.
 Adapt correction methods based on the error type and the student’s proficiency level.

Conclusion

Material adaptation ensures that teaching materials are appropriate and engaging, while error
correction helps students develop language accuracy and fluency. Both are essential for creating an
effective and student-centered learning environment.