Department of Physics & Electronics

Prac Manual
PHY 201

Introductory Electronics

Dino Giovannoni, Anthony Sullivan

2020 NAME:
Ver: 191203
 Contents

Course Information 1

1 Thévenin & Norton Theorems 5

2 RC, RL Circuits & Transformers 8

3 Filters 11

4 Diodes 14

5 Transistor Hybrid-π Model 18

6 Transistor Amplifiers 21

7 Basic Op-Amp Circuits 23

8 Practical Op-Amp Circuits 25

9 Combinational Logic Design 27

10 Sequential Logic Design 33

11 Using the Equipment 35

12 Using The DSO 41

A Datasheets 51

B Report Guidelines 65
 Course Information

Introduction
In this course you will learn some general electronics principles not previously covered in first year, so that you
can design and evaluate basic electronic systems. The electronics course is divided into two parts:

Analog Electronics: In the first part of the course you will be introduced to various discrete components,
including resistors, capacitors diodes and transistor; as well as op-amps. While you will have seen these
components in the first year course, they will be dealt with in greater detail during this course. In
particular, you will be exposed to various mathematical models that can be used to understand and
predict the behaviour of the circuits to both DC and AC (or small signals).
Digital Electronics: The second part of the course will cover the basic building blocks of digital electronics.
Again, the coverage will be in more depth than what you were exposed to in first year.

Lab Record Book

You must acquire a lab book for the course. You are expected to keep a neat record of all experiments,
measurements and supplementary notes in your lab book. The work in this book will be assessed weekly and
the results will count towards the prac component of your class record. Loose pages are not acceptable and you
will get a mark of zero if loose pages are submitted. Remember, you will be allowed to take your lab book
into your prac exam, so it is in your best interests as well. During each lab session, the previous lab will be
reviewed together with you and a mark assigned for the lab book work.

Lab Assignments
You will also be expected to submit a written report. The assignment will be on a selected lab in the first term,
so it is in your best interest to keep detailed notes in your lab book. The lab assignments must be written using
the LATEX. Some introductory lecture slides and sample documents in LATEXare available from the Resources
section of the departmental website. You will be informed of which experiment to write a report on after the
experiment has been done. Take note of the assignment submission date outlined in the schedule
section later. The assignment counts a fair percentage of the class record, so it is your best interest to put in
some effort.

Equipment
At the end of the afternoon you will be expected to leave your workstation tidy, as the 3rd years also use the
lab. Any faulty equipment, or suspected faulty equipment should be reported immediately.

Lab rules / guidelines

A few simple rules of thumb will improve your practical experience.

• No eating or drinking in the lab. (electronics and liquids are not friends).
• If you smell something burning, turn your equipment off and call a demonstrator.
Contents 2

• If your circuit is getting hot, turn off your equipment and call a demonstrator, or correct your circuit.
• Just because a resistor/capacitor is in the drawer for a certain value does not mean that it has this same
value.
• Try not to short signal generators and power supplies.
• Build your circuit and then check it before applying power.
• Ask questions if you are stuck or suspect a fault.

Knowledge Assumed from 1st Year

You are expected to be familiar with the content of the electronics course from their first year. In particular,
you should be familiar with:

• Kirchhoff’s Laws • The basics of how to use an oscilloscope.

• Potential dividers
• The basics of how to use a signal generator.
• Phase difference
• Impedance for capacitors and inductors • The basics of how to set up a power supply.
• Op-amps (Comparators, inverting, non-inverting, • How to read resistor colour codes.
summing)
• How to read a circuit diagram and build it using a
• astable 555
breadboard.
• logic gates
• binary (representation & arithmatic) • How the connections in a breadboard are laid out.
(i.e. how the holes are connected).
• De Morgans laws
• How to use a DVM (even one that you have not seen • We never measure current directly, but calculate it
before) from the voltage across a known resistor!

How to go about doing the practicals

• Read through the prac and relevant theory sections before getting to the prac.
• Make an effort to work through the exercises. Some of the questions will help you understand some of
the background theory for the prac.
• Make sure you know what you will be doing, or the prac will take much longer than necessary.
• Prepare your lab book before you get to the prac. You will only be allowed to take your lab book into
the exam (not the theory/prac manual).
– Make notes about the theory relevant to the section.
– Prepare tables where you can record the raw data from the experiment. Include circuit diagrams
and spaces for annotations that you may want to make for things you discover during the practical.
– Prepare spaces for graphs. You should hand draw and plot (roughly) the data you get during the
prac. You can later add Excel generated tables and graphs if you want to.
• Make notes of any extra information you discover during the practical.
• After the practical, make sure that your record book is up to date.
• Make sure that you have achieved the listed practical outcomes.

Teaching Methods
The course consists of 10×3-hour practicals during which the course content is put to practice and investigations
are made into the nature of several key electronic components and circuits. Students are expected to have
read through their notes beforehand.
There are pre-practical lectures where the content for that week is presented and discussed. The one lecture
will be on the same day as the prac, where the details of that prac will be reviewed. In addition, there will
be another lecture (time by arrangement) which will cover the theoretical component of the course. There will
also be weekly exercises that must be submitted with the lab book for marking.
Contents 3

Python
In the maths 2 course you will be learning how to use the Python programming language for plotting functions
and doing mathematical programming (amongst other things). Some of the exercises will be simple Python
problems that will be useful when you need to analyse the data that you will take during the practical. Doing
these exercises before the lab will help you immensely in understanding what you have to do in the lab and
why. Where indicated in the practicals, you must provide the Python generated plots of the results.

Course/Module Content
DC Circuits: Several key circuit theorems are discussed as well as their application to simplifying a circuit.
LRC Circuits: Inductor / Resistor / Capacitor circuits are presented, along with the complex versions of the
circuit theorems presented in the previous section. Components are characterised and key applications
are covered.
Diodes: An in depth look at the most fundamental semiconductor, including characteristics and models. Key
applications are covered (rectification, clipping, clamping).
Transistors: Bipolar Junction Transistors are focussed on. (Field Effect Transistors are dealt with in 3rd year).
Characteristics of these devices are covered as well as their modes of operation and their applications.
Operational Amplifiers: These building blocks of modern electronics are covered in so far as their deviation
from the ideal model, fundamental applications and theoretical characteristics are dealt with.
Digital Basics: 1st year work is recapped as well as handling some more complex examples.
Sequential Logic: The basic building blocks of sequential logic are covered as well as more complicated
sequential systems.

Resources
The course is lectured from notes handed to students. Some industry publications, periodicals and texts serve as
a source of additional reference material. There is no prescribed textbook for the course, however the following
textbooks may serve as useful references:

• The Art of Electronics; Horowitz P. and Hill W; 2nd ed; Cambridge University Press; 1990.
• Microelectronic Circuits; Sedra A.S. and Smith K.C.; 6th ed;Oxford University Press; 2011.
• Digital Fundamentals; Floyd T.L.; 10th ed; Pearson 2013.

Class Record & Exam

Practical Class Record
The class record for the practical sessions will be made up as follows:

Item Marks
Weekly Exercises 30
2 Assignments 30
Lab book: 10
Class test 30
Total 100

Credit Value
Note that the practical mark counts for approximately one-third of the PHY201 mark. This course counts
towards both your class record and your examination mark:
Contents 4

Item Marks % of Course Total

Practical Class Record 100 ∼11%
Practical Exam 200 ∼22%

Refer to page 4 for the dates of the test and final examination. The examination component for Electronics
counts one third of your examination mark for Physics 201.
Further details will be provided during the first semester.

Schedule
The practicals will be held on Monday afternoons, starting promptly at 14h00. There will also be a preparatory
session held in the sixth period on Mondays in the lower lecture theatre, that will cover the theory that will be
needed for the practical. If possible, an additional theory lecture can be held during the week prior to the prac,
at a suitably arranged time. You are expected to read through the relevant sections of the manual before the
prep session. There are also references in the manual to relevant sections in The Art of Electronics that you
should read through after the prac to consolidate the theory that has been presented.
The schedule for the prac course is as follows:

Term 1
Date Sub. Prac. Description
Mon, 10-February #1 Thévenin & Norton Theorems
Mon, 17-February #2 RC, RL Circuits & Transformers
Mon, 24-February #3 Filters
Mon, 2-March #4 Diodes
Mon, 9-March #5 Transistor Hybrid-π Model
Mon, 16-March #6 Transistor Amplifiers
Mon, 23-March #7 Basic Op-Amp Circuits
Fri, 27-March D Assignment #1 Report Submission
Term 2
Mon, 20-April #8 Practical Op-Amp Circuits
Mon, 4-May #9 Combinational Logic Design
Mon, 11-May Class Test
Mon, 18-May #10 Sequential Logic Design
SWOT Week Final Practical Exam
 Practical

1 Thévenin & Norton Theorems

1.1 Introduction
In this practical, you will explore Thévenin and Norton equivalent circuits.

1.1.1 Background
Read Chapter 1 in the lecture notes. Make sure you understand how to calculate Thévenin and Norton equivalent
circuits. Also read

• The Art of Electronics - (p9-13)

• Student Manual for The Art of Electronics - (p1-30)

1.1.2 Outcomes
• Should be familiar with the differences and similarities between the digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) and
the oscilloscopes used in first year.
• Should have re-acquainted yourself with how to set up the power supply unit (PSU). i.e. parallel, series,
independent etc.
• You should now know what the output impedance of the signal generator is, and hence use this information
to explain deviations from theoretical outputs in future experiments.
• Ability to use circuit theorems to simplify complex circuits.
• Ability to experimentally determine equivalent circuits.

1.1.3 Preliminary Work - Oscilloscopes

Spend some time familiarising yourself with the DSOs - ask questions if you are unsure about something. Apply
various signals from the signal generator and ensure that you are able to get the correct signal trace on the
DSO. Not all of the scopes are identical, swap stations with a friend and spot the differences. Things you should
be familiar with at the end of the afternoon are:

• How to get a trace centred. • How to use the automatic measuring functions.
• How to operate the trigger functions properly
• How to operate the cursors • How to make sure a probe is calibrated.
Practical 1. Thévenin & Norton Theorems 6

1.2 Experiment #1
R Build the following circuit. Use the DC power supply and two 100Ω resistors to provide a voltage source
vAB .

100Ω A
iL
5V - +
100Ω vAB RL
B

R Determine how vAB varies with current drawn, using the following values of RL (10R, 22R, 47R, 100R
and 330R).

R For each load, calculate iL from the measured vAB .

While you are taking data, plot the results on a graph in order to estimate the Thévenin parameters.
Think about how you would read the parameters from the graph. Do they make sense?

R Plot a graph of vAB vs iL . (Maybe using Python or MatLab? Or something other than Excel!)

R From the graph, determine the parameters RT and vT of the Thévenin equivalent circuit:

RT A
iL
vT -+ vAB RL
B

From the Thévenin circuit, the voltage vAB is given by

vAB = vT − iL RT

which is of the form of a straight-line graph (i.e. of the form y = c + mx).

R Compare this to the theoretical values obtained by Thevinising the circuit that you built.
Practical 1. Thévenin & Norton Theorems 7

1.3 Experiment #2
You will now determine the Thévenin and Norton equivalent circuits for the function generator.

Function Generator
RT
iL
vT vL RL

R Use a sinusoidal signal with the output amplitude on maximum and at a frequency of somewhere between
1kHz and 10kHz (remember not to change it after you start).

R Use the following values of RL (10R, 22R, 47R,100R, 330R, 1K) and measure vL and iL using the DVM.

Again, while you are taking data, plot the results on a graph in order to estimate the parameters:

R Plot the results and draw both possible equivalent circuits for the generator.

1.4 Experiment #3
R Set the generator to an unloaded output of about 2VRMS at 100 Hz.

R Use load resistors of 10R, 22R, 33R, 47R, 56R, 68R, 100R, 150R, 220R, 330R and 470R.

R Measure vout with the DVM for each load resistor in turn.

R Plot a graph of power delivered to the load, PL vs RL . (Recall: PL =

2

RL )
vRMS
 Practical

2 RC, RL Circuits & Transformers

2.1 Introduction
In this practical you will review some basic ideas of RC-circuits, RL-circuits and introduce transformers. In
particular you will see how to construct differentiators and integrators.

2.1.1 Background
Read Chapter 2 in the lecture notes. Make sure you understand the properties of resistors, capacitors and
inductors. Also read

• The Art of Electronics - (p15-29)

• Student Manual for The Art of Electronics - (p32-39)

2.1.2 Outcomes
• Measurement of phase and frequency
• Insight as to how the various passive components affect a signal passing through a system.
• Understanding of electronic differentiators and integrators.
• Understanding of the basic functioning of transformers.

2.2 Experiment #1: Measuring Phase of a RC-Circuit

Measure the phase difference between the voltage from the signal generator, vS and the current in the circuit,
i, as shown in the circuit diagram below.

i
470nF v
vS R 1kΩ
1kHz
vR ∝ i
Practical 2. RC, RL Circuits & Transformers 9

2.3 Experiment #2: Measuring Phase and Impedanct of a

RL-Circuit
R Set up the following circuit:

i
5kHz vR ∝ i
3VRMS vR 470Ω
(loaded)

Use the tape-reel inductors provided.

R Measure the phase difference between vS and i as shown in the circuit diagram.

R Measure vSRMS and vRRMS and calculate iRMS .

R You now have the voltage, the current and the angle between them. Calculate the impedance Z of the
circuit.

R Find the total resistance (R + RL ) and XL . Hence determine RL and the inductance, L.

R Check these values using the AC bridge in the lab.

2.4 Experiment #3: RC-Integrator

R Construct the circuit shown:

vin

10kΩ
vout
10nF

Think about what an integrating circuit should do to various signal types. i.e. try and sketch some input
and output waveforms.

R Drive the circuit with a 100kHz square wave.

R Show that it is integrating correctly (draw a picture).

R Also sketch the output for triangular and sinusoidal inputs and comment.
Practical 2. RC, RL Circuits & Transformers 10

2.5 Experiment #4: RC-Differentiator

R Construct the RC-differentiator shown below. Drive it with a 100kHz sine wave.

vin
100pF v
out

100Ω

Think about what an differentiating circuit should do to various signal types. i.e. try and sketch some
input and output waveforms.

R Show that it is differentiating correctly.

R Also try a 100kHz triangular wave and a 100kHz square wave. Are the results what you would expect?
Why?

R What is the input impedance of this circuit at very high frequencies, and very low frequencies?

2.6 Experiment #5: Transformers

R Use a 1kHz sine wave to drive the transformer circuit shown below. Use the 12V-12V taps as the primary
and the 0-220v taps as the secondary.

1kΩ iP iS

vin eP eS vout

R Measure the primary and secondary voltage as well as the primary current., note the relative phases.

R Using the above information, find the turns ratio n, the inductance of the primary as well as the resistance
of the primary.

R Check your values using the AC bridge.

 Practical

3 Filters

3.1 Introduction
In this practical you will investigate frequency selective circuits - filters.

3.1.1 Background
Read Chapter 2 in the lecture notes. Also read:

• The Art of Electronics - (p29-42)

• Student Manual for The Art of Electronics - (37-60)

3.1.2 Outcomes
• Insight as to how the various passive components affect a signal passing through a system.
• The ability to distinguish between various types of filters.
• Phase differences in filters
• Why filters work - impedance vs frequency.
• Use the Python matplotlib library to produce a Bode plot.
Practical 3. Filters 12

3.2 Experiment #1: Filter Types

R Build each of the following filters in turn.

1kΩ 10mH

vin 10mH vout vin 1kΩ vout

(a) (b)

470nF 1kΩ

vin 1kΩ vout vin 470nF vout

(c) (d)

R For each circuit:

1. State what kind of filter each is and verify its operation with a quick qualitative judgement by scanning
through frequencies from 50Hz to 100kHz. (Try the sweep function on the signal generator.)
2. Then use the oscilloscope√ to determine the break frequency for each filter. Do this by adjusting the
frequency until A = 1/ 2 (i.e. until vout ≈ 0.707vin ). Then measure φ between vout and vin . Check
against the theoretical value.

3.3 Experiment #2: RC-Filter

R Using frequencies in the range 50Hz to 300kHz draw Bode gain and phase plots on log/lin paper for the
response of the circuit shown below. Keep the magnitude of the input voltage |vin | constant (it should be
since 68kΩ  50Ω in the signal generator).

68kΩ

vin 1nF vout

1. Take the following measurements and tabulate with the following headings:

Freqency Period Input Voltage Output Voltage Voltage Gain Phase Difference Phase Shift
f [Hz] T vin [V] vout [V] A [dB] ∆T φ [◦ ]

2. Produce Bode plots using Python based on the measurements you have taken.
3. Find fc by an asymptote method from the gain and phase plot.
4. Check with theory (ωc = 2πfc = 1/RC).

Tip: It might be useful to quickly sketch a few points (around the cutoff frequency) to determine the best
frequency measurements to use. Maybe indicate the theoretical frequency and its expected gain before you
start. The following graph axes might be useful for this. Note: This is not the final graph that you need to
produce. This is just to help you in deciding what frequencies you should choose.
Practical 3. Filters 13

dB
10

−10

−20

−30

−40

−50

−60

−70

−80 Hz
101 102 103 104 105 106

3.4 Experiment #3: RLC-circuit

Set up the following series RLC-circuit:

10nF 10mH

vin 220Ω vout

1. What 3 ways can you think of to determine the resonant frequency?

2. Determine the resonant frequency by taking a number of voltage measurements.
3. Plot the resulting data points of the magnitude Bode plot using Python.
4. (Optional) Superimpose a plot of the theoretical curve .

3.5 Experiment #4 (Optional)

In this experiment you will design a filter to remove low frequency noise. Suppose you are faced with a signal
of moderate frequency (1 kHz), polluted with 50 Hz noise and lower.

1. Draw a skeleton circuit (no component values) that will keep most of the good signal and attenuate the
noise.
2. Now choose some values:
a) If the load has a value 100k, choose R for your circuit. Suppose the signal is being generated by the
lab function generator.
b) Choose f3dB . Briefly explain your choice.
c) Choose C to achieve the f3dB that you chose.
d) By how much do you expect the filter to attenuate the 50Hz noise?
3. Build your circuit and take measurements to check that it operates as expected.
4. Draw a skeleton circuit that would filter out the higher frequency signal and recover the 50Hz signal.
 Practical

4 Diodes

4.1 Introduction
In this practical, we will investigate the properties of diodes together with some applications.

4.1.1 Background
Read Chapter 3 in the lecture notes. Also read

• The Art of Electronics - (p44-53)

• Student Manual for The Art of Electronics - (p61-81)
• Analog and Digital Electronics - Peter H. Beards (p1-12)

4.1.2 Outcomes
• The ability to discern the function of a diode in a circuit.
• The ability to measure the various diode parameters.
• The ability to use Python to perform a non-linear fit to data.
• To understand some practical applications of diodes.

4.2 Experiment #1: Diode identification

Make sure that you can identify a diode correctly based in the physical marking on the various types of diodes
(i.e. identify the anode and cathode.)
Note what happens when you test a diode on the resistance range of a meter. Make sure that you measure the
resistance both ways around. From the resistance measurements, can you identify the anode and the cathode?
Try this with all the different types of meters available. Use the signal diode, the rectifier diode and an LED.
Practical 4. Diodes 15

4.3 Experiment #2: Diode characteristics & parameters

In this experiment you will measure the diodes current-voltage characteristic curve, and determine the values
of the saturation current, Is and the ideality factor, n in the modified diode equation,

iD (vD ) = Is (evD /(nVT ) − 1).

Construct the following circuit:

1 kΩ
iD
iD
v +-
vD 1N4179
vD

• Change the DC supply voltage, v, then measure the DC current through the diode as a function of the
DC potential across it. Plot a graph of the current, iD versus the voltage across the diode, vD . As a
check, plot the points as you measure them on the following axes (this is not the final graph that you
must produce in your lab book):

10

6
iD (mA)

−0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

vD (V)

• Use both polarities of supply potential.

• The 1K resistor is in series to limit the current.
• Do not let the current through the diode exceed 10mA. Use a range on the voltage axis from ≈ -0.8 to
0.8V).
• Plot the data points on a graph using Python. Clearly identify the bias regions of the diode on your
graph.
• Produce another Python plot of the forward biased region and determine the parameters p = (Is , n) in
the non-ideal diode equation based on your measurements.
In other words, use the scipy.optimize.curve_fit() function to determine the saturation current, Is ,
and the ideality factor, n, and superimpose the plot of the fitted diode current with the data points that
you have measured. (See exercises!)
Practical 4. Diodes 16

4.4 Experiment #3: Slope resistance

In this experiment you will determine the slope resistance of the same diode from the previous experiment. Use
bias currents of 5mA and 2mA, using the following circuit:

vDC

1 kΩ

iD
v vD 1N4179

• Bias the diode at 5mA with a current limiting resistor of 1k. Then apply a small 1kHz AC voltage via
a current measuring resistor and a blocking capacitor. So, you will need to measure the small signal (i.e.
AC) voltage across and current through the diode. Hence determine the slope resistance.
• To check if the input signal is small enough, observe the signal across the diode, it should not be visibly
distorted.
• Repeat for a bias of 2mA.
• Compare to the theoretical rm using the parameters obtained in the previous experiment.
• On the plot of current vs voltage from the previous experiment, indicate on the diode curve the significance
of the two slope resistances that you obtained. Do your values make sense?

4.5 Experiment #4: Half-wave rectifier

Construct a half wave rectifier with RL = 10 kΩ.

vin D vout
RL

• Drive it with a 1kHz sinudoidal signal.

• Sketch the output vR as seen on the scope set on DC (compare with AC setting).
• Also sketch the voltage across the diode, vD .

Add a 0.47µF capacitor to your half-wave rectifier from above.

vin D vout
C RL

• Observe the ripple on the output, measure ∆v/V and compare it with T /τ .
• Add another 0.47µF in parallel and observe the effect.
• Calculate the peak inverse voltage and the surge current for the circuit in the first part.
• Find the specifications for the signal diode and the rectification diode that you have from the data sheets
up front. Satisfy yourself why we distinguish between the two.
Practical 4. Diodes 17

4.6 Experiment #6: Negative clamper (Optional)

Design and build a combination negative clamper followed by a peak detector to obtain a negative peak-to-peak
detector. (i.e. obtain a ≈DC output voltage that is negative and ≈ equal in magnitude to the peak to peak
voltage of the input.

• Use 0.2 µF caps.

• Draw the circuit and have it approved first.
• Note the result with and without a load resistor of 10k.
• Use a frequency of 1kHz.

4.7 Experiment #7: Switching inductive loads (Optional)

Drive one of the tape-reel inductors with a 1V supply, observe the effect of suddenly breaking the circuit. Add
a protection diode and note the difference.
 Practical

5 Transistor Hybrid-π Model

5.1 Introduction
In this practical, you will investigate the current and voltage properties of transistors, and use them to determine
the parameters of the hybrid-π model of a NPN transistor as shown:

B C
+
ṽπ rπ gm ṽπ ro
-

The parameters will be obtained for a bias base current i∗B = 50 µA, and a collector-emitter voltage vCE
∗
= 5 V.
You will use the experimental data to produce the input and output characteristic curves, from which you can
obtain the hybrid-π parameters

∂vBE ∂iC ∂vCE

rπ = , gm = , and ro = .
∂iB iB =i∗ ∂vBE iC =i∗ ∂iC iC =i∗
B C C

You will also use the output characteristic curve to obtain the Early voltage, VA . These parameters can also
be obtained using the bias currents
VT i∗C VA
rπ = , gm = , and ro = ,
i∗B VT i∗C

and you will need to compare the values you obtain from both cases.

5.1.1 Background
Read Chapter 4 in the lecture notes.

5.1.2 Outcomes
• Understanding of basic transistor action.
• Grasp of the input and output characteristics of a transistor.
• Determine the hybrid-π model parameters.
Practical 5. Transistor Hybrid-π Model 19

5.2 Experiment #1: Identification

Identification of the transistor legs. Make sure you can identify the legs of the transistor, by inspection as well
as with a DVM. Check that you are able to see the 2 diodes, and the orientation of the diodes to confirm it is
in fact a NPN transistor.

5.3 Experiment #2: Fundamental transistor action

Build the circuit shown.

+5 V
Y
100 Ω

100 kΩ
X BC107
Z

1. Connect X to Z and measure iB , iC , vB and vCE .

2. Connect X to Y and measure iB , iC , vB and vCE . Now calculate β for your transistor.
3. Replace the 100k resistor with 47k and remove the LED from the circuit. Now measure iB , iC , vB and
vCE and calculate β again.

5.4 Experiment #3: Input characteristics of the transistor

Build the following circuit and use it to measure the base-emitter characteristics.

∆vRB
∆vRC 100 Ω
100 kΩ + Va
iC -
0-5 V
iB vCE
vB
Vb +
- BC107
0-11 V

Important Notes:

• You will be changing the input (i.e. base) conditions by adjusting the voltage Vb . The collector side needs
to be kept at the same condition, so you will adjust Va to ensure that the collector-emitter voltage, vCE ,
is kept constant.
• Make sure that you measure the resistance of the base and collector resistors. Do not use the values 100 Ω
and 100 kΩ when calculating the respective currents!

You will be producing a plot of the base current (iB ) as a function of the base-emitter voltage (vBE ) for
iB . 100 µA.

• Set the power supply to the collector (using supply A from the power supply, Va ) to a value so that vCE
is always about 2 V. Measure vCE and thereafter adjust Va to keep vCE constant for further readings. Use
Python to produce a plot of the data points for the base current, iB , versus the base-emitter voltage vBE .
(Your graph should have 0 to ∼ 100 µA on the vertical-axis and 0.5 to ∼ 0.7 V on the horizontal-axis.)
Practical 5. Transistor Hybrid-π Model 20

• You will change the supply to the base to set a particular base current (measure the voltage across RB
to determine iB ) and then change the supply to the collector so the vCE is about the same as its initial
value and then measure values for iB and vBE . Draw up a table and take the following measurements:

Va Vb vB ∆vRB ∆vRC vC

(You will need at least 15 data points.)

Once you have your data you can then:

1. Plot a graph of iC vs iB using Python. What do you notice? Can you determine β from your graph?
2. From your table, calculate β. You should be able to calculate values for each measurement, and therefore
determine the average value of β, and the standard error. Give the result as: β = ... ± ....
3. Plot a graph of iB vs vBE . What do you notice?
4. From your graph, determine the resistance, rπ , at a current of iB = 30 µA. (Maybe consider different ways
of obtaining the slope. Maybe performing a curve-fit of the diode equation to your data?) How does your
measured value of rπ compare to the theoretical value?

5.5 Experiment #4: Output characteristics

Use the same circuit as in the previous experiment, but now you will fix the base current by setting the supply
Vb ∼ 1 − 5 V. You will be adjusting Va to adjust the collector current and voltage.

∆vRB
∆vRC 100 Ω
100 kΩ + Va
iC -
0-15 V
iB vCE
vB
Vb +
- BC107
∼ 1 - 5V

• Measure iB , iC and vCE for base currents of 25, 50 and 75 µA (by setting Vb ) and for vCE from 0 to 15 V.
You will need at least 20 data points for each iB , space them at an interval of about ∆vCE ≈ 0.1 V for
vCE . 0.7 V; ∆vCE ≈ 0.5 V for 0.7 V . vCE . 2 V; and ∆vCE ≈ 1 V for & 2 V. Remember to get more
data points where the collector current may change, so that you can get a proper shape for the graph.
• Make sure that iB is the same for each measurement of iC and vCE . You can vary iC and vCE by changing
the supply connected to the collector.

Once you have your data you can then do the following:

1. On the same graph, plot iC vs vCE for the different base currents.
2. Determine, from your graph, the β of your transistor at iB ≈ 25, 50 and 75 µA with vCE = 5 V and then
10V.
3. Can you identify the active and saturation regions of the transistor? Could you estimate the saturation
voltage VCE(sat) from your curves? How does this compare to the datasheet value?

5.6 Parameters
Once you have completed your measurements, and plotting of graphs, calculate the hybrid-π parameters for the
transistor under the bias conditions: a bias base current i∗B = 50 µA, and a collector-emitter voltage vCE
∗
= 5 V.
Determine the parameters in the two ways as discussed in the introduction. (Think about what value of VA
you should use.) How do they compare?
 Practical

6 Transistor Amplifiers

6.1 Introduction
In this practical, you will investigate two amplifier circuits: a common-emitter amplifier and an emitter follower.

6.1.1 Background
Read Chapter 4 in the lecture notes.

6.1.2 Outcomes
• Understanding how the transistor works as an amplifier.
• Applying knowledge gained about NPN transistors to PNP transistors.

6.2 Experiment #1: Design a Stabilised Common Emitter

Amplifier
In this experiment you will need to design and test a stabilised common-emitter amplifier.

+Vcc

R1 RC
Function Generator ṽout
RT C
C
RL
ṽin
R2 RE

6.2.1 Biasing
• Design a potential biasing circuit to operate with VCC = 10 V, i∗E = 3 mA and vE∗ = 1 V.
• Choose the nearest available resistor values and recalculate vB∗ , vE∗ , i∗E and vCE
∗
.
• Connect it up and check the voltages using a DVM. Make sure that you are measuring the same voltages
and current as you calculated.
Practical 6. Transistor Amplifiers 22

6.2.2 Small Signal Amplification

• Apply a small AC signal (1kHz) to the base via a 10 µF capacitor. Use a 100 kΩ load and couple via a
10 µF capacitor. Monitor the output ṽout with a scope. Make ṽin as large as possible without distorting
the signal.
• Make sure that you see the amplification and the inversion of the signals.
• Calculate the measured small-signal voltage gain. Compare this to the theoretical small-signal voltage
gain (refer to the lecture notes!).

6.2.3 Emitter Bypass Capacitor

• Bypass RE for small-signals by putting a large capacitor (≈ 100 µF) in parallel with it. Measure the
voltage gain again.
• What do you notice? How does this compare to the theoretical predictions?

6.3 Experiment #2: Investigate a Push-Pull Emitter

Follower
Construct the following push-pull emitter follower circuit:

+10 V
Function Generator 2N1711
RT 1 kΩ ṽout

ṽin 2N2905 1 kΩ

−10 V

Inject an input signal of about 2Vpp at 1kHz. Sketch the input and output waveforms, especially noting what
happens at the 0V level. Can you explain this?
One way of limiting this cross-over distortion is by biasing both transistors partially on. Modify your circuit
to match the one given below. Observe the output now and satisfy yourself that you understand its operation.

10 V

10 kΩ
Function Generator 2N1711
RT 1 kΩ ṽout

ṽin
2N2905 1 kΩ

10 kΩ

−10 V
 Practical

7 Basic Op-Amp Circuits

7.1 Introduction
In this practical, you will investigate various basic op-amp configurations.

7.1.1 Background
Read Chapter 5 in the lecture notes.

7.1.2 Outcomes
• Understanding how op-amps work.
• Using the above knowledge to predict op-amp operation in a given circuit..
• Identifying common op-amp circuits.

7.2 Experiment #1: Op-Amp Inverting Amplifier

Use a 741 to construct an inverting amplifier using Ri = 10 kΩ and Rf = 100 kΩ. Use a supply voltage of
VCC ≈ ±10V for the op-amp.

Rf
100 kΩ
Function Generator Ri
10 V
RT v
10 kΩ
i
- −
vd vo
ṽin + +

−10 V
10 kΩ

1. Measure vi , vd , vo and ∆vRi at input frequencies of 1kHz and 2kHz. See what happens (by showing vi and
vo on the DSO) as you adjust the amplitude of the input signal. What do you notice when the amplitude
goes too high?
2. Make vd as large as possible without saturation. (You may need to familiarise yourself with the Math-Mode
of the DSOs to do this.)
3. From your measurements calculate G (the open loop gain), the closed loop gain, A, and the input
impedance, Zin . How do your measurements compare with the theoretical predictions?
Practical 7. Basic Op-Amp Circuits 24

7.3 Experiment #2: Op-Amp Non-Inverting Amplifier

Construct a non-inverting amplifier with a 741, using R1 = 1k and R2 = 10k.

Function Generator
10 V
RT v
1 kΩ
i
+ +
vd vo
ṽin - − R2
−10 V 10 kΩ

R1
1 kΩ

Measure vi , vo , vd and ∆vR1 at 1kHz and calculate the gain A. How do your measurements compare with the
theoretical predictions?

7.4 Experiment #3: Op-Amp Constant Current Source

Build a constant current source to supply about 0.1 mA. (Use Ri = 47 kΩ and the DC 5V line.) (Remember to
measure the resistance values of all the resistors that you use!)

RL

iL
Ri
10 V
47 kΩ v−
−
vout
Vs + ii v+ +
5V -
−10 V
47 kΩ

• Start by using a load resistor of 10 kΩ. Measure the current through Ri , as well as the voltage vout , v−
and v+ . Are you getting the expected results? Note the direction of the current flow through the load
resistor.
• Now use several resistors values for the load (ranging from say 100 Ω to around 1 MΩ). For each resistor
that you use, measure the following voltages (and calculate the associated currents) Draw up a table and
take the following measurements:

RL v− vout ∆vRi ii ∆vRL iL

• Plot a graph of the load current vs load resistance. What do you notice about the graph? Can you explain
the behaviour? (Maybe plotting the output voltage vs RL might give you some insight?)
 Practical

8 Practical Op-Amp Circuits

8.1 Introduction
In this practical, you will investigate some practical aspects of op-amps.

8.1.1 Background
Read Chapter 5 in the lecture notes.

8.1.2 Outcomes
• Design and build a complex circuit involving op-amp and transistor.
• Investigate some practical aspects of op-amps.

8.2 Experiment #1: Op-Amp Regulated Power Supply

10 V 10 Ω vunreg 2N1711
vout

R1
vref
+ 1 kΩ

− C RL

P1
0V

−10 V 15 Ω

• Design a regulated power supply (based on the diagram above) that uses a 741 op-amp, a 2N1711 tran-
sistor, a red LED (biased at about 1mA) for vref , a 10 kΩ potentiometer for adjustment and a 0.1 µF
capacitor to smooth the output.
• Construct the PSU, but degrade the DC supply by putting a 10 Ω on the +10V line and a 15 Ω on the
-10V line.
Practical 8. Practical Op-Amp Circuits 26

• Without a load measure the range of vout , set vout just less than 2.0 V and measure vout and vunreg .
• Without adjusting the pot, attach a load of 33 Ω (giving 60.6 mA out) and measure vout and vunreg . What
is the output impedance of the supply you have just built? (Think back to your first prac.)

8.3 Experiment #2: Op-Amp Slew Rate

Construct a follower using a 741.

Function Generator
10 V
RT v
1 kΩ
i
+ +
vd vo
ṽin - −
−10 V

1 kΩ

Now apply a large amplitude square wave to the follower. Zoom in on the transitions of the output. Note the
slope on the output.
Op-amps have a well defined slew rate, the maximum rate at which the output can swing (measured in V/µs).
Find the slew rate for the 741. Compare this to the listed slew rate of the 741 in the datasheets provided.

8.4 Experiment #3: Output Offset Voltage

1. Construct an inverting amplifier with a zero volt input as shown in the Figure (a) shown

100 kΩ 100 kΩ
10 V
1 kΩ 1 kΩ v−
- − −
vd vo vo
+ + v+ +

1 kΩ −10 V 1 kΩ 10 kΩ

−VCC
(a) Circuit to measure output offset voltage (b) Circuit to correct output offset voltage

Measure the output voltage, vo . What should the output voltage be? From the gain of the circuit,
determine the input offset voltage, Vio . How does it compare to the datasheet value for the 741 op-amp.
2. Now connect the offset-null potentiometer, as shown in circuit (b). Make sure that before you power up
the circuit, that you have set the potentiometer roughly halfway. Try adjust the potentiometer so that
the output is about zero volts. (You may not get to exactly zero, but think out what would be good
enough.)
 Practical

9 Combinational Logic Design

9.1 Introduction
In this practical, you will design and test a digital logic circuit using Karnaugh maps. In addition, you will be
exposed to a modular approach to digital circuit implementation, where various circuits are interconnected via
a data bus. This means that you will need to be systematic in how you build each of the circuits. The overall
circuit block diagram is shown as follows:

11
00
00
11 Bus Cable 2 Data Bus
Switched 00
11
00
11
Bus Cable 1 Display
Inputs 00
11
00
11
Circuit
00
11 7-Segment
00
11
00
11
Bus Cable 3
Data Bus

Counter Display
Input
00
11
00
11
Circuit 00
11 Logic
00
11
00
11
Bus Cable 4
Circuit
00
11
You will need to lay out these circuits as follows:

Bus Cable 1

Bus Cable 2
+5V

11
00
00
11 7-Segment
Switched 00
11 Data Bus
Display
Inputs
Data Bus
Display
00
11
Circuit

Bus Cable 3

0V
Bus Cable 4

Counter
Logic
Probe
Logic

Input
Circuit
Circuit

Do not take apart any of the circuits that you build.

You MUST use the above breadboard layout.
(If you do not follow the above layout and your circuit is not working, we won’t help you.)
Practical 9. Combinational Logic Design 28

9.2 Provided Components & Modules

9.2.1 Digital IC’s
You will have the following integrated circuits:

Code Description
74 04 HEX Inverter
74 08 QUAD 2-Input And Gate
74 32 QUAD 2-Input Or Gate
74 90 BCD Counter

9.2.2 Premade Modules

You are provided with a Switch Module and a LED Module that can plug directly into the breadboard.

Switch Module

LED Module
1 2 3 4

D1 D2 D3 D4

Also there is a 7-segment display module,

11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
7-Segment Display Driver
+5V

DP
LE

LT

0V
BI
D
A

C
B

You are also provided with 4 ribbon cables with plugs that can fit into the breadboard, to be used for the data
bus cables.
Practical 9. Combinational Logic Design 29

9.3 Experiment #1: Construct Test Circuits

9.3.1 Switched Input & Data Bus Display Circuits
The first thing you are going to do is build a circuit (called the Switched Inputs Circuit - SIC) to provide 4
logic HIGH/LOW signals for testing, that are labelled, D1 . . . D4 . These are the binary digits (bits) that will
make up out 4-bit data bus. You will also construct a 4-bit display circuit (called the Data Bus Display - DBD)

R
that will act to indicate the status of the data bus.
Using the Switch Module and the LED Module, construct the following circuit for the SIC and DBD:

+5V
Data Bus
Switched Data Bus
Bus Cable 2
Inputs D4 D1 Display
Circuit Bus Cable 1
D1

D4

R Test the circuit by making sure that all 4-bits set using the SIC are correctly displayed, (in the correct
sequence) on the DBD circuit.

! Do not proceed until this circuit is working correctly.

9.3.2 Logic Probe Circuit

circuits that you will build. The circuit is very simple. R

You will also need to construct a simple Logic Probe circuit so that you can test logic state anywhere in the
Construct the following circuit:

Long Wire
470Ω

Logic
Probe

R
R
You need to make sure that you have a long enough wire that can reach anywhere in on the breadboard.
Set the data bus to some sequence of bits, and then use the Logic Probe to check the data bus bits.

9.4 Experiment #2: Connect 7-Segment Display

It is often useful to display a binary number using a 7-segment display, as follows:

f b

e c
d
Practical 9. Combinational Logic Design 30

It is essentially 7 LED’s labelled a-f that one can turn on to show the various numbers. We will make use of
a LED module that has a built in 7-segment display driver IC that will take in 4-bits and then switch on the

R
appropriate LED’s on the 7-segment display.
Build the following circuit using the provided LED Module, and connect it to the data bus:

HIGH

Data Bus
D1 LT BI
A
7-Segment
D2
D4 D1 Bus Cable 3 B
D3 Display
C
D4
D
LE

LOW

R
Don’t forget the power!
Set up a truth table for all 16 possible combinations from the Switched Inputs Circuit, and then write
down what is displayed on the 7-segment display.
Are all combinations displayed? If not, why not?

9.5 Experiment #3: Logic Design & Karnaugh Maps

You are now going to build a circuit that will emulate the logic to drive one of the LEDs on the 7-segment

R
display.
Using Karnaugh maps, obtain a minimized Boolean expression for the following truth table:

BCD D4 D3 D2 D1 b
Number
0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
2 0 0 1 0 1
3 0 0 1 1 1
4 0 1 0 0 1
5 0 1 0 1 0
6 0 1 1 0 0
7 0 1 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0 1
9 1 0 0 1 1
- 1 0 1 0 X
- 1 0 1 1 X
- 1 1 0 0 X
- 1 1 0 1 X
- 1 1 1 0 X
- 1 1 1 1 X

A 7-segment display is simply 7-LEDs, and all one has to do is turn the appropriate ones on. If we consider a
BCD number, the truth-table above is the logic for segment b on the 7-segment display.

R Build a logic circuit to implement the above truth table, only using the following IC’s:
Practical 9. Combinational Logic Design 31

7404: 7408 7432

hex inverter quad 2-input ‘and’ gate quad 2-input ‘or’ gate

The circuit diagram is shown as follows:

Data Bus Bus Cable 1

D4 D1

D4 D3 D2 D1 Logic
A Circuit
C

Y
B
470Ω

Maybe put the pin numbers on the above circuit diagram before you start.

R What is the boolean expression for the above circuit? Is it what you obtained from the Karnaugh map?

Do NOT build the whole circuit at once.

Build it bit by bit, testing each part before moving on to the next.

R Connect the inputs to the data bus.

R From the above circuit diagram, determine the expressions for the points A,B,C. in terms of D1 . . . D4

R Construct the circuit from the data bus to point A, then produce a Truth Table by setting the inputs
from the SIC. Does what you measure correspond to the boolean expression?

R Then construct the circuit from the data bus to point B, then produce a Truth Table again by setting
the inputs from the SIC. Does what you measure correspond to the boolean expression?

R Now construct the circuit up to point C, again, produce a Truth Table based on the inputs, and verify
that it corresponds to the expected boolean expression.

R Finish the circuit. Measure the final Truth Table from the input to the output Y. Check that the LED
comes on when the b segment on the 7-segment display is on.

Maybe setup only one truth table (say with columns: D4 , D3 , D2 , D1 A,B,C,Y) where you can record
all your measurements.
Practical 9. Combinational Logic Design 32

9.6 Experiment #4: BCD Counter

Now, we will use a single-chip BCD counter, to count pulses from a signal generator. (We will see how this
works in the next prac!) The output from the counter is a 4-bit BCD value that we can then connect to the
data bus. Once you have built the circuit, you can connect the output to the data bus by moving the Bus Cable
1 from the Switched Inputs Module to the counter.

+5V

Data Bus
5
1 VCC 12 D1
CLKB QA
14 9 D2
CLKA QB Bus Cable 1 D1 D4
8
TTL Output QC
D3
74LS90
∼ 1 Hz 2 11 D4
R1 QD
3
R2
6
S1
7
S2 GND
10

R Verify that the count works on the 7-segment display.

R Verify that the b LED is on/off at the same time as your LED from the logic circuit.
 Practical

10 Sequential Logic Design

10.1 Introduction
In this practical, you will design and test a sequential logic circuit using finite-state machines.

10.1.1 Outcomes
• Design and build a sequential logic circuit.
• Understand the the design process using finite state machines.

10.2 Experiment #1: D-Type Flip Flop

We will use a 7474 dual D-type, positive edge triggered flip-flop with a logic diagram as follows:

The logic symbol is

Practical 10. Sequential Logic Design 34

Design and build a circuit to provide the necessary inputs to a flip-flop, and LED indicators for the outputs.
By providing all the necessary inputs (SET, CLEAR, D, CLOCK) measure the full truth-table for the flip flop,
based on the following headings:

Inputs Outputs Operation

CLOCK SET CLEAR D Q Q

Clearly state the operation that takes place for each combination of inputs.

10.3 Experiment #2: Gray Code Up/Down Counter

Design and build a 2-bit Gray code counter using D-type flip flops. You are required to have a single input X
to control the counting process. If X = LOW the counter must count up; while if X = HIGH the counter must
count down.
For the design you must show: the state diagram; the state transition tables; the Karnaugh maps; and the full
circuit diagram for your design. You may use any of the available logic gates.
You need to show the demonstrator that your circuit is working as required.
Practical

11 Using the Equipment

11.1 Using the Bread Board

• You should recall the breadboard connections from before:

• When building circuits use the power rails only for power connections.

11.2 Using the DVM

• The DVMs are not accurate for high frequency (above about 1kHz) AC measurements.
• Measuring resistance in a circuit while a PSU is connected will not yeild correct results.
• WE NEVER MEASURE CURRENT.

We cover the functionality of most DVMs here. There is not a single model that is used in the lab, you are
expected to be able to use any of the models supplied.

11.2.1 Before you start

• Switch the DVM on (any function) - ensure that the ‘battery low’ indicator is not showing or your
measurements may be off. (The battery low indicator is usually a picture of a battery on the LCD
screen.)
• Make sure that the black lead is in the ‘COM’ socket.
• Make sure that the red lead is in the ‘V/Ω’ socket.
Practical 11. Using the Equipment 36

11.2.2 Measuring DC Voltages

• Turn the selector to the highest range in the DC voltage function, usually indicated by V or VDC.
• The measure voltage should be indicated, now choose the next lowest range in the same function until a
‘1’ is displayed (the over range indicator). Now select the next highest range.
• The number displayed is the measured voltage on the most suitable range.
• You could also choose the range most appropriate, if you already know the approximate voltage.

11.2.3 Measuring AC Voltages

• Turn the selector to the highest range in the AC voltage function, usually indicated by V ∼ or VAC.
• The measure voltage should be indicated, now choose the next lowest range in the same function until a
‘1’ is displayed (the over range indicator). Now select the next highest range.
• The number displayed is the measured voltage (in Vrms ) on the most suitable range.
• You could also choose the range most appropriate, if you already know the approximate voltage.

11.2.4 Measuring Resistances

• Firstly you will not get a valid reading is a PSU or signal generator is connected to the resistor(s).
• Connect the probes firmly to the points (resistor legs) that you wish to measure the resistance between.
• Select the highest range in the resistance function, usually indicated by Ω.
• Now choose the next lowers range until a ‘1’ is displayed (the over range indicator). Now select the next
highest range.
• The number displayed is the resistance, with the units (i.e. Ω/kΩorM Ω) of the range being used.

11.2.5 Checking Continuity

• The continuity checker is usually indicated by a speaker icon and is usually under the resistance function.
• If there is a direct connection between the probes, the DVM beeps. The number displayed on the screen
is the resistance between the probes in Ωs.

11.2.6 The diode test function

• The diode test function is represented by the diode symbol, and is commonly found in the same section
as the resistance measurements.
• Connect the probes across the diode.
• If the red probe is connected to the annode and the black probe is connected to the cathode then the turn
on voltage of the diode is displayed in volts.
• NOTE: The turn on voltage of the diode rarely corresponds numerically to the values we use in theory.
• NOTE: When testing LEDs, the LED will glow (if connected correctly) but the display will indicate ‘out
of range’ as the DVM does not detect enough current throught the LED to consider it ON.

11.2.7 Why am I getting negative measurements when the voltage

should be positive?
• The DVM, when measuring DC voltages, displays the voltage of the red probe with respect to the black
probe.
• i.e. if you are getting a negative voltage, switch the probes.
• You should not get negative readings for an AC measurement.
Practical 11. Using the Equipment 37

11.3 Using the PSU

The diagram below shows the main features of the power supply:

1. The power switch. Make sure you switch it off at the end of the prac.
2. Power LED. This should be on if the PSU is switched on. If it does not come on when the power switch
is toggles, check the wall outlet.
3. This green connector is a direct connection to “Earth”. Unless you know what you are doing (i.e. probably
if you are in 3rd year) do not use it, pretend that it does not exist.
4. This selector switch determines which supply (A or B) is represented by the meters on the fron panel.
5. Supply output voltage.
6. Supply output current.
7. These are for calibrating the meters and should NOT be altered.
8. Output mode selector. This determines what mode the PSU is in.
• If it is in the “Independant” position then supply A and B are totally independant floating1 power
supplies.
• If it is in the “series” mode then Supply A and B are internally connected in series (like cells in a
battery). The output voltage of supply B tracks that of supply A. (The positive terminal of supply B
is internally connected to the negative terminal of supply A.) This is usefull for when a split supply
is needed (i.e. both positive and negative voltages (as well as 0 V), you will come across this when
you get to the Operational Amplifier section.)
• If it is in “parallel” position then the output voltage of supply B tracks that of supply A, but both
supplies are still floating.
9. Output voltage setting for supply A.
10. Current limit setting for supply A
1 A floating power supply is a supply that has no reference point or common point. Where either one of it’s outputs can be

attached to any part of another circuit or other power supply and not cause a short.
Practical 11. Using the Equipment 38

11. Positive terminal for supply A

12. Negative terminal for supply A
13. Over current indicator for supply A
14. Output voltage setting for supply B.
15. Current limit setting for supply B
16. Positive terminal for supply B
17. Negative terminal for supply B
18. Over current indicator for supply B
19. Fixed 5 V positive output.
20. Fixed 5 V negative output.
21. Over current indicator for fixed 5 V supply.

11.3.1 How to set Independant supply voltages

• Ensure that the mode selector switch is in the ‘independant’ position.
• Connect DVM to PSU.
• Turn correct variable supply knob to adjust the output voltage to the desired value.
• The positive terminal is now ‘X’ volts above the negative terminal.
• If the overcurrent indicator lights up, then there is either a short circuit on your breadboard or the current
limiter is fully anti-clockwise.

11.3.2 How to set Positive and Negative voltages

• Ensure that the mode selector is in the ‘series’ position.
• The output voltage control for supply A now controls both supplies.
• Connect DVM to supply A’s output.
• Adjust output A’s voltage control until the desired voltage is indicated.
• The positive terminal of supply A is now the positive output voltage, the negative terminal of supply A
is 0 V (as well as the positive terminal of supply B, since they are internally connected) and the negative
terminal of supply B is the neqative supply.

11.3.3 What do those variable current knobs do?

The variable current knobs only select what the maximum output current of the supply will be before current
limiting is engaged.

11.3.4 Why is the green “Earth” terminal forbidden?

The green terminal on the PSU is connected through to the “Earth” pin on the mains power connector - it is
not connected to either of the variable supplies or the fixed 5 V supply. It is there to ensure that any equipment
connected to the power supply can be held close to ‘ground potential’ when there is an electrically ‘noisy’
environment.
Practical 11. Using the Equipment 39

11.4 Using the Signal Generator

The diagram below shows the main features of the signal Generator:

1. The Power Switch

2. Numerical display of frequency.
3. - Not applicable to first year -
4. - Not applicable to first year -
5. If this LED is on then the displayed number has the units of kHz
6. If this LED is on then the displayed number has the units of Hz
7. This adjusts the output frequency.
8. - Not applicable to first year - Make sure that this is pushed in and turned all the way anti-clockwise.
9. - Not applicable to first year - Make sure that this is pushed in and turned all the way anti-clockwise.
10. - Not applicable to first year - Make sure that this is pushed in and turned all the way anti-clockwise.
11. This adjusts the DC offset of the produced waveform, if not told explicitly to use a “DC offset” then make
sure that this is pushed in and turned all the way anti-clockwise.
12. - Not applicable to first year - Make sure that this is pushed in and turned all the way anti-clockwise.
13. This adjusts the amplitude of the output waveform.
14. This adjusts the “rough” output frequency range.
15. - Not applicable to first year - Make sure that this is not pressed in.
16. - Not applicable to first year - Make sure that this is not pressed in.
17. This attenuates the output amplitude by -40dB
18. This attenuates the output amplitude by -20dB
19. This is the waveform selector, the signal generator can output either a sine, square or triangular wave.
For 99% of the pracs this should be on sine.
20. If you are using the signal generator with digital ICs, then this output should be used.
21. - Not applicable to first year - do not use this output.
22. - Not applicable to first year - do not use this output.
23. The output connector should be in this position unless otherwise stipulated.
Practical 11. Using the Equipment 40

11.4.1 Setting Output Frequency

• Ensure that the range selector is on the appropriate range for the desired output frequency.
(If on the 1kHz range the highest variable frequency is ∼2.2kHz - this is very approximate and varies from
signal generator to signal generator.
• Adjust the variable frequency knob until the desired frequency is displayed. Please note that indicators 5
and 6 indicate whether the displayed number is in Hz or kHz.
 Practical

12 Using The DSO

This appendix serves as a quick use guide for the DSOs in the lab. You will be using them in each prac so it is
best you know how to use them properly.

12.1 Getting started

12.1.1 A quick functional check.
Perform this quick functional check to verify that your instrument is operating correctly.

• Turn on the instrument.

Wait until the display shows that all self tests passed. Push the
SAVE/RECALL button, select Setups in the top menu box and
push the Recall Factory menu box. The default Probe menu atten-
uation setting is 10X.

• Set the switch to 10X on the probe and connect the probe to chan-
nel 1 on the oscilloscope. To do this, align the slot in the probe
connector with the key on the CH 1 BNC, push to connect, and
twist to the right to lock the probe in place.
• Attach the probe tip and reference lead to the PROBE COMP
connectors.

• Push the AUTOSET button. Within a few seconds, you should see
a square wave in the display (approximately 5 V at 1 kHz peak-to-
peak).
• Push the CH 1 MENU button twice to turn off channel 1, push the
CH 2 MENU button to turn on channel 2
Practical 12. Using The DSO 42

12.1.2 Probe Compensation

Perform this adjustment to match your probe to the input channel. This should be done whenever you attach
a probe for the first time to any input channel.

• 1.Set the Probe menu attenuation to 10X. Set the switch to 10X on
the probe and connect the probe to channel 1 on the oscilloscope.
If you use the probe hook- tip, ensure a proper connection by firmly
inserting the tip onto the probe.
• Attach the probe tip to the PROBE COMP 5V connector and the
reference lead to the PROBE COMP Ground connector, turn on
the channel, and then press AUTOSET.

• Check the shape of the displayed waveform.

• If necessary, adjust your probe. Repeat as necessary.

12.1.3 Probe Attenuation Setting

Probes are available with various attenuation factors which affect the vertical scale of the signal.
To change (or check) the probe attenuation setting, press the VERTICAL MENU button (of the channel you
are using), and then press the menu selection next to Probe until the correct setting is displayed. This setting
remains in effect until changed again. NOTE. The default Probe menu attenuation setting is 10X when the
oscilloscope is shipped. Be sure that the Attenuation switch on the probe is set to match the Probe menu
selection in the oscilloscope. The probe switch settings are 1X and 10X.

12.2 Basic Concepts

12.2.1 Triggering
The trigger determines when the oscilloscope starts to acquire data and display a waveform. When a trigger is
set up properly, it can convert unstable displays or blank screens into meaningful waveforms.
Practical 12. Using The DSO 43

When the oscilloscope starts to acquire a waveform, it collects enough data so that it can draw the waveform to
the left of the trigger point. The oscilloscope continues to acquire data while waiting for the trigger condition
to occur. After it detects a trigger, the oscilloscope continues to acquire enough data so that it can draw the
waveform to the right of the trigger point.

Source
You can derive your trigger from various sources: Input channels, AC Line, and External.

• Input: The most commonly used trigger source is any one of the input channels. The channel you select
as a trigger source will function whether it is displayed or not.
• AC Line: You can use this trigger source when you want to look at signals related to the power line
frequency, such as lighting equipment and power supply devices. The oscilloscope generates the trigger,
so you do not have to input a trigger signal.
• External: You can use this trigger source when you want to acquire data on two channels and trigger
from a third. For example, you might want to trigger from an external clock or with a signal from another
part of the test circuit.

Types
The oscilloscope provides two types of triggers: Edge and Video.

• Edge: You can use the edge trigger with analog and digital test circuits. An edge trigger occurs when
the trigger input passes through a specified voltage level in the specified direction.
• Video: You can use the video trigger on fields or lines of standard video signals. Not something you will
be doing in undergrad.

Modes
The trigger mode determines how the oscilloscope behaves in the absence of a trigger event.

• Auto: This trigger mode allows the oscilloscope to acquire a waveform even when it does not detect
a trigger condition. If no trigger condition occurs while the oscilloscope waits for a specific period (as
determined by the time-base setting), it will force itself to trigger.
When forcing invalid triggers, the oscilloscope cannot synchronize the waveform, and the waveform seems
to roll across the display. If valid triggers occur, the display becomes stable on the screen. You can use
Auto mode to monitor an amplitude level, such as a power supply output, which may cause the waveform
to roll across the display.
• Normal:The Normal mode allows the oscilloscope to acquire a waveform only when it is triggered. If no
trigger occurs, the oscilloscope will not acquire a new waveform, and the previous waveform, if any, will
remain on the display.
• Single:The Single mode allows the oscilloscope to acquire one waveform each time you press the RUN
button, and the trigger condition is detected. The data that the oscilloscope acquires depends on the
acquisition mode.
Practical 12. Using The DSO 44

Holdoff
Triggers are not recognized during holdoff time (the period that follows each acquisition). For some signals, you
need to adjust the holdoff period to produce a stable display. The trigger signal can be a complex waveform
with many possible trigger points on it, such as a digital pulse train. Even though the waveform is repetitive,
a simple trigger might result in a series of patterns on the screen instead of the same pattern each time.

For example, you could use the holdoff period to prevent triggering on any other pulse except the first one in a
pulse train. This way, the oscilloscope would always display the first pulse. To access the Holdoff control, press
the HORIZONTAL Menu button, select Holdoff, and use the HOLDOFF knob to change the amount of time
in the holdoff period.

Coupling
Trigger coupling determines what part of the signal passes on to the trigger circuit.

• DC coupling passes both AC and DC components.

• AC coupling blocks DC components.
• Noise Reject coupling lowers the trigger sensitivity and requires more signal amplitude for stable triggering.
This reduces the chance of falsely triggering on noise.
• HF Reject coupling blocks the high frequency portion and passes on only the low frequency components.
• LF Reject coupling does the opposite of high frequency rejection.

Position
The horizontal position control establishes the time between the trigger and the screen center. There is a small
arrow at the top of the screen that indicates where the trigger event is located. If it is not there then it is off
the screen and the time-base / horizontal positioning needs to be adjusted. This is critical when looking at
non-periodic signals.

Slope and Level

The Slope and Level controls help to define the trigger. The Slope control determines whether the oscilloscope
finds the trigger point on the rising or the falling edge of a signal. To access the trigger slope control, press the
TRIGGER Menu button, select Edge, and use the Slope button to select Rising or Falling.
The Level control determines where on the edge the trigger point occurs. To access the trigger level control,
press the HORIZONTAL Menu button, select Level, and use the LEVEL knob to change the value.
There is a little arrow that usually indicates the trigger level on the side of the screen.

12.2.2 Scaling and positioning waveforms

You can change the display of waveforms by adjusting their scale and position. When you change the scale, the
waveform display will increase or decrease in size. When you change the position, the waveform will move up,
down, right, or left.
Practical 12. Using The DSO 45

The channel reference indicator (located on the left of the graticule) identifies each waveform on the display.
The indicator points to the ground level of the waveform record.

Vertical Scale and Position

You can change the vertical position of waveforms by moving them up or down on the display. To compare
data, you can align a waveform above another or you can align waveforms on top of each other.
You can change the vertical scale of a waveform. The waveform display will contract or expand about the
ground level.

Horizontal Scale and Position; Pretrigger Information

You can adjust the Horizontal Position control to view waveform data before the trigger, after the trigger, or
some of each. When you change the horizontal position of a waveform, you are actually changing the time
between the trigger and the center of the display. (This appears to move the waveform to the right or left on
the display.)
You change the horizontal scale of all the waveforms by using the SEC/DIV knob.
The oscilloscope shows the time per division in the scale readout. Since all active waveforms use the same time
base, the oscilloscope only displays one value for all the active channels.

12.2.3 Taking Measurements

The oscilloscope displays graphs of voltage versus time and can help you to measure the displayed waveform.
There are several ways to take measurements. You can use the graticule, the cursors, or an automated mea-
surement.

Graticule
This method allows you to make a quick, visual estimate. For example, you might look at a waveform amplitude
and determine that it is a little more than 100 mV. You can take simple measurements by counting the major
and minor graticule divisions involved and multiplying by the scale factor. For example, if you counted five
major vertical graticule divisions between the minimum and maximum values of a waveform and knew you
had a scale factor of 100 mV/division, then you could easily calculate your peak-to-peak voltage as follows: 5
divisions x 100 mV/division = 500 mV.

Cursors
This method allows you to take measurements by moving the cursors, which always appear in pairs, and reading
their numeric values from the display readouts. There are two types of cursors: Voltage and Time. When you
use cursors, be sure to set the Source to the waveform that you want to measure.
Voltage cursors appear as horizontal lines on the display and measure the vertical parameters.
Time cursors appear as vertical lines on the display and measure the horizontal parameters.
Practical 12. Using The DSO 46

Automated
When you take automated measurements, the oscilloscope does all the calculating for you. Because these
measurements use the waveform record points, they are more accurate than graticule or cursor measurements.
(NOTE: When measuring noisy signals this is not the most accurate method)
Automated measurements use readouts to show measurement results. These readouts are updated periodically
as the oscilloscope acquires new data.

12.3 Operating Basics

The front panel is divided into easy to use functional areas. This section provides you with a quick overview of
the controls and the information displayed on the screen.

12.3.1 Display Area

In addition to displaying waveforms, the display is filled with many details about the waveform and the instru-
ment control settings.
Practical 12. Using The DSO 47

1. Icon display shows acquisition mode.

2. Trigger status indicates the following:

3. Marker shows horizontal trigger position. This is adjusted by the Horizontal Position control.
4. Readout shows the time difference between the center graticule and horizontal trigger position. Center
screen equals zero.
5. Marker shows trigger level.
6. Readout shows numeric value of the trigger level.
7. Icon shows selected trigger type as follows:

8. Readout shows trigger source used for triggering.

9. Readout shows window time base setting if it is in use.
10. Readout shows main time base setting.
11. Readouts show the vertical scale factors of the channels.
12. Display area shows on-line messages momentarily.
13. On-screen markers show the ground reference points of the displayed waveforms. No marker indicates the
channel is not displayed.
Practical 12. Using The DSO 48

12.4 Taking simple measurements

You need to see a signal in a circuit, but you do not know the amplitude or frequency of the signal. You want
to quickly display the signal and measure the frequency, period, and peak-to-peak amplitude.

12.4.1 Using Autoset

To quickly display a signal, do these steps:

1. Set the Probe menu attenuation to 10X. Set the switch to 10X on the probe.
2. Connect the channel 1 probe to the signal.
3. Push the AUTOSET button.

The oscilloscope sets the vertical, horizontal, and trigger controls automatically. If you want to optimize the
display of the waveform, you can manually adjust these controls. When you use more than one channel, the
autoset function sets the vertical controls for each channel and uses the lowest-numbered active channel to set
the horizontal and trigger controls.

12.4.2 Taking Automatic Measurements

The oscilloscope can take automatic measurements of most displayed signals. To measure signal frequency,
period, and peak-to-peak amplitude, do these steps:

1. Push the MEASURE button to see the Measure menu.

2. Push the top menu box button to select Source.
3. Select CH1 for the first three measurements.
4. Push the top menu box button to select Type.
5. Push the first CH1 menu box button to select Freq.
6. Push the second CH1 menu box button to select Period.
7. Push the third CH1 menu box button to select Pk-Pk. The frequency, period, and peak-to-peak measure-
ments are shown in the menu and are updated periodically.
Practical 12. Using The DSO 49

12.4.3 Measuring Two Signals

You are testing a piece of equipment and need to measure the gain of the audio amplifier. You have an audio
generator that can inject a test signal at the amplifier input. Connect two oscilloscope channels to the amplifier
input and output as shown. Measure both signal levels and use the measurements to calculate the gain.

To activate and display the signals connected to channel 1 and to channel 2, do these steps:

1. If the channels are not displayed, push the CH 1 MENU and then CH 2 MENU buttons.
2. Push the AUTOSET button.

To select measurements for the two channels, do these steps:

1. Select the source channels.

a) Push the MEASURE button to see the Measure menu.
b) Push the top menu box button to select Source.
c) Push the second menu box button to select CH1.
d) Push the third menu box button to select CH2.
2. Select the type of measurement displayed for each channel.
a) Push the top menu box button to select Type.
b) Push the CH1 menu box button to select Pk-Pk.
c) Push the CH2 menu box button to select Pk-Pk.
3. Read the peak-to-peak amplitudes for channel 1 and channel 2 in the menu display.
4. Calculate the amplifier gain.

12.4.4 Taking Cursor Measurements

You can use the cursors to quickly take time and voltage measure- ments on a waveform, below is an example
of measuring pulse-width.
To measure the width of a pulse using the time cursors, do these steps:

1. Push the CURSOR button to see the Cursor menu.

2. Push the top menu box button to select Time.
Practical 12. Using The DSO 50

3. Push the Source menu box button to select CH1.

4. Use the CURSOR 1 knob to place a cursor on the rising edge of the pulse.
5. Use the CURSOR 2 knob to place the remaining cursor on the falling edge of the pulse. You can see the
following measurements in the Cursor menu:
• The time at Cursor 1, relative to the trigger.
• The time at Cursor 2, relative to the trigger.
• The delta time, which is the pulse width measurement.
 Appendix

A Datasheets

The following datasheets/information are provides in the pages that follow:

1. Diodes: The Fairchild, 1N4001-1N4007 rectifier diode.

The Fairchild, 1N4148 small signal diode.
2. Transistors: The ST, BC107/BC107B, signal transistor.
3. Op-Amps: The Texas Instruments, LM741.
4. Digital IC’s: List of selected 7400 series logic gates.
Selected pinouts of common gates.
5. JK Flip Flop: 74HC73
 Typical Performance Characteristics
May 2009

Figure 1. Forward Current Derating Curve Figure 2. Forward Characteristics

1N4001 - 1N4007
General Purpose Rectifiers

Features
• Low forward voltage drop.
• High surge current capability.

DO-41
COLOR BAND DENOTES CATHODE

Absolute Maximum Ratings * TA = 25°C unless otherwise noted Figure 3. Non-Repetitive Surge Current Figure 4. Reverse Characteristics

1N4001 - 1N4007 — General Purpose Rectifiers

1N4001 - 1N4007 — General Purpose Rectifiers

Value
Symbol Parameter Units
4001 4002 4003 4004 4005 4006 4007
VRRM Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage 50 100 200 400 600 800 1000 V
IF(AV) Average Rectified Forward Current
1.0 A
.375 " lead length @ TA = 75°C
IFSM Non-Repetitive Peak Forward Surge Current
30 A
8.3ms Single Half-Sine-Wave
I 2t Rating for Fusing ( t<8.3ms ) 3.7 A2sec
TSTG Storage Temperature Range -55 to +175 °C
TJ Operating Junction Temperature -55 to +175 °C

* These ratings are limiting values above which the serviceability of any semiconductor device may by impaired.

Thermal Characteristics
Symbol Parameter Value Units
PD Power Dissipation 3.0 W
RθJA Thermal Resistance, Junction to Ambient 50 °C/W

Electrical Characteristics TA = 25°C unless otherwise noted

Symbol Parameter Value Units

VF Forward Voltage @ 1.0A 1.1 V
Irr Maximum Full Load Reverse Current, Full
30 µA
Cycle TA = 75°C
IR Reverse Current @ Rated VR TA = 25°C 5.0 µA
TA = 100°C 50 µA
CT Total Capacitance VR = 4.0V, f = 1.0MHz 15 pF
© 2009 Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation www.fairchildsemi.com © 2009 Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation www.fairchildsemi.com
1N4001 - 1N4007 Rev. C2 1 1N4001 - 1N4007 Rev. C2 2
 Electrical Characteristics(2)
April 2013 Values are at TA = 25°C unless otherwise noted.
Symbol Parameter Test Conditions Min. Max. Units
IR= 100 μA 100 V
VR Breakdown Voltage
IR= 5.0 μA 75 V
1N/FDLL 914A/B / 916/A/B / 4148 / 4448 1N914B / 4448 IF= 5.0 mA 0.62 0.72 V
1N916B IF= 5.0 mA 0.63 0.73 V
Small Signal Diode
1N914 / 916 / 4148 IF= 10 mA 1.0 V
VF Forward Voltage
1N914A / 916A IF= 20 mA 1.0 V
1N916B IF= 20 mA 1.0 V
Cathode Band
LL-34 COLOR BAND MARKING 1N914B / 4448 IF= 100 mA 1.0 V
DEVICE 1ST BAND VR= 20 V 0.025 μA
FDLL914 BLACK IR Reverse Leakage VR= 20 V, TA= 150°C 50 μA
SOD80 FDLL914A BLACK
FDLL914B BLACK VR= 75 V 5.0 μA
FDLL4148 BLACK
LL-34 FDLL4448 BLACK
DO-35
1N916A/B/4448 VR = 0, f = 1.0 MHz 2.0 pF
THE PLACEMENT OF THE EXPANSION GAP
HAS NO RELATIONSHIP TO THE LOCATION -1st band denotes cathode terminal
CT Total Capacitance
Cathode is denoted with a black band
OF THE CATHODE TERMINAL and has wider width
1N914A/B/4148 VR = 0, f = 1.0 MHz 4.0 pF
IF = 10 mA, VR = 6.0 V (600 mA)
trr Reverse Recovery Time 4.0 ns
Irr = 1.0 mA, RL = 100 Ω
Note:
Absolute Maximum Ratings(1) 2. Non-recurrent square wave PW= 8.3 ms.
Stresses exceeding the absolute maximum ratings may damage the device. The device may not function or be opera-
ble above the recommended operating conditions and stressing the parts to these levels is not recommended. In addi-
tion, extended exposure to stresses above the recommended operating conditions may affect device reliability. The

1N/FDLL 914A/B / 916/A/B / 4148 / 4448 — Small Signal Diode

1N/FDLL 914A/B / 916/A/B / 4148 / 4448 — Small Signal Diode

absolute maximum ratings are stress ratings only. Values are at TA = 25°C unless otherwise noted.
Symbol Parameter Value Units
VRRM Maximum Repetitive Reverse Voltage 100 V
IO Average Rectified Forward Current 200 mA
IF DC Forward Current 300 mA
If Recurrent Peak Forward Current 400 mA
Pulse Width = 1.0 s 1.0 A
IFSM Non-repetitive Peak Forward Surge Current
Pulse Width = 1.0 μs 4.0 A
TSTG Storage Temperature Range -65 to +200 °C
TJ Operating Junction Temperature 175 °C
Note:
1. These ratings are limiting values above which the serviceability of the diode may be impaired.

Thermal Characteristics
Max.
Symbol Parameter Units
1N/FDLL 914/A/B / 4148 / 4448
PD Power Dissipation 500 mW
RθJA Thermal Resistance, Junction to Ambient 300 °C/W

© 2007 Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation www.fairchildsemi.com © 2007 Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation www.fairchildsemi.com
1N/FDLL 914A/B / 916/A/B / 4148 / 4448 Rev. 1.1.1 1 1N/FDLL 914A/B / 916/A/B / 4148 / 4448 Rev. 1.1.1 2
 Typical Performance Characteristics Typical Performance Characteristics (Continued)

120
o 0.90 4.0
160 Ta= 25 C
o o o
Ta=25 C TA = 25 C Ta = 25 C
100

[ns]
3.5

rr
150

[nA]

[V]
R
80

R
0.85 3.0

140
60
2.5

130
40 2.0
0.80

Total Capacitance (pF)

120 20 1.5

Reverse Current, I

Reverse Voltage, V
Reverse Recovery Time, t
110 0 0.75 1.0
10 20 30 50 70 100 10 20 30 40 50 60
1 2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100 Reverse Voltage, VR [V] 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Reverse Current, IR [uA] REVERSE VOLTAGE (V) Reverse Recovery Current, Irr [mA]
GENERAL RULE: The Reverse Current of a diode will approximately
double for every ten (10) Degree C increase in Temperature IF = 10mA , IRR = 1.0 mA , Rloop = 100 Ohms
Figure 1. Reverse Voltage vs. Reverse Current Figure 2. Reverse Current vs. Reverse Voltage Figure 7. Total Capacitance Figure 8. Reverse Recovery Time vs
BV - 1.0 to 100 μA IR - 10 to 100 V Reverse Recovery Current

550 750
o 500
o Ta= 25 C 500
Ta= 25 C
500 700

400 400

[mV]

[mV]
F
DO-35

R
450 650

300 300
400 600

IF(A - SOT-23
V) AV 200
350 550 200 ERAG
E RE
CTIF

Current (mA)

1N/FDLL 914A/B / 916/A/B / 4148 / 4448 — Small Signal Diode

1N/FDLL 914A/B / 916/A/B / 4148 / 4448 — Small Signal Diode

IED C
URRE
500 NT -
300 mA

Forward Voltage, V

Forward Voltage, V
100 100
Power Dissipation, PD [mW]

250 450
1 2 3 5 10 20 30 50 100 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1 2 3 5 10
0 0
Forward Current, IF [uA] Forward Current, IF [mA] 0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150 200
o o
Ambient Temperature ( C) Temperature [ C]

Figure 3. Forward Voltage vs. Forward Current Figure 4. Forward Voltage vs. Forward Current Figure 10. Power Derating Curve
VF - 1 to 100 μA VF - 0.1 to 10 mA Figure 9. Average Rectified Current (IF(AV))
vs Ambient Temperature (TA)

1.6 900
o
Ta= 25 C
Typical
800
1.4 o
Ta= -40 C

[mV]
700

F
1.2 o
600
Ta= 25 C

1.0 500 o
Ta= +65 C

400
0.8

Forward Voltage, V F [mV]

Forward Voltage, V
300
0.6
10 20 30 50 100 200 300 500 800 0.01 0.03 0.1 0.3 1 3 10
Forward Current, IF [mA]
Forward Current, IF [mA]

Figure 5. Forward Voltage vs. Forward Current Figure 6. Forward Voltage vs. Ambient Temperature
VF - 10 to 800 mA VF - 0.01 - 20 mA (- 40 to +65°C)

© 2007 Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation www.fairchildsemi.com © 2007 Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation www.fairchildsemi.com
1N/FDLL 914A/B / 916/A/B / 4148 / 4448 Rev. 1.1.1 3 1N/FDLL 914A/B / 916/A/B / 4148 / 4448 Rev. 1.1.1 4
 Electrical ratings BC107 - BC107B

BC107 1 Electrical ratings

BC107B
Low noise general purpose audio amplifiers Table 1. Absolute maximum rating
Symbol Parameter Value Unit
VCBO Collector-emitter voltage (IE = 0) 50 V
VCEO Collector-emitter voltage (IB = 0) 45 V
Description VEBO Emitter-base voltage (IC = 0) 6 V
The BC107 and BC107B are silicon planar IC Collector current 100 mA
epitaxial NPN transistors in TO-18 metal case.
Total dissipation at Tamb ≤ 25°C 0.3 W
Ptot
They are suitable for use in driver stages, low at Tcase ≤ 25°C 0.75 W
noise input stages and signal processing circuits
of television receivers. The PNP complementary Tstg Storage temperature -55 to 175 °C
types are BC177 and BC177B respectively. TJ Max. operating junction temperature 175 °C

Table 2. Thermal data

TO-18
Symbol Parameter Value Unit

Rthj-case Thermal resistance junction-case __max 200 °C/W

Rthj-amb Thermal resistance junction-ambient __ max 500 °C/W
Internal schematic diagram

Order codes

Part Number Marking Package Packing

BC107 BC107 TO-18 Bag

BC107A BC107B TO-18 Bag

November 2006 Rev 2 1/9 2/9

www.st.com 9
BC107 - BC107B Electrical characteristics Electrical characteristics BC107 - BC107B

2 Electrical characteristics Symbol Parameter Test Conditions Min. Typ. Max. Unit

IC = 2mA VCE = 5V
(TCASE = 25°C; unless otherwise specified) f = 1kHz
hre Reverse voltage ratio
for BC107 2.2 10-4
Table 3. Electrical characteristics for BC107B 2.7 10-4
Symbol Parameter Test Conditions Min. Typ. Max. Unit IC = 2mA VCE = 5V
Collector cut-off current VCB = 40V 15 nA f = 1kHz
ICBO hoe Output admittance
(IE = 0) VCB = 40V TC = 150°C 15 µA for BC107 30 µS
for BC107B 26 µS
Collector-base breakdown
V(BR)CBO IC = 10µA 50 V
voltage (IE = 0) (1) Pulsed: Pulse duration = 300 µs, duty cycle ≤ 1 %
Collector-emitter breakdown
V(BR)CEO(1) voltage (I = 0) IC = 10mA 45 V
B

Emitter-base breakdown voltage

2.1 Electrical characteristics (curves)
V(BR)EBO IE = 10µA 6 V
(IC = 0)

Collector-emitter saturation IC = 10mA IB = 0.5mA 70 250 mV Figure 1. DC normalized current gain Figure 2. Collector-emitter saturation
VCE(sat) (1) voltage
voltage IC = 100mA IB = 5mA 200 600 mV
IC = 10mA IB = 0.5mA 750 mV
VBE(sat) (1) Base-emitter saturation voltage
IC = 100mA IB = 5mA 950 mV
IC = 2mA VCE = 5V 550 650 700 mV
VBE(on) (1) Base-emitter on voltage
IC = 10mA VCE = 5V 700 770 mV

IC = 2mA VCE = 5V
for BC107 110 450
for BC107B 200 450
hFE DC current gain
IC = 10µA VCE = 5V
for BC107 120
for BC107B 40 150
IC = 2mA VCE = 5V Figure 3. Collector-base capacitance Figure 4. Transition frequency
f = 1kHz
for BC107 250
hfe Small signal current gain
for BC107B 300
IC = 10mA VCE = 5V 2
f = 100MHz
IE = 0 VCB = 10V
CCBO Collector-base capacitance 4 6 pF
f = 1MHz
IC = 0 VEB = 0.5V
CEBO Emitter-base capacitance 12 pF
f = 1MHz
IC = 0.2mA VCE = 5V f = 1kHz
NF Noise figure 2 10 dB
RG =2kΩ B=200Hz

IC = 2mA VCE = 5V
f = 1kHz
hie Input impedance
for BC107 4 kΩ
for BC107B 4.8 kΩ

3/9 4/9
 LM741
LM741 SNOSC25C – MAY 1998 – REVISED MARCH 2013 www.ti.com

www.ti.com SNOSC25C – MAY 1998 – REVISED MARCH 2013 Typical Application

LM741 Operational Amplifier

Check for Samples: LM741

1FEATURES DESCRIPTION
2
• Overload Protection on the Input and Output The LM741 series are general purpose operational
amplifiers which feature improved performance over
• No Latch-Up When the Common Mode Range industry standards like the LM709. They are direct,
is Exceeded plug-in replacements for the 709C, LM201, MC1439 Figure 4. Offset Nulling Circuit
and 748 in most applications.
The amplifiers offer many features which make their These devices have limited built-in ESD protection. The leads should be shorted together or the device placed in conductive foam
during storage or handling to prevent electrostatic damage to the MOS gates.
application nearly foolproof: overload protection on
the input and output, no latch-up when the common
mode range is exceeded, as well as freedom from Absolute Maximum Ratings (1) (2) (3)
oscillations. LM741A LM741 LM741C
The LM741C is identical to the LM741/LM741A Supply Voltage ±22V ±22V ±18V
except that the LM741C has their performance (4)
Power Dissipation 500 mW 500 mW 500 mW
ensured over a 0°C to +70°C temperature range, Differential Input Voltage ±30V ±30V ±30V
instead of −55°C to +125°C. (5)
Input Voltage ±15V ±15V ±15V

Connection Diagrams Output Short Circuit Duration Continuous Continuous Continuous

Operating Temperature Range −55°C to +125°C −55°C to +125°C 0°C to +70°C
LM741H is available per JM38510/10101
Storage Temperature Range −65°C to +150°C −65°C to +150°C −65°C to +150°C
Junction Temperature 150°C 150°C 100°C
Soldering Information
P0008E-Package (10 seconds) 260°C 260°C 260°C
NAB0008A- or LMC0008C-Package (10 seconds) 300°C 300°C 300°C
M-Package
Vapor Phase (60 seconds) 215°C 215°C 215°C
Infrared (15 seconds) 215°C 215°C 215°C
(6)
ESD Tolerance 400V 400V 400V
Figure 1. TO-99 Package Figure 2. CDIP or PDIP Package
See Package Number LMC0008C See Package Number NAB0008A, P0008E (1) “Absolute Maximum Ratings” indicate limits beyond which damage to the device may occur. Operating Ratings indicate conditions for
which the device is functional, but do not ensure specific performance limits.
(2) For military specifications see RETS741X for LM741 and RETS741AX for LM741A.
(3) If Military/Aerospace specified devices are required, please contact the TI Sales Office/Distributors for availability and specifications.
(4) For operation at elevated temperatures, these devices must be derated based on thermal resistance, and Tj max. (listed under “Absolute
Maximum Ratings”). Tj = TA + (θjA PD).
(5) For supply voltages less than ±15V, the absolute maximum input voltage is equal to the supply voltage.
(6) Human body model, 1.5 kΩ in series with 100 pF.

Figure 3. CLGA Package Electrical Characteristics (1)

See Package Number NAD0010A LM741A LM741 LM741C
Parameter Test Conditions Units
Min Typ Max Min Typ Max Min Typ Max
Input Offset Voltage TA = 25°C
RS ≤ 10 kΩ 1.0 5.0 2.0 6.0 mV
RS ≤ 50Ω 0.8 3.0
TAMIN ≤ TA ≤ TAMAX
RS ≤ 50Ω 4.0 mV
RS ≤ 10 kΩ 6.0 7.5
Average Input Offset Voltage
15 μV/°C
Drift
1

Please be aware that an important notice concerning availability, standard warranty, and use in critical applications of
Texas Instruments semiconductor products and disclaimers thereto appears at the end of this data sheet. (1) Unless otherwise specified, these specifications apply for VS = ±15V, −55°C ≤ TA ≤ +125°C (LM741/LM741A). For the LM741C/LM741E,
2 All trademarks are the property of their respective owners. these specifications are limited to 0°C ≤ TA ≤ +70°C.
PRODUCTION DATA information is current as of publication date. Copyright © 1998–2013, Texas Instruments Incorporated 2 Submit Documentation Feedback Copyright © 1998–2013, Texas Instruments Incorporated
Products conform to specifications per the terms of the Texas
Instruments standard warranty. Production processing does not
necessarily include testing of all parameters. Product Folder Links: LM741
 LM741 LM741
www.ti.com SNOSC25C – MAY 1998 – REVISED MARCH 2013 SNOSC25C – MAY 1998 – REVISED MARCH 2013 www.ti.com

Electrical Characteristics(1) (continued) Electrical Characteristics(1) (continued)

LM741A LM741 LM741C LM741A LM741 LM741C
Parameter Test Conditions Units Parameter Test Conditions Units
Min Typ Max Min Typ Max Min Typ Max Min Typ Max Min Typ Max Min Typ Max
Input Offset Voltage TA = 25°C, VS = ±20V LM741A VS = ±20V
±10 ±15 ±15 mV
Adjustment Range
TA = TAMIN 165 mW
Input Offset Current TA = 25°C 3.0 30 20 200 20 200
nA TA = TAMAX 135
TAMIN ≤ TA ≤ TAMAX 70 85 500 300
LM741 VS = ±15V
Average Input Offset
0.5 nA/°C TA = TAMIN 60 100 mW
Current Drift
TA = TAMAX 45 75
Input Bias Current TA = 25°C 30 80 80 500 80 500 nA
TAMIN ≤ TA ≤ TAMAX 0.210 1.5 0.8 μA
Thermal Resistance CDIP (NAB0008A) PDIP (P0008E) TO-99 (LMC0008C) SO-8 (M)
Input Resistance TA = 25°C, VS = ±20V 1.0 6.0 0.3 2.0 0.3 2.0
MΩ θjA (Junction to Ambient) 100°C/W 100°C/W 170°C/W 195°C/W
TAMIN ≤ TA ≤ TAMAX,
0.5 θjC (Junction to Case) N/A N/A 25°C/W N/A
VS = ±20V
Input Voltage Range TA = 25°C ±12 ±13
V
TAMIN ≤ TA ≤ TAMAX ±12 ±13
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
Large Signal Voltage Gain TA = 25°C, RL ≥ 2 kΩ
VS = ±20V, VO = ±15V 50 V/mV
VS = ±15V, VO = ±10V 50 200 20 200
TAMIN ≤ TA ≤ TAMAX,
RL ≥ 2 kΩ,
VS = ±20V, VO = ±15V 32 V/mV
VS = ±15V, VO = ±10V 25 15
VS = ±5V, VO = ±2V 10
Output Voltage Swing VS = ±20V
RL ≥ 10 kΩ ±16 V
RL ≥ 2 kΩ ±15
VS = ±15V
RL ≥ 10 kΩ ±12 ±14 ±12 ±14 V
RL ≥ 2 kΩ ±10 ±13 ±10 ±13
Output Short Circuit TA = 25°C 10 25 35 25 25
mA
Current TAMIN ≤ TA ≤ TAMAX 10 40
Common-Mode TAMIN ≤ TA ≤ TAMAX
Rejection Ratio RS ≤ 10 kΩ, VCM = ±12V 70 90 70 90 dB
RS ≤ 50Ω, VCM = ±12V 80 95
Supply Voltage Rejection TAMIN ≤ TA ≤ TAMAX,
Ratio VS = ±20V to VS = ±5V
dB
RS ≤ 50Ω 86 96
RS ≤ 10 kΩ 77 96 77 96
Transient Response TA = 25°C, Unity Gain
Rise Time 0.25 0.8 0.3 0.3 μs
Overshoot 6.0 20 5 5 %
(2)
Bandwidth TA = 25°C 0.437 1.5 MHz
Slew Rate TA = 25°C, Unity Gain 0.3 0.7 0.5 0.5 V/μs
Supply Current TA = 25°C 1.7 2.8 1.7 2.8 mA
Power Consumption TA = 25°C
VS = ±20V 80 150 mW
VS = ±15V 50 85 50 85

(2) Calculated value from: BW (MHz) = 0.35/Rise Time (μs).

Copyright © 1998–2013, Texas Instruments Incorporated Submit Documentation Feedback 3 4 Submit Documentation Feedback Copyright © 1998–2013, Texas Instruments Incorporated

Product Folder Links: LM741 Product Folder Links: LM741

List of 7400 series Part Description
number
7400 series derivative families
 Bipolar 7400 quad 2-input NAND gate
741G00 single 2-input NAND gate
 74 - The "standard TTL" logic family had no letters between the "74" and the specific part number.
 74L - Low power (compared to the original TTL logic family), very slow 7401 quad 2-input NAND gate with open collector outputs
 H - High speed (still produced but generally superseded by the S-series, used in 1970s era computers) 741G01 single 2-input NAND gate with open drain output
 S - Schottky (obsolete)
7402 quad 2-input NOR gate
 LS - Low Power Schottky
 AS - Advanced Schottky 741G02 single 2-input NOR gate
 ALS - Advanced Low Power Schottky
7403 quad 2-input NAND gate with open collector outputs
 F - Fast (faster than normal Schottky, similar to AS)
741G03 single 2-input NAND gate with open drain output
7404 hex inverter
 CMOS 741G04 single inverter
7405 hex inverter with open collector outputs
 C - CMOS 4–15 V operation similar to buffered 4000 (4000B) series
 HC - High speed CMOS, similar performance to LS, 12 nS 741G05 single inverter with open drain output
 HCT - High speed, compatible logic levels to bipolar parts 7406 hex inverter buffer/driver with 30 V open collector outputs
 AC - Advanced CMOS, performance generally between S and F
 AHC - Advanced High-Speed CMOS, three times as fast as HC 741G06 single inverting buffer/driver with open drain output
 ALVC - Low voltage - 1.65 to 3.3 V, Time Propagation Delay (TPD) 2 nS[7] 7407 hex buffer/driver with 30 V open collector outputs
 AUC - Low voltage - 0.8 to 2.7 V, TPD < 1.9 [email protected] V[7]
 FC - Fast CMOS, performance similar to F 741G07 single non-inverting buffer/driver with open drain output
 LCX - CMOS with 3 V supply and 5 V tolerant inputs 7408 quad 2-input AND gate
 LVC - Low voltage – 1.65 to 3.3 V and 5 V tolerant inputs, tpd < 5.5 [email protected] V, tpd < 9 [email protected] V[7]
741G08 single 2-input AND gate
 LVQ - Low voltage - 3.3 V
 LVX - Low voltage - 3.3 V with 5 V tolerant inputs 7409 quad 2-input AND gate with open collector outputs
 VHC - Very High Speed CMOS - 'S' performance in CMOS technology and power
741G09 single 2-input AND gate with open drain output
7410 triple 3-input NAND gate
7411 triple 3-input AND gate
7412 triple 3-input NAND gate with open collector outputs
 BiCMOS
7413 dual Schmitt trigger 4-input NAND gate
7414 hex Schmitt trigger inverter
 BCT - BiCMOS, TTL-compatible input thresholds, used for buffers
 ABT - Advanced BiCMOS, TTL-compatible input thresholds, faster than ACT and BCT 741G14 single Schmitt trigger inverter
7415 triple 3-input AND gate with open collector outputs
7416 hex inverter buffer/driver with 15 V open collector outputs
7417 hex buffer/driver with 15 V open collector outputs
741G17 single Schmitt-trigger buffer
7418 dual 4-input NAND gate with Schmitt trigger inputs
7419 hex Schmitt trigger inverter
7420 dual 4-input NAND gate 7456 50:1 frequency divider
7421 dual 4-input AND gate 7457 60:1 frequency divider
7422 dual 4-input NAND gate with open collector outputs 7458 2-input & 3-input AND-OR Gate
7423 expandable dual 4-input NOR gate with strobe 7459 2-input & 3-input AND-OR-invert Gate
7424 quad 2-input NAND gate gates with schmitt-trigger line-receiver inputs. 7460 dual 4-input expander
7425 dual 4-input NOR gate with strobe 7461 triple 3-input expander
7426 quad 2-input NAND gate with 15 V open collector outputs 7462 3-2-2-3-input AND-OR expander
7427 triple 3-input NOR gate 7463 hex current sensing interface gates
741G27 single 3-input NOR gate 7464 4-2-3-2-input AND-OR-invert gate
7428 quad 2-input NOR buffer 7465 4-2-3-2 input AND-OR-invert gate with open collector output
7430 8-input NAND gate 7468 dual 4 bit decade counters
7431 hex delay elements 7469 dual 4 bit binary counters
7432 quad 2-input OR gate 7470 AND-gated positive edge triggered J-K flip-flop with preset and clear
741G32 single 2-input OR gate 74H71 AND-or-gated J-K master-slave flip-flop with preset
7433 quad 2-input NOR buffer with open collector outputs 74L71 AND-gated R-S master-slave flip-flop with preset and clear
7436 quad 2-input NOR gate (different pinout than 7402) 7472 AND gated J-K master-slave flip-flop with preset and clear
7437 quad 2-input NAND buffer 7473 dual J-K flip-flop with clear
7438 quad 2-input NAND buffer with open collector outputs 7474 dual D positive edge triggered flip-flop with preset and clear
7439 quad 2-input NAND buffer 7475 4-bit bistable latch
7440 dual 4-input NAND buffer 7476 dual J-K flip-flop with preset and clear
7441 BCD to decimal decoder/Nixie tube driver 7477 4-bit bistable latch
7442 BCD to decimal decoder 74H78 dual positive pulse triggered J-K flip-flop with preset, common clock, and common
7443 excess-3 to decimal decoder clear (different pinout than 74L78 / 74Ls78)
7444 excess-3-Gray code to decimal decoder 74L78 dual positive pulse triggered J-K flip-flop with preset, common clock, and common
7445 BCD to decimal decoder/driver clear
7446 BCD to seven-segment display decoder/driver with 30 V open collector outputs 74Ls78 dual negative edge triggered J-K flip-flop with preset, common clock, and common

7447 BCD to 7-segment decoder/driver with 15 V open collector outputs clear

7448 BCD to 7-segment decoder/driver with Internal Pullups 7479 dual D flip-flop

7449 BCD to 7-segment decoder/driver with open collector outputs 741G79 single D-type flip-flop positive edge trigger non-inverting output

7450 dual 2-wide 2-input AND-OR-invert gate (one gate expandable) 7480 gated full adder

7451 dual 2-wide 2-input AND-OR-invert gate 741G80 single D-type flip-flop positive edge trigger inverting output

7452 expandable 4-wide 2-input AND-OR gate 7481 16-bit random access memory

7453 expandable 4-wide 2-input AND-OR-invert gate 7482 2-bit binary full adder

7454 4-wide 2-input AND-OR-invert gate 7483 4-bit binary full adder

7455 2-wide 4-input AND-OR-invert Gate (74H version is expandable) 7484 16-bit random access memory
7485 4-bit magnitude comparator 74118 hex set/reset latch
7486 quad 2-input XOR gate 74119 hex set/reset latch
741G86 single 2 input exclusive-OR gate 74120 dual pulse synchronizer/drivers
7487 4-bit true/complement/zero/one element 74121 monostable multivibrator
7488 256-bit read-only memory 74122 retriggerable monostable multivibrator with clear
7489 64-bit random access memory 74123 dual retriggerable monostable multivibrator with clear
7490 decade counter (separate divide-by-2 and divide-by-5 sections) 741G123 single retriggerable monostable multivibrator with clear
7491 8-bit shift register, serial In, serial out, gated input 74124 dual voltage-controlled oscillator
7492 divide-by-12 counter (separate divide-by-2 and divide-by-6 sections) 74125 quad bus buffer with three-state outputs, negative enable
7493 4-bit binary counter (separate divide-by-2 and divide-by-8 sections) 741G125 buffer/Line driver, three-state output with active low output enable
7494 4-bit shift register, dual asynchronous presets 74126 quad bus buffer with three-state outputs, positive enable
7495 4-bit shift register, parallel In, parallel out, serial input 74128 quad 2-input NOR Line driver
7496 5-bit parallel-In/parallel-out shift register, asynchronous preset 741G126 buffer/line driver, three-state output with active high output enable
7497 synchronous 6-bit binary rate multiplier 74130 quad 2-input AND gate buffer with 30 V open collector outputs
741G97 configurable multiple-function gate 74131 quad 2-input AND gate buffer with 15 V open collector outputs
7498 4-bit data selector/storage register 74132 quad 2-input NAND schmitt trigger
7499 4-bit bidirectional universal shift register 74133 13-input NAND gate
74100 dual 4-bit bistable latch 74134 12-input NAND gate with three-state output
74101 AND-or-gated J-K negative-edge-triggered flip-flop with preset 74135 quad exclusive-or/NOR gate
74102 AND-gated J-K negative-edge-triggered flip-flop with preset and clear 74136 quad 2-input XOR gate with open collector outputs
74103 dual J-K negative-edge-triggered flip-flop with clear 74137 3 to 8-line decoder/demultiplexer with address latch
74104 J-K master-slave flip-flop 74138 3 to 8-line decoder/demultiplexer
74105 J-K master-slave flip-flop 74139 dual 2 to 4-line decoder/demultiplexer
74106 dual J-K negative-edge-triggered flip-flop with preset and clear 74140 dual 4-input NAND line driver
74107 dual J-K flip-flop with clear 74141 BCD to decimal decoder/driver for cold-cathode indicator/Nixie tube
74107a dual J-K negative-edge-triggered flip-flop with clear 74142 decade counter/latch/decoder/driver for Nixie tubes
74108 dual J-K negative-edge-triggered flip-flop with preset, common clear, and common 74143 decade counter/latch/decoder/7-segment driver, 15 ma constant current
clock 74144 decade counter/latch/decoder/7-segment driver, 15 V open collector outputs
74109 dual J-Not-K positive-edge-triggered flip-flop with clear and preset 74145 BCD to decimal decoder/driver
74110 AND-gated J-K master-slave flip-flop with data lockout 74147 10-line to 4-line priority encoder
74111 dual J-K master-slave flip-flop with data lockout 74148 8-line to 3-line priority encoder
74112 dual J-K negative-edge-triggered flip-flop with clear and preset 74150 16-line to 1-line data selector/multiplexer
74113 dual J-K negative-edge-triggered flip-flop with preset 74151 8-line to 1-line data selector/multiplexer
74114 dual J-K negative-edge-triggered flip-flop with preset, common clock and clear 74152 8-line to 1-line data selector/multiplexer
74116 dual 4-bit latch with clear 74153 dual 4-line to 1-line data selector/multiplexer
Appendix A. Datasheets 62
 SN5473, SN54LS73A, SN7473, SN74LS73A SN5473, SN54LS73A, SN7473, SN74LS73A
DUAL J-K FLIP-FLOPS WITH CLEAR DUAL J-K FLIP-FLOPS WITH CLEAR
SDLS118 – DECEMBER 1983 – REVISED MARCH 1988 SDLS118 – DECEMBER 1983 – REVISED MARCH 1988

PRODUCTION DATA information is current as of publication date. Copyright  1988, Texas Instruments Incorporated
Products conform to specifications per the terms of Texas Instruments
standard warranty. Production processing does not necessarily include
testing of all parameters.

POST OFFICE BOX 655303 • DALLAS, TEXAS 75265 1 2 POST OFFICE BOX 655303 • DALLAS, TEXAS 75265
 SN5473, SN54LS73A, SN7473, SN74LS73A SN5473, SN54LS73A, SN7473, SN74LS73A
DUAL J-K FLIP-FLOPS WITH CLEAR DUAL J-K FLIP-FLOPS WITH CLEAR
SDLS118 – DECEMBER 1983 – REVISED MARCH 1988 SDLS118 – DECEMBER 1983 – REVISED MARCH 1988

POST OFFICE BOX 655303 • DALLAS, TEXAS 75265 3 4 POST OFFICE BOX 655303 • DALLAS, TEXAS 75265
Appendix

B Report Guidelines
 2 Report Format
The details of how you distribute and organise your material in a report will vary from
practical to practical, but your report must always contain certain well defined sections.
Report Writing Guidelines Use the following scheme as a guide. Do not stray from it unless you have very good
reason for doing so.
J. Williams & D. Giovannoni
1. Title
2016 Each report must have a title. Its purpose is to state clearly and simply what
the report contains. Make it as brief as possible (1 or 2 lines at most) without
compromising clarity. Write it after you have completed the abstract (see Abstract).
During the various lab courses you will be required to write a report on some of The following technique is useful:
the practicals that you have done. The purpose of this exercise is to give you practice
in articulating in written format the results of an experiment, a necessary skill for any • Write several alternative titles.
scientist. Laboratory books, containing your original notes, readings, and graphs must • Put your proposed titles aside for a day or two. Then systematically eliminate
also be available for inspection. Getting the format and general structure of a report from them as many words as you can without loss of content. Repeat this
right is a pre-requisite that must be met before the content can begin to be judged. So procedure several times. Remember: complete sentences are not necessary in
if there is any doubt seek advice. a title. You can eliminate verbs.
The aim of a report is to convey relevant information in as few words as possible,
without compromising grammar or clarity. Your reports will be assessed with this in • After another day or two, select the title that best suits your work.
mind, so you will need to pay attention not only to the content of your report, but also 2. Abstract
to its form and style. Below is a description of how your report should be set out, and
also what style you should adopt in writing it. The abstract is a short self-contained summary of the principal features of the
report. It should not normally exceed 10 lines. In it, briefly outline your experi-
mental procedure and mention the principal results and conclusions found in your
1 Procedure report.
Write the abstract after the full report has been completed. Follow the writing
To make a start, the following procedure may be useful. We suggest you adopt it as your
technique recommended under Title, but do not trim the word content to such an
model whenever you set about any written work.
extreme that you are left with incomplete sentences.
• Rapidly construct a first draft. Do this preferably at one sitting, and without any Write the abstract in the 3rd person, as if you were reporting the work of some
attention to details. The object is to produce a good skeleton that can then be other person.
altered and refined.
You may put your title and abstract, together with your name and other details, on
• Convert the first draft into a working document. Begin by identifying what sections a separate page of your report. This way, you avoid logistical difficulties in layout.
you can complete most easily. Work each of these into a satisfactory form. As you
3. Body of the Report
do this, you will probably develop a better understanding of your material and how
to present it. Those sections that initially seemed ill defined will then begin to take (a) Introduction—Put your work into its proper context: sketch relevant back-
more definite shape in your mind. Continue section by section until you have a ground, and explain briefly the aim and importance of the experiment. Here
good working document. Remember: it is not necessary to begin at the beginning is where you set the theme of the report. Remember: this section is a general
of the report and to work sequentially through its various sections. You will make introduction, not a detailed exposition, and not a summary of the report or
better progress if you begin with those sections where you have most confidence. procedure.
• After you have produced a good working document, put it aside for some days. (b) Theory—Outline any theory required to understand the experiment and to
Then return to it and systematically eliminate from it as many words and phrases interpret its results. Remember that you are not writing a textbook. Be terse.
as clarity and content allow. The object is to abbreviate your document as much Give only a bare outline of the theory with full and proper references, so that
as possible without information loss. a reader wanting an expanded exposition will be able to find it in the quoted
references. The referencing procedure that you must follow is described under
• Repeat the last step until you feel that you can make no more useful alterations. section 5.
This will leave you with a terse and informative document.

1 2
 (c) Procedure—Briefly describe the method used, and the procedure followed in 3 Language
your experiment. Give only essential information. Avoid unnecessary detail.
Remember: it is easier to draw complicated apparatus than it is to describe it. Scientific publications are for rapid, clear and concise dissemination of scientific informa-
Diagrams included in your description must be sufficiently large for all relevant tion. For this, you need to develop proficiency, mastery and skill in the English language,
details to be clearly visible. For more on diagrams, see section 4 later. which is the language now used internationally by all scientists and engineers. We insist
therefore on precise and correct use of standard English in your written work and will
(d) Results—Report your readings, calculations, graphs and final result(s) in this
penalise incorrect spelling, grammar and syntax, as well as inconsistencies in style such
section. Lengthy items, such as extended tables of measurements or listings of
as unwarranted changes in tense and voice.
computer programs, are best relegated to an appendix at the end of the report
Describe your experimental work and procedures in the past tense. Report in the
(see Appendices below).
1st person singular things that you yourself have done (“I then measured the mass of
Note:
the sample”). Use the 1st person plural only if the work was carried out by more than
• Report your results with proper comments and annotations. Mere lists of one person (“We then measured the mass of the sample”). Use the passive voice, where
numbers without adequate explanations are not acceptable. appropriate, only to report things done by other workers in the field. (“The mass of the
• The purpose of this section is to report objectively all your data and cal- sample has been determined to be 1 kg”). In this way, you are stating clearly what your
culations. Do not attempt to interpret results or to draw any conclusions own contribution has been, and what has been contributed by others. Do not present
from them in this section. procedures as a set of instructions (“Measure the mass of the sample . . . ”)
(e) Discussion—The purpose of this section is scientific analysis and critical eval- The Abstract is the only exception to the above scheme. In scientific literature,
uation of your experiment and results. This should include: Abstracts are published separately and are often written by someone other than the
author of the paper. So write it in an impersonal style, as if you were reporting the work
• the significance and implications of your measurements and results—your of someone else, e.g., “This report describes . . . ” or, “An experimental determination of
experiment was designed and performed to explore properties of the phys- . . . is described . . . ”.
ical universe. State what can be legitimately learned, inferred or deduced Golden Rules:
from your experiment.
• critical evaluation of your experiment—discuss candidly any shortcomings • Be brief.
of your method, the reliability of apparatus, and likely sources of error.
• Avoid florid or colourful displays of language.
Your experiment is unlikely to be the final word on this subject, and it is
helpful to others working in the field to be aware of honest misgivings. • Avoid colloquialisms, and avoid being facetious.
• implications of your critical evaluation to the reliability of the inferences
and the deductions that you have made from your experiment. • Prepare rough drafts well in advance. Edit them mercilessly to remove all “zero
content” words and phrases.
Be brief and relevant. Don’t “pad it out.” Intelligent readers easily recognise
words without content and will soon put your work aside if they feel that their
time is being wasted. 4 Figures
(f) Conclusions—Summarize as briefly as possible only the most important points
Your report will probably contain diagrams or graphs. Observe the following rules for
from the Discussion. The purpose of this section is not new content, but quick
their inclusion.
reference. A researcher attracted by your title and abstract will probably read
this section next to determine whether it is worth reading your report in detail. • Refer to diagrams and graphs as Figures.
4. References • Number all figures sequentially and refer to them in the text by their number, e.g.,
You will need to include a detailed list of references in your report. See section 5 the filter circuit is shown in Figure 1.
for further details.
• Do not include any figure to which you do not refer explicitly in the text.
5. Appendices
• Do not treat figures as a substitute for text, e.g., we built the following circuit.
Lengthy items, such as extended tables of data or listings of computer programs,
should be relegated to an appendix at the end of the report. Number each appendix • Attach to each Figure an informative caption, as in Figure 1.
(if there is more than one) and refer to it in the text by this number. Each appendix
should be referred to in the main text.

3 4
 68 k
10 k
47 k
_ 2
6
741
+ CH 2
3 VLP
VSP SCOPE

CH 1

Figure 1 Circuit diagram of the state variable filter used in this investigation.

5 References
In your report, you will need to refer to source material from books, papers, or other
publications. Construct your referencing system according to the following rules.

• In the text, identify your source by reference number (in square brackets) and
(maybe) the author(s) as follows.

“ . . . it can be shown [1] that the current will decay . . . ” or “but Lyon
[2] has shown that a reasonable . . . ”

If the author cannot be identified, e.g., in the web, use the name of the institution
instead.

• Give the details of all the references you quote in the text at the end of your report
in a separate section entitled References. You may not list any references that are
not referred to in the report.

• If you are using LATEX to write your report, use a standard scientific bibliography
style file such as utphys.sty. Set up a bibliography file and it will all be done for
you (with the right commands)!
Otherwise use the following standard format for the list of references.

Books: Author(s) with initials, Year in brackets, Title of book (in italics), Pub-
lisher, Page or chapter number cited (if appropriate).
Journals: Author(s) with initials, Year in brackets, Title of article (in quotes),
Journal name (may be abbreviated - see below), volume number (underlined
or bold), page numbers.
Web: Author(s) with initials, Year in brackets, Title of article (in quotes), Insti-
tution, web address [date accessed].

• Organise your list of references in numerical order as in the following example.

[1] Halliday, D. and Resnick, R. (1974), Fundamentals of Physics, John Wiley,

pg 533.

[2] Lyon, A.J. (1970), Dealing with Data, Pergamon Press, Chapter 4.