Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
This chapter presents the related a different literature and studies,
which are related to the proposed study.
Effectiveness of Response Time
Today the police officer answers an estimated 70 to 80 percent of calls
which are neither criminal nor directly related to law enforcement. However,
the public continues to base its satisfaction with police services on response
time, largely because it increases feelings of security and is thought to deter
crime. Several studies have established that if the police take less than 5
minutes to respond to a call involving crime, the probability of making an
arrest is 60 percent. When the time exceeds 5 minutes, the arrest probability
drops to approximately 20 percent. These findings assume that police have
been promptly notified of the crime and no delays occur in the reporting,
dispatching, responding continuum. Police departments have taken steps to
ensure that delays do not occur in areas over which they have control, but
most citizens delay calling the police to the point that the value of a rapid
response time is negated. (J H Auten 1981)
For decades, rapid response has been a key strategy for police
departments around the globe. There are two general reasons for this. First,
to fulfill the police’s lifeline function, to be physically present when citizens
are in direct need of help. Second, because faster response times to citizens'
calls-for-service are commonly believed (and empirically suggested) to be
associated with increased witness availability (e.g., Cordner et al., 1983),
on-scene arrests (Cihan et al., 2012), crime clearance rates (e.g., Vidal &
Kirchmaier, 2018), crime deterrence (e.g., Weisburd, 2021), victim
satisfaction (e.g., Brandl & Horvath, 1991), victim wellbeing (e.g.,
Brown & Harris, 1989), and overall citizen satisfaction (e.g., Frank et al.,
2005). As it is also an easy to track quantitative measure, police response
time is one of the key performance indicators in policing. Police departments
around the globe measure, assess, and publicly share their response times
and aim to improve them. Therefore, knowledge of the factors that
determine police response time is of great value to police in particular and
society at large. Although there is a large body of research on
predictorsFootnote1 of police response time, so far, there has been no
research that gathered, mapped and synthesized the findings. This review
aims to fill this gap by answering the following research questions:
1) What are the empirically tested predictor variables of police
response time?
2) What conclusions can be drawn about the direction, size and
statistical significance of the effects of these predictor variables on
police response time?
The type of literature review carried out here is a scoping review, which is
defined as “a form of knowledge synthesis that addresses an exploratory
research question aimed at mapping key concepts, types of evidence, and
gaps in research related to a defined area or field by systematically
searching, selecting, and synthesizing existing knowledge.” (Colquhoun et
al., 2014).
Provision of social service is one of the most significant roles of the
police. A review of the related literature in policing seems to reveal that
empowerment holds significance for frontline officers who are largely
responsible for social service delivery. This study examines the possible
relationships between police social service role strain (PSSRS) and police
social service psychological empowerment (PSSPE) among frontline police
officers in China. This study adopts a two-phase (quantitative and qualitative
approaches) sequential explanatory design. In the first phase, a
questionnaire is used to collect data from a sample of 200 frontline
community patrol officers in Shenzhen Public Security Bureau, China. After
conducting the quantitative analysis, the author uses in-depth interviews to
explore the nature of PSSRS and PSSPE from 12 selected interviewees’
insights. According to the results of the survey and in-depth interviews, the
participants report a comparatively high level of PSSRS and a low level of
PSSPE. It has been found that there are significantly negative correlations
between PSSRS and PSSPE in the Chinese police organization. The Chinese
police force is suggested to provide effective interventions for individual
experience of psychological empowerment by continuously committing to
the organizational philosophy of community policing in response to the
PSSRS among frontline police officers. (Xiaohai Wang 2015)
LOCAL STUDIES
This study aims to identify the effects of police visibility and the
problems encountered on its implementation based on the perspective of
the citizens of Lipa. Descriptive type of research method was utilized in the
study with 357 randomly selected participants from different barangay
household in Lipa City, Batangas. Results showed that crime reduction
as one of the major purposes of police visibility is viewed with higher
effect than police public relations. The respondents believed that there are
possible problems encountered on its implementation which include:
having alleged inefficient officers, lack of personnel, not updated equipment,
unhealthy officers, and lack of budget. The groups of respondents from
aged brackets 26-35 and 36-45 have significantly higher problems
observed in the constant police visibility compared to groups with age
brackets 18-25 and 56-above. Meanwhile, sex has nothing to do with their
perception on the effects and problems encountered. Likewise, there are
respondents from specific barangays have significantly higher response
on the effects of police visibility where they find it very essential in
their area. Furthermore, those surveyed barangay residents with higher
response regarding the effects of police –public relations are also those
respondents with higher perceived problems. An action plan was
proposed to enhance the police visibility in the densely populated areas
and barangays in the City of Lipa as law enforcement strategy to fight
against crime and maintain the peace and order of the barangays. (Ray
Victor V. Valenzuela and Ma. Rosario B. Tamayo)
The dynamics of police response to shooting incidents in Zamboanga
City, Philippines, and its implications for policing and public safety. By
analyzing actual data gathered from a comprehensive survey of police
officers and interviews with key stakeholders, this study sheds light on the
challenges faced by law enforcement agencies in effectively addressing such
incidents. The study finds that despite efforts to enhance police capacity and
infrastructure, the response to shooting incidents in Zamboanga City remains
suboptimal. Key findings indicate that response times are often delayed, with
an average of 12 minutes from the time of the initial report to police arrival
at the scene. Furthermore, the research reveals a correlation between the
distance of police stations from the incident location and response time,
suggesting the need for strategic placement of police stations to improve
overall response effectiveness. Moreover, the study identifies several factors
contributing to the delayed response, including inadequate resources, lack of
interagency coordination, and limited community engagement. (Lesley Ann
Atilano-Tang 2023)
Police as law enforcers are mandated to ensure that the rule of law is
implicated in the spirit equality for all citizens. However, some police are
perceived as failing as to live up to duty and uphold the law, but of directly
violating the human rights of citizens or excessive use of force. Moreover, in
the performance of their duties, police officers routinely make critical
decisions which require discretion on their part. Uncontrolled discretion may
result in serious problems that can cause damaged to police organizations
background.
Performance evaluation is an effective tool in influencing behavior
since employees tend to conform to prescribe standards in order to achieve
higher performance ratings. Hence, dishonesty is a major problem in
government; integrity ought to be one of the rate able factors in
performance evaluation (Ursal 2006).
Performance evaluation in PNP shall be administered in accordance
with the rules and regulations and standards, and a code of conduct
promulgated by the Commission for members of the PNP. Performance
evaluation system shall have administered in such a way as
to foster the improvement of individual efficiency and behavioral
discipline as well as 16 the promotion of organizational effectiveness and
respect for the constitutional and human rights of the citizens, democratic
principles and ideals and the supremacy of civilian authority over the military
(Breva Jr. n.d.).
Performance measures include: policy – to assist in the formulation and
implementation of planning and budgeting – to assist in the planned change;
quality – to improve the standards of the service content and of the
organizational effectiveness, economy – to review the distribution and
effective uses of resource; equity – to ensure fair distribution and
accessibility to users; and accountability – to increase control and influence
over decision-making. Ultimately, there should be performance standards,
but this should be for much later, when performance can already be
measured with some degree of reliability and validity. Performance of officers
cannot just measure with lazy and uncertain rod. When one is assigned
he/she must have performance goals, otherwise he may experience a sense
of injustice, a feeling of intense dissatisfaction and of being treated unfairly.
Then, there will always be resistance to change, the worst of which will come
from individuals within the organization, the enemies’ within (Tantuico Jr.,
2001)
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