ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito

TOPIC 1: INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

a) Concepts of ICT – Terminologies
i) Computer
This is an electro-magnetic device that can be programmed to accept data (input), process it into useful
information (output) and store for later reuse (retrieve).
ii) Computer system
A system is a group of two or more interrelated components or subsystems that serve a common purpose.
A computer system comprises of input, processing, storage and output devices.
iii) Data
This refers to a collection of disorganized figures, facts, statistics, opinions or predictions that are not useful
for decision making.
-Also refers to the raw facts which have not been processed
iv) Information
This is processed data which is in a form that is meaningful for decision making
v) Information Communication Technology
Is an integration of computers, communication and other technologies applied to the collection and storage of
data that is subsequently processed and transmitted with the intention of providing information to the
recipient or decision makers?
Inputting
Process of entering data into a computer system. This data is referred to as inputs
Processing
Act of transforming inputs into information
Storing
Process of keeping data, instructions and information temporarily or permanently
Outputting
Process of disseminating information from a computer system to the outside world
DATA
Data usually refers to raw. Data is considered to be raw data. It represents ‘values of qualitative or
quantitative variables, belonging to a set of items
INFORMATION
When data is processed, organized, structured or presented in a given context so as to make it useful, it is
called Information

The following tables shows the difference between data and information
Data Information
Data is raw, unorganized facts
that need to be processed. When data is processed, organized, structured or
Meaning Data can be something simple presented in a given context so as to make it
and seemingly random and useful, it is called Information.
useless until it is organized.
The class' average score or the school's average
Each student's test score is one
Example score is the information that can be concluded from
piece of data
the given data.
Latin 'datum' meaning "that
which is given". Data was the
Definition Information is interpreted data.
plural form of datum singular
(M150 adopts the general use
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
Data Information
of data as singular. Not
everyone agrees.)
COMMUNICATION
The transmission of data from one computer to another, or from one communication to another.
A communications device, therefore, is any machine that assists data transmission. In the electronic world, it
is the transfer of data and information from one location to another
Technology
Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the
application of mental and physical effort in order to achieve some value. In this usage, technology refers to
tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems
Examples of technology
1. Computer technology - the activity of designing and constructing and programming computers
An example of computer technology is the development of a software program that allows people to
accomplish work at home which has been automatically assigned from computers at their job location
2. Information technology
Information technology (IT) is the application of computers and telecommunication equipment to store,
retrieve, transmit and manipulate data, often in the context of a business or other enterprise. The term is
commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but it also encompasses other
information distribution technologies such as television and telephones.
Information Communication Technology
Information Communication Technology (ICT) is a large umbrella term that covers all the technical
equipment to process and communicate information. ICT covers two aspects of information technology and
communication technology. Information technology encompasses all matters relating to the processing, use
as a tool, manipulation, and management of information.
While communication technology is everything associated with the use of tools to process and transfer data
from one device to another. Therefore, the information technology and communication technology are two
inseparable concepts. So the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) contains the broadest sense
of any activity related to the processing, manipulation, management, transfer of information among media.
The term ICT emerged after the combination of computer technology (both hardware and software) and
communications technology in the mid-20th century
Examples of ICT equipment
Fax machines
 Telephone
 Mobile phone
 Computers
 Printers
THE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF ICT
As it is known from time immemorial that everything in life is like the two side of a coin, there is always a
positive and negative side of every phenomenon. But whether the effect is positive or negative the effects of
Information Communication Technology (ICT) is far reaching and cannot be overemphasized. The Effects
of ICT lens looks at how our lives have been changed, for better and for worse, by the impact of ICT. It
includes both positive effects and negative effects and looks at how individual’s organizations and society
are affected.
POSITIVE IMPACTS OF ICT ON THE SPCIETY
ICT CAN HAVE POSITIVE IMPACTS ON PEOPLE
 ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
1. Access to information: Possibly the greatest effect of ICT on individuals is the huge increase in access
to information and services that has accompanied the growth of the Internet. Some of the positive aspects
of this increased access are better, and often cheaper, communications, such as VoIP phone and Instant
Messaging. In addition, the use of ICT to access information has brought new opportunities for leisure
and entertainment, the facility to make contacts and form relationships with people around the world, and
the ability to obtain goods and services from a wider range of suppliers.
2. Improved access to education, e.g. distance learning and on-line tutorials. New ways of learning, e.g.
interactive multi-media and virtual reality. New job opportunities, e.g. flexible and mobile working,
virtual offices and jobs in the communications industry.
3. New tools, new opportunities: The second big effect of ICT is that it gives access to new tools that did
not previously exist. A lot of these are tied into the access to information mentioned above, but there are
many examples of stand-alone ICT systems as well:
4 FASTER COMMUNICATION SPEED
In the past, it took a long time for any news or messages to be send. Now with the Internet, news or messages
are sent via e-mail to friends, business partners or to anyone efficiently. With the capability of bandwidth,
broadband and connection speed on the Internet, any information can travel fast and at an instant. It saves time
and is inexpensive.
5 LOWER COMMUNICATION COST
Using the Internet is cost-effective than the other modes of communication such as telephone, mailing or
courier service. It allows people to have access to large amounts of data at a very low cost. With the Internet we
do not have to pay for any basic services provided by the Internet. Furthermore, the cost of connection to the
Internet is relatively cheap.

6 RELIABLE MODE OF COMMUNICATION

Computers are reliable. With the internet, information could be accessed and retrieved from anywhere and at
anytime. This makes it a reliable mode of communication. However, the input to the computer is contributed by
humans. If the data passed to the computer is faulty, the result will be faulty as well. This is related to the term
GIGO.

NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF ICT ON THE SOCIETY

 Job loss: One of the largest negative effects of ICT can be the loss of a person’s job. This has both
economic consequences, loss of income, and social consequences, loss of status and self esteem. Job
losses may occur for several reasons, including: Manual operations being replaced by automation. e.g.
robots replacing people on an assembly line.Job export. e.g. Data processing work being sent to other
countries where operating costs are lower. Multiple workers being replaced by a smaller number who are
able to do the same amount of work. e.g. A worker on a supermarket checkout can serve more customers
per hour if a bar-code scanner linked to a computerized till is used to detect goods instead of the worker
having to enter the item and price manually
 Reduced personal interaction: Being able to work from home is usually regarded as being a positive
effect of using ICT, but there can be negative aspects as well. Most people need some form of social
interaction in their daily lives and if they do not get the chance to meet and talk with other people they
may feel isolated and unhappy.
 Reduced physical activity: A third negative effect of ICT is that users may adopt a more sedentary
lifestyle. This can lead to health problems such as obesity, heart disease, and diabetes. Many countries
have workplace regulations to prevent problems such as repetitive strain injury or eyestrain, but lack of
physical exercise is rarely addressed as a specific health hazard.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
 NUCLEAR WEAPONS: Destructive weapons and equipment have been created through ICT and these
weapons have been used to claim the lives of many innocent people.
 FRAUD: ICT paved the way for fraud as people from one country can defraud others in different parts of
the world. The internet has facilitated the activities of fraudsters who from the comfort of their homes can
dupe people far and near.
 JOB LOSS: manual operations have been replaced with automation which has economic and social effects
such as loss of income and status.
 COST: Many ICT hardware and software are expensive both to purchase and to maintain. It is true that
Information Communication Technology is present in almost every faecet of our daily lives yet the cost of
acquiring them is still relatively high.
 SOCIETY: ICT has negatively affected our society by causing a digital divide between those who can
access information and those who cannot reducing education and understanding due to the vast amount of
misleading and incorrect information.
 LOSS OF PRIVACY: Users of social networking run the risk of lack of privacy in the sense that known
and unknown people can assess their accounts or sites where they can get their personal private and
sensitive information.
 REDUCED EMPLOYMENT: In the days before ICT, people were employed as messengers, cleaners,
laborers in construction sites, e.t.c but with the advent of technology, machines have replaced such jobs
previously done by man. These illiterates have been rendered jobless leading to unemployment.
 Nowadays, people tend to choose online communication rather than having real time conversations.
People tend to become more individualistic and introvert theft, hacking, pornography and online
gambling. This will result in moral decadent and generate threat to the society E.)
 Health Problems A computer may harm the user if they use it if they use it for a long hours frequently.
Computers users are also exposed to bad posture, eyestrain, physical and mental stress. In order to solve
the health problems, an ergonomic chair can reduced back strain and a screen filter is to minimize
eyestrain.
POSITIVE IMPACT OF ICT ON ORGANIZATIONS
There are three main areas in which organizations are affected by the use of ICT, communications,
information management, and security. The three areas have considerable overlap.
 Communication: By using ICT has brought a number of benefits to organizations, such as: Cost
savings by using e.g. VoIP instead of normal telephone, email / messaging instead of post, video
conferencing instead of traveling to meetings, e-commerce web sites instead of sales catalogues. Access
to larger, even worldwide, markets. Web sites can be seen from all parts of the world and orders can be
taken wherever there is a compatible banking system to process payments, e.g. credit / debit card, Pay-
Pal, bank transfer facility. Web sites also have 24 hour opening and are available every day of the year.
Flexible response. Organizations with good communications can respond to changes quickly. This may
mean better customer relations, an improved supply chain for goods and services, faster development of
new products to meet a new opportunity, etc.
 Information management: Organizations can benefit from using ICT for information management. e.g.
Data mining of customer information to produce lists for targeted advertising. Improved stock control,
resulting in less wastage, better cash flow, etc.Mangers are better informed and will have more reliable
and up-to-date information on which to base their decisions.
 Security: Although the use of ICT can bring its own security issues, see next section, it can also solve or
reduce some security problems, e.g. Encryption methods can keep data safe from unauthorized people,
both while it is being stored or while it is being sent electronically. This is important for reasons such as
data protection legislation or commercial secrecy. ICT enables physical security systems such as
fingerprint, iris or facial recognition.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF ICT ON ORGANIZATIONS
a) Cost: the cost of using ICT may cause a number of problems for organizations. A lot of ICT
hardware and software is expensive, both to purchase and to maintain. An ICT system usually requires
specialist staff to run it and there is also the challenge of keeping up with ever-changing technology. These
extra costs should be offset by the positive effects of using ICT, but if an organization gets its cost-benefit
analysis wrong it may lose money.
b) Competition: this is usually thought of as being a good thing, but for some organizations being
exposed to greater competition can be a problem. If the organization is competing for customers, donations,
or other means of funding nationally or even internationally, they may lose out to other organizations that
can offer the same service for less money.
c) Security: this is always a problem for any organization that uses ICT. Data must be kept secure,
Internet connections must be protected from attack, new viruses and other forms of malware are released
nearly every day. Organizations will usually have legal obligations to protect data such as customer
information. Even if the organization does not have to comply with a specific data protection law it will
usually be in the organization’s interest to protect data from rivals.

NEGATIVE IMPACT OF ICT ON SOCIETY

1. NUCLEAR WEAPONS: Destructive weapons and equipment have been created through ICT and
these weapons have been used to claim the lives of many innocent people.
2. FRAUD: ICT paved the way for fraud as people from one country can defraud others in different parts
of the world. The internet has facilitated the activities of fraudsters who from the comfort of their
homes can dupe people far and near.
3. JOB LOSS: manual operations have been replaced with automation which has economic and social
effects such as loss of income and status.
4. COST: Many ICT hardware and software are expensive both to purchase and to maintain. It is true that
Information Communication Technology is present in almost every faecet of our daily lives yet the
cost of acquiring them is still relatively high.
5. SOCIETY: ICT has negatively affected our society by causing a digital divide between those who can
access information and those who cannot reducing education and understanding due to the vast amount
of misleading and incorrect information.
6. LOSS OF PRIVACY: Users of social networking run the risk of lack of privacy in the sense that
known and unknown people can assess their accounts or sites where they can get their personal private
and sensitive information.
7. REDUCED EMPLOYMENT: In the days before ICT, people were employed as messengers, cleaners,
laborers in construction sites, e.t.c but with the advent of technology, machines have replaced such
jobs previously done by man. These illiterates have been rendered jobless leading to unemployment.
8. Nowadays, people tend to choose online communication rather than having real time conversations.
People tend to become more individualistic and introvert theft, hacking, pornography and online
gambling. This will result in moral decadent and generate threat to the society E.)
9. Health Problems A computer may harm the user if they use it if they use it for a long hours frequently.
Computers users are also exposed to bad posture, eyestrain, physical and mental stress. In order to
solve the health problems, an ergonomic chair can reduced back strain and a screen filter is to
minimize eyestrain.
DIGITAL DIVIDE
The idea of the "digital divide" refers to the growing gap between the underprivileged members of society,
especially the poor, rural, elderly, and handicapped portion of the population who do not have access to
computers or the internet;
 ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
USAGE OF ICT IN DAILY LIFE
1. EDUCATION
Today, most schools and higher educational institutions have computers in the classroom for teacher and
students. In education, teachers, students, researchers and school administrators benefits from the usage
of ICT.
Teachers Teachers use computers to research for teaching materials, participate in online forums
and online conferences as well as to aid their teaching.
Students Students use the computers as a reference tool. They use computers to browse the Internet
to look for information
Researchers use computers to collect and process data
School administrators use computers for administrative purposes to make sure that the entire
operation runs smoothly.
2. Business
The computer's characteristic as high speed of calculation, diligence,accuracy, reliability, or
versatility has made it an integerated part in all business organisations. Computer used in business
organisation for

3. Marketing
In Marketing uses of computer are following:
Advertising: With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy, and
print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
At Home Shopping: At home shopping has been made possible through use of computerized catalogues that
provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
4. Health Care
Computers have become important part in all Medical Systems. The computers are being used in hospitals to
keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG,

Diagnostic System: Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of illness.
Lab-diagnostic System: All tests can be done and reports are prepared by computer.
5. Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is received and understood clearly
and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this category are:
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito

TOPIC 2: INODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Computer
This is an electro-magnetic device that can be programmed to accept data (input), process it into useful
information (output) and store for later reuse (retrieve)
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or "data." It has the ability
to store, retrieve, and process data. You can use a computer to type documents, send email, and browse
the internet. You can also use it to handle spreadsheets, accounting, database management, presentations,
games, and more.
Computer system
A system is a group of two or more interrelated components or subsystems that serve a common purpose. A
computer system comprises of input, processing, storage and output devices.
Functions of Computers
A computer performs the following functions −
Receiving Input
Data is fed into computer through various input devices like keyboard, mouse, digital pens, etc. Input can
also be fed through devices like CD-ROM, pen drive, scanner, etc.
Processing the information
Operations on the input data are carried out based on the instructions provided in the programs.
Storing the information
After processing, the information gets stored in the primary or secondary storage area.
Producing output
The processed information and other details are communicated to the outside world through output devices
like monitor, printer, etc.
Basic functions of a computer system
1· Billing
A computer system performs billing and related functions. These include preparing and printing bills for
customers and keeping track of accounts receivable. In situations where bills are overdue, the computer
system alerts the business owner or bookkeeper and will print collection notices for mailing.
2· Accounting
Computer systems perform all accounting-related functions, virtually eliminating the human error that
often accompanies working with large quantities of figures. Programs are available for creating general
ledgers, accounts payable and income and expense statements, as well as payroll processing. Trial balances
can be obtained at any time, allowing business owners to quickly and easily determine their current
financial status.
3· Schedule.
For business operations that rely heavily on appointments, such as a medical practice, a computer operating
system is much more efficient than using a paper schedule book or day timer. A main advantage is a built-
in reminder system, which allows the office staff to contact the patient or client to remind them of an
upcoming appointment. This can reduce the number of missed appointments.
4· Word Processing.
A computer system's word processing program is valuable to businesses that engage in a large amount of
written correspondence and communication. Workers can write multiple letters at one time, saving both
time and money. Corrections are made easily, and a variety of formats for business letters are available.
The business also has the ability to create marketing materials like fliers and small signs.
5· Record Keeping/Filing
Computer operating systems help a business keep files and records organized. Business owners can create
folders on the computer, which eliminates the need for paper folders and large amounts of filing space. The
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
process of keeping records becomes more accurate since paper files are no longer lost or accidentally
thrown away.
6. Communication
Computers enables firms to share information between various branches, departments in a fast, reliable and
more convenient way as compared to traditional form of communication
Advantages of computers
(i) Stores large chunks of information in limited space.
(ii) Speed- performs tasks in very short periods ( in comparison to working manually)
(iii) Efficiency – Creates an all round saving on space, time.
(iv) Consistency- Gives the same results given the same data and instructions
(v) Secrecy – information is fairly protected if the computer system is well managed
(vi) Versatility – can do the same thing over and over again without being worn out.
- Communication
They allow people across the globe to communicate with each other, no matter at what time, via the use of
email.
- High speed processing
A super computer can process one trillion arithmetic operations in one second.
- Handle large volume of repetitive tasks
It can prepare a payroll by calculating hours worked, rate per hour, total wages, various deductions and net
wages for thousands of employees without getting bored.
- Has logical ability
Able to distinguish between numbers and decide which one is greater, negative or positive. It has the ability
to compare data items and determine if the largest, smallest and equality
- Remote processing
Through time sharing and telecommunication, many persons at different locations can use the same
computer at one location for information processing eg ATM banking or air-time top up.
- Enhance productivity
Productivity increase once workers learn to use computers to perform their duties better and faster
- Accelerate decision making
Managers can sort issues faster and make better decisions
- Reduce operation costs
Computers help to hold down the costs of labour, energy and paper work
- Reduce storage space
Information can be stored in computer components which occupy smaller space unlike paper
Disadvantages of computers
 High initial costs-requires high initial cost to purchase and install the computers
 Require skilled operators-Training needs to be done for the computer operators
 Cause health problems-use of computers causes health related problems such as neck ache, eyes
 Reduce employment opportunities-one computer can perform several tasks that could have been
performed by several people hence causes unemployment
 Heavy Reliance in the Workforce
Sometimes the computer can be devastating due to power loss or system crash for many businesses
as they heavily rely on the computer. They can lose valuable files permanently that can have an
effect for a long time.
 Trolls, abuse, stalking, and exploitation
A person who spends more time on the Internet can face abusive or trolls' people. Over the years, another
issue cyberbullying is also increasing speedily. Unfortunately, it is much easier to encounter these types of
people with the anonymous nature of the Internet. With more and more people sharing information on the
Internet, you can be tracked on the Internet by hackers or unauthorized persons in terms of stealing your
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
personal information.

 Potential of loss of privacy

As the computer can store a large amount of data and if you store your personal data, or information
on the computer, it can be at risk of getting into the hands of others. Once your personal information
has been stolen by any malicious person, they can use the information to access your online accounts
or use identity theft to open other accounts, such as a new debit or credit card under your name.
 Too much sitting
If you are sitting for a long time and becoming a mouse potato to use a computer, it can lead to
health problems. Also, users have to turn their back in terms of the curve when they use a
computer, which also causes them to distract their body posture. As scientists have researched that
standing for a long time is not healthy, so replacing a traditional desk for a standing desk is not a
perfect solution. But the standing desk may be better as compared to sitting. To overcome these
problems, you can take breaks where you move stretch, around, and exercise.
Characteristics of Computer
 SPEED : In general, no human being can compete to solving the complex computation, faster than
computer.
 ACCURACY : Since Computer is programmed, so what ever input we give it gives result with
accurately.
 STORAGE : Computer can store mass storage of data with appropriate format.
 DILIGENCE : Computer can work for hours without any break and creating error.
 VERSATILITY : We can use computer to perform completely different type of work at the same time.
 POWER OF REMEMBERING : It can remember data for us.
 NO IQ : Computer does not work without instruction.
 NO FEELING : Computer does not have emotions, knowledge, experience, feeling.
CLASSES OF COMPUTERS
Classes of computers
Computers can be classified, using the following criteria
1) According to type of data
 Analog computers
 Digital computers
 Hybrid computers
2) According to purpose
 Special purpose
 General purpose
3) According to size
 Super computers
 Main frame computers
 Mini computers
 Micro computers
4.) According to generations
 First Generation of computers
 Second Generation of computers
 Third Generation of computers
 Forth Generation of computers
 Fifth Generation of computers
5) According to function
⦁ Server
⦁ Workstation
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
⦁ Information appliances
⦁ Embedded computers

1. Classification by type of data

Analog Computers
These are computers that perform logical operations by measuring changes in physical magnitudes and
convert them to numeric values. These computers process data that is in a continuous form or measurable
quantities/units. Analog data includes physical variables like temperature, pressure, length, weight, electrical
voltages and resistance.
 Analog computers include thermometers, weighing scales, voltmeters and speedometers.
 These computers are used mainly for scientific and engineering purposes because they deal with
quantities that vary constantly.
 They give approximate results and are applied in industries, post office and weather stations
 Handles small volume of data.
Digital Computers
. These computers process data that is represented in the form of discrete or individually distinct form
usually in a binary or two state formats/digits 0 and 1. In the binary system, each 0 and 1 is called a bit and a
group of 8 bits is 1 byte.
Example of these devices include digital clock.
 handles high volume of data and gives accurate information
Hybrid Computers
These are computers that have the combined features of both the digital and analog computers. Example is
where patient’s vital signs like temperature, heart functions etc are measured and converted to numbers and
supplied to the digital components that monitor the patient’s vital signs. A fluctuation can thus be noticed
immediately.
2) Classification by size
- Super computers
These are the most powerful, fastest and most expensive computers. Only a few of these are manufactured
each year because only a few organizations need and can afford their processing capabilities. They have
large memories and high processing speeds so fast that they can process nearly a billion transactions per
second and nearly a trillion arithmetic operations at the same time. They apply parallel processing.
Application
 Worldwide weather forecasting and analysis of weather phenomena
 Produce images that can be incorporated into movies
 Aircraft design
 Mathematical research
Main frames
These are large, general purpose computers which can serve 100 or more end users. They are fast with
large storage capacities.
Application
 Processing of high-volume batch applications eg in banks
 Management of very large centralized databases
 To control access, interpret queries and retrieve & update records
 Ideal for transaction processing, financial applications, payroll calculations and airline reservations.
Mini computers
 These are computers which are neither too big nor too small in size
 They are designed to accommodate more than one user
 The are a bit costly than micro computers
 Their processing speed is a bit faster than micro computers
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
 They have a large storage capacity than microcomputers and lesser than mainframe computer
Micro computers
 These are computers that are small in size
 They are designed for single user
 They have low processing speed
 They are less costly compared to others
 They have small processors
 They have small storage capacity
3. Classification by purpose
 Special purpose computer
 General purpose computers
A general purpose computer is used for different programs for different functions. It can be used to do a
lot of things.
A special-purpose computer is designed for special functions only. It is usually made to do one thing
only. It cannot be used to surf the internet or play games.

General-purpose Special-purpose
1 It is designed to perform variety or task. It is designed for a specific application
2 It is more versatile. It is less versatile.
3 It is less efficient. It is more efficient.
4 Programs are temporarily stored in memory. Instruction permanently programmed into the memory.
5 It is comparatively slower than special purpose It is comparatively faster than general purpose computer.
computer.
6 Example: microcomputer. Example: to control traffic lights.

4. Classification by function
⦁ Servers
Server usually refers to a computer that is dedicated to providing a service. For example, a computer
dedicated to a database may be called a "database server". "File servers" manage a large collection of
computer files. "Web servers" process web pages and web applications. Many smaller servers are actually
personal computers that have been dedicated to providing services for other computers.
⦁ Workstations
Workstations are computers that are intended to serve one user and may contain special hardware
enhancements not found on a personal computer.
⦁ Information appliances
Information appliances are computers specially designed to perform a specific user-friendly function —
such as playing music, photography, or editing text. The term is most commonly applied to mobile devices,
though there are also portable and desktop devices of this class.
⦁ Embedded computers
Embedded computers are computers that are a part of a machine or device. Embedded computers
generally execute a program that is stored in non-volatile memory and is only intended to operate a
specific machine or device. Embedded computers are very common. Embedded computers are typically
required to operate continuously without being reset or rebooted, and once employed in their task the
software usually cannot be modified. An automobile may contain a number of embedded computers;
however, a washing machine and a DVD player would contain only one. The central processing units
(CPUs) used in embedded computers are often sufficient only for the computational requirements of the
specific application and may be slower and cheaper than CPUs found in a personal computer.
5. Classification by placement
 Desktops
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
A desktop computer is a computer that fits on or under a desk. It has a monitor or another display,
keyboard, mouse, and either a horizontal or vertical (tower) form factor.
These are a type of microcomputers also called Personal Computers (PCs).
 They are compact, powerful and versatile machines
 They generally serve a single user
 The desktop type may be one integral unit having monitor and CPU or may be separate ( Tower units)

 Laptops
Are devices that hold data, instructions and information temporarily ie for a short period of time. Also
known as temporal memory or primary memory or internal memory
Notebook: - These computers are as powerful as desktop but size of these computers are comparatively
smaller than laptop and desktop. They weigh 2 to 3 kg. They are more costly than laptop.
 Palmtop (Hand held): - They are also called as personal Digital Assistant (PDA). These computers are
small in size. They can be held in hands. It is capable of doing word processing, spreadsheets and hand
writing recognition, game playing, faxing and paging. These computers are not as powerful as desktop
computers. Ex: - 3com palmV.
 Wearable computer: - The size of this computer is very small so that it can be worn on the body. It has
smaller processing power. It is used in the field of medicine. For example pace maker to correct the heart
beats. Insulin meter to find the levels of insulin in the blood.
A generation refers to the state of improvement in the product development process. This term is also
used in the different advancements of new computer technology. With each new generation, the
circuitry has gotten smaller and more advanced than the previous generation before it. As a result of
the miniaturization, speed, power, and computer memory has proportionally increased. New
discoveries are constantly being developed that affect the way we live, work and play.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
Classification according to generation
Each generation of computers is characterized by major technological development that fundamentally
changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful and
more efficient and reliable devices.
The Generations of Computers
It used to be quite popular to refer to computers as belonging to one of several "generations" of computer. These
generations are:-
1. First Generation (1940-1956)
The first generation computers had the following features and components Hardware
The hardware used in the first generation of computers was: Vacuum Tubes and Punch Cards.
Features
Following are the features of first generation computers −
· It supported machine language.
· It had slow performance
· It occupied large size due to the use of vacuum tubes.
· It had a poor storage capacity.
· It consumed a lot of electricity and generated a lot of heat.
Memory
The memory was of 4000 bits.
Data Input
The input was only provided through hard-wired programs in the computer, mostly through punched cards and
paper tapes.
Examples
The examples of first generation computers are −
 ENIAC
 UNIVACTBM 701
Advantages of first generation computers
Here are the list of some advantages of using first generation computer at that time:
 Vacuum tubes were the only electronic component available during those days.
 Vacuum tube Technology made possible to make electronic digital computers.
 These computers could calculate data in milliseconds.
Disadvantages of first generation computers
Here are the list of some disadvantages of using the first generation computers at that time:
 The computers were very large in size
 They consume a large amount of energy
 They heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum tubes
 They were not very reliable
 Air conditioning was required
 Constant maintenance was required
 Costly commercial productions
 Limited commercial use
2) Second Generation (1956-1963)
Several advancements in the first-gen computers led to the development of second generation computers.
Following are various changes in features and components of second generation computers −
Hardware
The hardware used in the second generation of computers were −
 Transistors
 Magnetic Tapes
Features
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
It had features like −
· Batch operating system
· Faster and smaller in size
· Reliable and energy efficient than the previous generation
· Less costly than the previous generation
Memory
The capacity of the memory was 32,000 bits.
Data Input
The input was provided through punched cards.
Examples
The examples of second generation computers are −
 Honeywell 400
 CDC 1604
 IBM 7030
Advantages of second generation computers
Here are some of the main advantages of using second generation computer at that time:
 Smaller in size as compared to the first generation computers
 The second generation computers were more reliable
 Used less energy and were not heated
 Wider commercial use
 Better portability as compared to the first generation computers
 Beta speed and could calculate data in microseconds
 Used faster peripherals like tape drives, magnetic disks, printer etc.
Disadvantages of second generation computers
And here are some of the main disadvantages of using second generation computers at that time:
 Cooling system was required
 Constant maintenance was required
 Commercial production was difficult
 Only used for specific purposes
3) Third Generation (1964-1971)
Following are the various components and features of the third generation computers −
Hardware
The hardware used in the third generation of computers were
· Integrated Circuits made from semi-conductor materials
· Large capacity disks and magnetic tapes
Features
The features of the third generation computers are −
· Supports time-sharing OS
· Faster, smaller, more reliable and cheaper than the previous generations
· Easy to access
Memory
The capacity of the memory was 128,000 bits.
Data Input
The input was provided through keyboards and monitors.
Examples
The examples of third generation computers are −
 IBM 360/370
 CDC 6600
 PDP 8/11
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
Advantages of third generation computers
Following are some main advantages of using third generation computers:
 Smaller in size as compared to previous generation
 More reliable
 Used less energy
 Better speed and could calculate data in nanoseconds
 Used fan for heat discharge to prevent damage
Disadvantages of third generation computers
Following are some main disadvantages of using third generation computers:
 Air conditioning was required
 Highly sophisticated Technology was required for the manufacturing of IC chips
4) Fourth Generation (1972-2010)
Fourth generation computers have the following components and features −
Hardware
The Hardware used in the fourth generation of computers were −
 ICs with Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology
 Semiconductor memory
 Magnetic tapes and Floppy
Features
It supports features like −
 Multiprocessing & distributed OS
 Object-oriented high level programs supported
 Small & easy to use; hand-held computers have evolved
 No external cooling required & affordable
 This generation saw the development of networks and the internet
 It saw the development of new trends in GUIs and mouse
Memory
The capacity of the memory was 100 million bits.
Data Input
The input was provided through improved hand held devices, keyboard and mouse.
Examples
The examples of fourth generation computers are −
 Apple II
 VAX 9000
 CRAY 1 (super computers)
Advantages of fourth generation of computers
Following are the advantages of using all those computer machine that are based on fourth generation over
previous generation:
 Much faster
 Less expensive
 More powerful and reliable than previous generations
 Small in size
 Uses advanced techniques
 Have greater data processing capacity than equivalent size previous generation computer that is third
generation computers
 Fast processing power with less power consumption
 Fan for heat discharging and thus to keep cold
 No air conditioning required
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
 Uses advance application software package like process controller, relational database management,
electronic spreadsheet, CAD (Computer aided design).
 All types of high level languages can be used in this type of computers
Disadvantages of fourth generation computers
Below is the main disadvantages of fourth generation computers:
 The latest technology is required for manufacturing of microprocessors
5) Fifth Generation (2010-Present)
These are the modern and advanced computers. Significant changes in the components and operations have
made fifth generation computers handy and more reliable than the previous generations.
Hardware
The Hardware used in the fifth generation of computers are −
· Integrated Circuits with VLSI and Nano technology
· Large capacity hard disk with RAID support
· Powerful servers, Internet, Cluster computing
Features
It supports features like −
· Powerful, cheap, reliable and easy to use.
· Portable and faster due to use of parallel processors and Super Large Scale Integrated Circuits.
· Rapid software development is possible.
Memory
The capacity of the memory is unlimited.
Data Input
The input is provided through CDROM, Optical Disk and other touch and voice sensitive input devices.
Examples
The examples of fifth generation computers are −
 IBM
 Pentium
 PARAM

ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER
1. Hardware:
The physical components of a computer constitute its Hardware. They are tangible, i.e. you can see and
touch them.
The four types of hardware are,
 Input Hardware: For users to input data into the computer system. Examples: Keyboard, mouse,
Scanner
 Output Hardware: To translate and display the result of the data processing =. Example: Monitor
Screen, Printer etc
 Processing and Memory Hardware: Where data and information are processed and manipulated to
perform the task at hand.
 Memory Hardware : It is also the workspace of the computer, where it temporarily stores data.
Examples: Central Processing Unit (CPU), Read Only Memory (RAM) Secondary Storage
Hardware: Where the computer system stores data permanently. Example: Hard disk, Pen drive
etc
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
2. Software:
A set of programs that form an interface between the hardware and the user of a computer system are
referred to as Software. Software is nothing but a set of programs (computer instructions), which helps
the user to do a set of specific tasks. It helps the user interact with the computer system with the help of
hardware. Software, as you can imagine, is the intangible aspect of the computer system. Basically, there
are The six main types of software are as follows,
 Operating System: These specialized programs allow the communication between software and
hardware. The operating systems run all the other computer programs, and even regulate the
startup process of the computer. Examples: Windows XP, Macintosh etc
 Application Software: These are designed to perform a specific task or a bunch of tasks. They
can be user-designed (specific to the user’s needs) or readymade application software. Example:
PowerPoint, Tally etc.
 Utility Software: Like operating systems, it is system software. It helps maintain and protect the
computer system. For example, Anti-virus software is utility software.
 Language Processors: Software that interprets computer language and translates it into machine
language. It also checks for errors in language syntax and fixes the problems.
 System Software: These types of software control the hardware, the reading of the data and other
such internal functions.
 Connectivity Software: The special software that facilitates the connection between the computer
system and the server. This allows the computer to share information and communicate with each
other.
3. People or orgware or liveware
The most important element of a computer system is its users. They are also called live-ware of the
computer system.
The following types of people interact with a computer system:
 Programmers: Professionals who write the computer programs that allow users to interact with
the computer. They must have technical knowledge of computers and computer languages.
 System Analyst: They mainly design data processing systems, and solve problems that arise in
data processing
 End-Users: Also known as operators, they are the people who interact with the computer system.
 Database administrators: They design, setup and manage a database which is an organized storage
of data items relating to different entities such as products, customers, students, course e.t.c
 Network administrators: They design, setup and maintain a network which is an interconnection
of computers using communication media or channels
 Computer technician: They provide software and hardware support to users both remotely via
telephone calls or physically
 System Operators:
People who operate the system and use it for different purposes. Also called the end users.
4. Procedures:
Procedure is a step by step series of instructions to perform a specific function and achieve desired
output.
In a computer system, there are three types of procedures:
 Hardware oriented procedure:
It defines the working of a hardware component.
 Software oriented procedure:
It is a set of detailed instructions for using the software.
 Internal procedure:
It maintains the overall internal working of each part of a computer system by directing the flow of
information.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
5. Data:
The facts and figures that are fed into a computer for further processing are called data. Data is raw until
the computer system interprets it using machine language, stores it in memory, classifies it for processing
and produces results in conformance with the instructions given to it. Processed and useful data is called
information which is used for decision making.
6. Peripherals
These are devices connected externally to the computer so as to improve on the functionalities of a
computer system. An example is a earphone, microphone, mouse etc
In summary A computer system is a system of interconnected computers that share a central storage
system and various peripheral devices such as a printers, scanners, or routers. Each computer connected
to the system can operate independently, but has the ability to communicate with other external devices
and computers.
COMPUTERIZATION
It’s the process of taking activities or tasks not previously done on the computer and shifting them to
being done on the computer.
Advantages of computerization in an organization
1. Response time is greatly reduced
2. Very large data are stored for information and decision-making
3. Accuracy of information is considerably improved, thereby improving the quality of the decision
4. Problems are handled more easily by using various operation research models
5. The cost involved in the decision-making process is reduced 6. More secrecy is observed as compared
to manual file system
Disadvantages of computerization
1. Unemployment Different tasks are performed automatically by using computers. It reduces the need of
people and increases unemployment in society
2. Wastage of time and energy Many people use computers without positive purpose. They play games
and chat for a long period of time. It causes wastage of time and energy. Young generation is now
spending a lot of time on the social media websites like Facebook, Twitter etc or texting their friends all
night through smartphones which is bad for both studies and their health. And it also has adverse effects
on the social life. 3. Data Security The data stored on a computer can be accessed by unauthorized
persons through networks. It has created serious problems for the data security.
4. Computer Crimes People use the computer for negative activities. They hack the credit card numbers
of the people and misuse them or they can steal important data from big organizations.
5. Privacy violation The computers are used to store personal data of the people. The privacy of a person
can be violated if the personal and confidential records are not protected properly.
6. Health risks. The improper and prolonged use of computer can results in injuries or disorders of
hands, wrists, elbows, eyes, necks and back. The users can avoid health risks by using the computer in
proper position. They must also take regular breaks while using the computer for longer period of time. It
is recommended to take a couple of minutes break after 30 minutes of computer usage.
7. Impact on Environment. The computer manufacturing processes and computer waste are polluting
the environment. The wasted parts of computer can release dangerous toxic materials. Green computer is
a method to reduce tire electricity consumed and environmental waste generated when using a computer.
It includes recycling and regulating manufacturing processes. The used computers must be donated or
disposed off properly
TOPIC 3 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Computer software (often called just software) is a set of instructions and associated documentation that
tells a computer what to do or how to perform a task
Classes of computer software
1. Classification of according to acquisition
 In-house developed software
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
 Vendor off-the-shelf software
In-house developed
Are programs that are uniquely designed and tailored to meet a particular user’s needs For example a bank
may decide to manage its banking operations using a unique program developed by hired programmers and
these programs are not available in the shops
Advantages of in-house software
1. Handles specific needs of the user
2. They can easily be modified to suit the needs of the user
Disadvantages of in-house software
1. Expensive to develop
2. Cannot be used to solve several tasks
Vendor off-the-shelf
Are programs developed by software engineers, packaged and then made available for purchase through a
vendor, a distributer or directly from the developer. A developer may bundle more than one but closely
related software into one package to form a suite. eg Microsoft Office
Advantages of Vendor off shelf software
1. They are less expensive to acquire than the in-house software
2. They are readily available for almost any task
3. Most of the packages are user friendly.
4. Saves development time and cost of developing programs.
5. The packages are generally portable
Disadvantages of Vendor off-the-shelf software
1. The user cannot modify the program to meet his/her needs.
2. The package may not meet the organization needs.
2. Classification of according to End-User-License (EUL)
i. Open source or non- proprietary software
ii. Proprietary software/ freeware
Open source software
Software whose source code (programmed set of instructions) is freely made available to users, hence users
can use, modify and distribute the modified product
Proprietary software
Software whose source is hidden from users. Modifications are only made by the software manufacturer. It
may be licensed to users at a fee or applied freely
3. Classification according to purpose
 System Software
 Application Software
System software
System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a computer’s hardware
and application programs. If we think of the computer system as a layered model, the system software is
the interface between the hardware and user applications.
Types of system software
1. Utility programs
2. Operating system
Utility programs
Utility programs also referred to as system utility are software used to perform standard operations, as
sorting data or copying data from one file to another, for application programs or other system software.
Examples of utility programs
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
 Backup software makes copies of all information stored on a disk and restores either the entire disk
(Disk cloning) in an event of disk failure or selected files that are accidentally deleted or
corrupted. Undeletion utilities are sometimes more convenient.
 Disk checkers scan an operating hard drive and check for logical (filesystem) or physical errors.
 Disk compression utilities transparently compress/ uncompressed the contents of a disk, increasing
the capacity of the disk.
 Disk defragmenters detect computer files whose contents are scattered across several locations on
the hard disk and collect the fragments into one contiguous area.
 Text editors for creating a file with some lines of text. Examples include word pad, notepad, paint,
calculator
 Anti virus program that protects a computer from virus infections. Examples inlude avast, AVG,
Kerspasky. A virus is a program that's designed to interfere with the well functioning of a computer
 Disk formatters prepare a data storage device such as a hard disk, solid-state drive, floppy disk or
USB flash drive for initial use. These are often used to permanently erase an entire device.
 Disk partition editors divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its own file
system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual drive.
 A device driver is a computer program that controls a particular device that is connected to your
computer. Typical devices are keyboards, printers, scanners, digital cameras and external storage
devices. Each of these needs a driver in order to work properly. Device drivers act as a translator
between the operating system of the computer and the device connected to it. For many types of
devices, the necessary drivers are built into the operating system. When you plug in a device, the
operating system starts looking for the right driver, installs it and you are ready to start using the
device. This is referred to as plug-and-play and is much preferred over having to manually install
the correct drivers.
 Translator: Translates high-level languages to low-level machine codes.
Examples of language translators

 Interpreters While a program is running, interpreters read, translate, and execute one statement of
the program at a time. The interpreter displays any errors immediately on the monitor. Interpreters
are very useful for people learning how to program or debugging a program. However, the line-by-
line translation adds significant overhead to the program execution time leading to slow execution.
 Compilers A compiler uses a language translation program that converts the entire source program
into object code, known as an object module, at one time. The object module is stored and it is the
module that executes when the program runs. The program does not have to be compiled again until
changes are made in the source code.
Advantages of utility software
Utility software has been designed specifically to help in management and tuning of operating system,
computer hardware and application software of a system.
 It performs a specific and useful function to maintain and increase the efficiency of a computer
system
 Aids in keeping the computer free from unwanted software threats such as viruses or spyware
 Adds functionality that allow the user to customize your desktop and user interface
 Manages computer memory and enhances performance
 Operating system
 An Operating System is a computer program that manages the resources of a computer. It accepts
keyboard or mouse inputs from users and displays the results of the actions and allows the user to
run applications, or communicate with other computers via networked connections
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito

Functions of the operating system

1 Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory is a large
array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to be
executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the following activities for memory
management −
 · Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part are not in use.
 · In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how much.
 Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
 De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.
2. Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and for how
much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System does the following activities
for processor management −
 Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is known
as traffic controller.
 Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
 De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.
3 Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the following
activities for device management −
 Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller.
 Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
 Allocates the device in the efficient way.
 De-allocates devices.
4. File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These directories may
contain files and other directions.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
 ·Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often known
as file system.
 Decides who gets the resources.
 Allocates the resources.
 De-allocates the resources.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
5. Security
The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and similar other techniques. it also
prevents unauthorized access to programs and user data.
6. Interface
Interface between user and the hardware resources, it involves interpretation of commands and instructions
issued by the user. Facilities easy communication between the computer system and the computer operator
(human). It also establishes data security and integrity.
7. Error detecting aids
Operating system constantly monitors the system to detect errors and avoid the malfunctioning of computer
system.
Types of Operating system
Operating system can be classified into;-
i) Number of tasks handled concurrently
ii) Number of users
iii) Human-computer Interface (HCI)
a) Classification according to tasks handled concurrently
i) Single program OS
ii) Multitasking OS
Single program
It allows processing of only one user program in the main memory at a time. User can only run one interface
program at a time. The user must exit from the program before loading and running another program.
Example Ms-DOS
Multitasking OS
It allows single CPU to execute what appears to be more than one program at the same time. The CPU
switches its attention between programs as it receives requests for processing, executing instructions from
one program and then from another using the concept of giving a time slices to each application.
b) Classification according to the number of users.
i) Single user
ii) Multi-user/multi access
Single user
Supports only one person and runs only one user application at a time.
Multi-user/multi access
It allows more than one user to interactively use the computer. It can be installed on a computer that is
accessed by many people at the same time.
Examples – UNIX, Novell, Windows NT/2000, Linux
c) Classification according to the interface
i) Command line user interface (CLUI)
A command-line interface allows the user to interact with the computer by typing in commands. The
computer displays a prompt, the user keys in the command and presses enter or return. An example of a
common command driven interface is MS-DOS. The MS-DOS command to display all files on c:\ would
be: dir c:\
ii) Menu driven interface
This type of interface lets you interact with a computer or device by working your way through a series of
screens or menus.
ii) Graphical user interface (GUI) eg windows operating systems
Stands for "Graphical User Interface" and is pronounced "gooey." It is a user interface that includes
graphical elements, such as windows, icons and buttons.
Booting refers to the process of starting up a computer.
There are two ways of booting up a computer;
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
a) Cold booting – done using the power button on the computer’s system unit. Normally done when the
computer is initially off.
b) Warm booting – this is done when the computer hangs (it temporarily stops to receive instructions). It
is done by use of the reset/restart button on system unit or by a combination of the following keys from the
keyboard; CTRL + ALT +DEL.
Terms used in Windows OS
 Desktop – work area on the computer’s screen. It is analogous to the ordinary table top where one
can place different objects.
 Window – area on the desktop covered by an opened program.
 Icon - An icon is a small graphical picture that represents files, program, and folders e.t.c. on the
desktop.
 Active Window - It is the window that the user is working in. If lots of windows open, one of them
will have a different colour on title bar at the top. This is the active window.
 File – any collection of related information that is given a name and stored on a disk so that it can be
retrieved when needed. Can be a data file, system file or application program file
 Folder – a ‘container’ or storage location that contains files and other folders.
 Drive – refers to secondary storage locations in the computer normally labelled by letters of alphabet
e.g. C: / for hard disk, A: / for floppy disk etc. store information organised in files and folders.
2) Application Software
Are programs that enable the End-user solve their problems using a computer.
Types of application programs
1. User programs
2. Application packages
User programs
These are programs designed to meet the needs of a particular user hence such programs cannot be
transferred to another user who has different needs. Also called custom-made programs or tailor-made
programs
Examples of user programs
 Library management system. - for automating activities in the library
 Student management system. -for automating activities of a school
 Bank management system. -for automating activities of a bank
Application packages
These are programs that perform a general class of activities hence they can be transferred to different users
with minimal or no modification. Also called general purpose programs
Examples of application packages
 Word processors- For creating, saving, editing, formatting textual documents. Examples include
Microsoft Word, Word Perfect, Word Pro, Word Star
 Database programs- For organizing data into an organized manner( database). Examples include
Microsoft Access, FoxPro, Oracle
 Presentation programs- For creating presentations. Examples include Microsoft PowerPoint
 Spreadsheets- For financial modelling. Examples include Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3
 Graphic programs- For creating publications such as newspaper, fliers, business card, wedding
cards. Examples include Microsoft publisher, Adobe PageMaker
Programming languages
These are different environments that enable programmers to create computer programs. Programming is a
process of coming up with computer programs
Classes of programming languages
i. Machine code programming languages1st generation languages
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
The first generation computer language was machine language, all the machine used machine code which
consisted of 0s and 1s. Machine language is highly efficient and allows direct control of each operation;
however programmers had to write computer programs using 0 and 1. Demerits
 Programs were difficult to write and debug
 Programming process was tedious
 Programming was time confusing
 Programs were error prone
ii. Low level languages/ 2nd generation languages.
These were developed in the early 1950s with the ability to use acronyms to speed programming and coding
of programs. They were also called assembly languages. They had the capability to performs operation such
like add, sum. Like machine languages, assembly languages were designed for specific machine and
microprocessor; this implies that the program cannot be move from one computer architecture without
writing the code which means learning another language where you are to transfer the programs. A program
called an assembler was used to translate assembly language instructions into machine code
iii. High level languages/ 3rd generation languages.
These were introduced between 1956 and 1963 which saw a major breakthrough in computing power.
Programs are written in a language that is close to human natural language. High level programs are
translated into their machine equivalent using two programs namely:
 Compiler-translate high level instructions into machine code all at once
 Interpreter-translate high level instructions into machine code line by line
iv. Fourth Generation languages 4GL.
These enable programmers to create online applications that are accessible on the internet through web
browsers An example is Facebook. Web browsers are programs that display resources from the internet eg
Google Chrome
v. Fifth generation language (5GL)
Are programming languages that are still in a state of development although some are being applied eg in
the field of Artificial Intelligence(AI). Artificial Intelligence is a branch of computer science that is
concerned in developing devices that imitate the human behavior eg robots
Factors considered when purchasing computer software
Manufacturer Reputation/Culture – consider the history of the manufacture. Is the product from a
respected, well-known manufacturer .Do they use the software themselves. Does the manufacturer provide
technical assistance?
Price – consider the cost of the software. Does the product cost more or less than comparable products on
the market? Again, take your time evaluating the alternatives
Warranty-Does the product come with a warranty and what are the conditions of that warranty?
Compatibility-Is the product compatible with other programs, such as extensions and device drivers that I
have on my personal computer system? Does the run on my personal computer system? Is it compatible
with my platform (PC, Macintosh, Sun, and so on)? with the processor used in my computer (486, Pentium,
Motorola 6040, PowerPC, and so on)? and with the operating system that I am running (DOS, Windows,
NeXT Step, UNIX)?
Usability. Does the product have a clear, step-by-step tutorial? Is the product easy to learn? Is the product
accompanied by clear, easy-to-follow instructions or documentation?
User-friendly -software facilitates the initiation, process, and completion of your work, with a minimum of
confusion, in a way that flows. Invariably, the screens have a nice design and are not too “busy” with input
boxes, buttons, images, and text. They clearly communicate their function and whether or not any input is
required from you. Useful feedback will guide you through the screens, without irritation, distraction, or
redundancy.
Robustness- Does the program have any known problems or bugs, and will these affect my use of the
TOPIC 4: COMPUTER HARDWARE COMPONENTS
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
Components of a computer are the physical parts what makes up a computer system. There are four major
physical( hardware) components of a computer. These devices are classified basing on their functions. They
include-
 Input devices
 Output device
 Memory and storage devices
 Processing devices
The following diagram shows the four major components on a computer

Input devices
Are devices used to transfer data from the external environment in a computer system. The classes of
input devices are:
1.Typing Devices
example: Keyboard
2. Pointing Devices
example: Mouse, joystick, trackball, light pen or stylus, track pod, track point, touch screen, touch
pod.
3.Optical Reading Devices

 Bar code reader

 biometric scanner
 OCR - Optical Mark Reader
 Scanner/Image Scanner
 Flatbed
 Handheld
 CD/DVD Rom's Drive
4. Magnetic Reading Devices

 MICR - Magnetic Ink character Reader

 Magnetic Stripes Reader
 Floppy Disk Drive
 External Hard rive/disk
 USB Port
5. Audio Input Devices

 Microphone
 Headset
 Voice Recognition Unit
 Earpiece
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
6. Connectivity Devices

Bluetooth
Infrand
WiFi
The Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some
additional keys provided for performing additional functions. The following is an image of a computer
keyborad

Keyboards are of two sizes 84

keys or 101/102 keys, but now
keyboards with 104 keys or
108 keys are also available for
Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows −
S.No Keys & Description
Typing Keys
1 These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the same layout
as that of typewriters.
Numeric Keypad
2 It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys
that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines and calculators.
Function Keys
3 The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at the top of the
keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.
Control keys
These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys. Control keys
4
also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt),
Escape(Esc).
Special Purpose Keys
5 Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock,
Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.
Special keys
These are keys used either alone or in combination with others to perform a function. Eg
i) Control Keys (Ctrl)
Used as a shortcut to activate task when held down while taping another key eg Ctrl + C = Copy
Ctrl + S = Save Ctrl + V = paste
Ctrl + A = Select all Ctrl + P = Print
Ctrl + Z = Undo Ctrl + Y = Redo
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
Ctrl + U = Underline Ctrl + X = cut
Ctrl + B = Bold Ctrl + I = italic
Ctrl + N = New window
ii) Alternate Keys (Alt)
They are used as a shortcut to activate a menu or task when held down when typing another key eg
 Alt + I = Inset
 Alt + F = File
 Alt + E = Edit
 -Alt + V = View
 Alt +O = Format
 Alt + A = Table
 Alt + W = Window
 Alt +H = Help
 Alt + Y = Yes
 Alt + N = No
 Alt + F4 = Close window
iii) Shift Keys (Shift)
Used as a shortcut to activate task when held down while typing another key e.g.
To change case lower to upper or vice versa (Shift + A = a)
To activate a character on upper part of a key eg (Shift + 2 = @, Shift + /=?)
iv) Num lock;
Used to change the numeric keypad to number entry mode or to directional arrow keys
v) Page up (pg up)
Used to move the insertion point (cursor) to the top of the page
vi) Page down(pg dn)
Used to move the insertion point (cursor) to the bottom of the page
vii) Home
Used to move the insertion point (cursor) to the beginning of a line
viii) End
Used to move the insertion point (cursor) to the end of a line
ix) Insert keys
- it turns on the type over or insert mode
- when insert mode is on, existing text is pushed to the right as new text is being typed, and when type
over mode is on, existing text is over-written as new text is being typed over it.
x) Delete key (Del)
 it is used to erase a character, space, or any code that is to the right of the cursor
 it can also erase selected (highlighted) text, file or folder
xi) Back space
It is used to erase a character, space, or any code that is to the left of the cursor
xii) Caps Lock
 It is used to change the keyboard mode from upper case to lower case and vice versa.
 If this button has been pressed, a light will appear on the right hand side of the keyboard
xiii) Space bar
Adds blank spaces between words, letters, figures etc.
xiv) Enter key
Also referred to as Return key used to
 Accept a selection/action
 Insert a blank line between paragraphs, lines etc
 start a new line
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
 end a line
xv) Tab Key
It is used to indent text to the next tab setting
xvi) Escape Key
It is used to cancel dialog box or task being performed
Advantages of using keyboards for data input include
 It is not necessary to buy additional equipment because most computer systems are normally
supplied with keyboards.
 Entering data and instructions with keyboards is generally faster than with pointing devices.
Disadvantages of using keyboards for data input include
 It takes a lot of time to practice in order to type quickly and accurately.
 Typing speeds are still very slow when compared with computer
POINTING DEVICES
These are devices that allows a user to enter data by pointing on various objects on the computer screen
and making selections by clicking on a button
Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm
size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding
signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between the
buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to
enter text into the computer.

Advantages of using a mouse include

 A mouse is user-friendly for computer beginners.
 A mouse is easy and convenient to use with a graphical user interface.
 Using a mouse to select items or move to a particular position on the
 screen is faster than using a keyboard.
Disadvantages of using a mouse include
 It is not easy and convenient to input text with a mouse.
 Issuing commands by using a mouse is slower than by using a keyboard.
 A mouse is not accurate enough for drawings that require high precision.
 A mouse usually requires a flat surface to operate.
 A mouse needs more desk space to operate when compared with a trackball.
Techniques of operating a mouse
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
a) Point. Moving the mouse pointer to a desired spot on the screen such as over a particular word or
object.
b) Click. Used to select or highlight an object or icon on the screen. Also click is used to position the
cursor for instance in a word processor to indicate where to start inserting text, numbers, pictures or
images. This is done by pressing and releasing quickly, the left mouse button once.
c) Double click is used to open icons on the desktop. This is done by, pressing the left mouse button in
two quick successive clicks.
d) Drag & drop is used to change the position of icons on the desktop. It’s also used to move an icon
from one location to another. This is done by pressing and holding down the left mouse button over an
icon; the mouse pointer is used to move the object to a new location or position and then release it.
e) Right click is used to access shortcut menu. This is done by, pressing the right mouse button once, and
then a pop-up menu appears.
2. Touch screens
A touch screen is a display device that allows the user to interact with a computer by using their finger
or stylus. A touch screen is a computer display screen that is also an input device. The screens are sensitive
to pressure; a user interacts with the computer by touching pictures or words on the screen.

Advantages of a touch screen include

 No extra peripherals are needed except the monitor.
 A touch screen allows easy access to commands, which are usually identified by words or symbols
on the screen.
Disadvantages of a touch screen include
 Touch screens are not suitable for inputting a large amount of data because they require a lot of arm
movements.
 Only items already on the screen can be selected.
3. Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a stick
having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The
joystick can be moved in all four directions.The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is
mainly used in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito

Advantages of using a joystick include

 A joystick allows fast interactions required in most games.
Disadvantages of using a joystick include
 It is difficult to use a joystick to select objects accurately on the screen
4. Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures
on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.
When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its photocell
sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

5. Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is
a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in
various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.
Direct data entry devices
These are devices that capture data directly from the source document and converts it into computer
readable form. They include
Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for further
manipulation.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
Types
 Optical scanners
 Magnetic scanners
OPTICAL SCANNERS OR DIRECT DATA ENTRY DEVICES
1) Scanner
Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can be stored
on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.
There are two different types of scanner :
· Flatbed Scanner : You place the image on top of the scanner. The scanner moves the light and sensor
itself and scans the whole image automatically. Most flatbed scanners are A4 size.

Handheld Scanner : You must manually push the light/sensor along the image. Handheld scanners are usually
5 inches wide.

a) Optical Character reader(OCR)

Most OCR readers include a small optical scanner for reading characters and sophisticated OCR software
for analyzing what is read.
Advantages of OCR readers include
 Written data and printed data can be read at the same time.
 Hard copies of documents can be read directly into a computer without retyping.
 The characters converted can later be edited by word processing software.
Disadvantages of OCR readers include
 OCR readers often do not work well with handwritten characters or those in unusual fonts.
b) Optical mark Reader
Optical mark recognition (OMR) readers can sense hand-drawn marks such as small circles or rectangles
made on pre-printed forms in certain places. The OMR reader first reads the answer key sheet to record the
correct answers based on the patterns of light, and then reads the remaining documents and matches their
patterns of light against the answer key sheet.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
OMR readers are often used for marking multiple choice answer sheets, capturing data from
questionnaires, enrolment forms, and lottery tickets.
Advantages of OMR readers include
 OMR has a better recognition rate than OCR because fewer mistakes are made by machines to read
marks than by reading handwritten characters.
 Large volumes of data can be collected quickly and easily without the need for specially trained
staff.
 The cost of inputting data and the chance of data input errors could be reduced because it is not
necessary to type the details for data entry.
Disadvantages of OMR readers include
 The OMR reader needs to be reprogrammed for each new document design.
 OMR readers are relatively slow.
 The person putting marks on the documents must follow the instructions precisely.
 Any folding or dirt on a form may prevent the form from being read correctly.
c) Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark lines). Bar
coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or
may be embedded in a stationary scanner.
Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed to the
computer that the bar code reader is connected to.

2) Magnetic readers
a) Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheque to be processed every
day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that
contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable. This reading process is called Magnetic
Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Digital Camera
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
A digital camera takes pictures and stores the images digitally, rather than on traditional film. Digital
cameras use different media to store images, which include flash memory card, floppy disk and compact
disc.
Advantages of a digital camera include
 Save money for buying films and developing costs in the long term.
 Images taken can be reviewed.
 Unwanted images can be deleted immediately after the preview.
 Photographic images can be digitized directly without using a scanner.
Disadvantages of a digital camera include
 Digital cameras are normally more expensive than ordinary film cameras with similar functions.
 Photo printing cost for digital cameras is generally higher than that for ordinary film cameras.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can convert a
signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be
used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.
Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary
inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.
The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for
mixing music.
OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices are computer devices used to display/ disseminate/ relay an output which is information
from a computer
CLASSIFICATION OF OUTPUT DEVICES
Based on the hard copy and soft copy outputs, the output devices are classified into: hard copy and soft copy
output devices. Printers, plotters, and microfilms are the most commonly used hard copy output devices
while monitors, voice response systems, projectors, electronic whiteboards, and headphones and headsets
are some commonly used soft copy output devices
Figure 7.3. Classification of Output Devices

i) Monitor (Visual display unit)

The display screen are also called monitors which serve as a one way window between the computer user and
the machine. Most displays fold into one of the two classes: television –style cathode-ray tube (CRT)
monitors and flat-panel liquid crystal display (LCD) displays. Overhead projection panels and video
projectors also use LCDs to project computer screen images for meetings and classes.
ii) Printer
A printer can produce a hard copy on paper of any static information that can be displayed on the computer
screen. Printer come in several varieties, but they all fit into two basic groups: impact printers and nonimpact
printers.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
iii) Sound output devices
Most modern PCs include sound cards. A sound card enables the PC to accept microphone input, play music
and other sounds through the speakers or headphones and process sound in a variety of ways.
iv) Fax machine and fax modem
A fax machine is a fast and convenient tool for transmitting information stored on paper. In a sense, when
combined, fax machines and telephone lines serve as a long distance photocopy machine.
The fax modem translates the document into signals that can be sent over the phone wires and decoded by the
receiving fax machine.
Printers
Produce hard copy output.
Classification of printers
1. Printer classification based on speed
 Character printer
 Line printer
 Page printer
2. Printer classification based on Mechanism
 Impact printer a
 Non impact printer
3. Printer classification based on their technology. Typical printer types are:
 Dot matrix printer
 Ink-jet printer
 Laser printer
Printers are broadly classified into two types according to the basic printing technologies.
• Impact printers
• Non-impact printers
Impact and Non-impact Printer
In an impact printer, the character is formed by physical contact (or pressure) of the print head (hammer, pint)
against an ink ribbon and onto paper like that of an ordinary type written. The dot matrix printer, daisy wheel
printer, golf ball printer, drum printer, band printer and chain printer are all impact printers.
In a non-impact printer, there is no physical contact of the head with the paper or ribbon. The laser printer,
thermal printer, ink jet printer and electrostatic printer are all non-impact printers.

Printers may also be classified into the following two categories:

• Character printer
• Line Printer
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
 Page printer
In a character printer, characters are printed one after the other. Only one character can be printed at a
time. The character printer is also known as serial printer. The daisy wheel printer and dot matrix printer are
examples of character printers. The character printers are bit slow when compared with line and page
printers as one character is formed with the help of a matrix of dots. Their speed is measured in CPS
(Characters Per Second).
In a line printer, many characters of a line are printed at a time. To the user, the line printer appears to print
a complete line of character is one shot. The drum printer, band printer and chain printer are examples of
line printers. Because multiple print characters are printed simultaneously in a line printer, the speed of a
line printer is very high compared to that of a character printer. The speed of a line printer is specified in
LPM (Lines Per Minute).
In page printers, the whole page is printed in single shot. The Laser Printer is an example. The speed of
this printer is specified in PPM (Pages Per Minute).
Printer classification based on their technology. Typical printer types are:
1. Dot matrix printer
2. Ink-jet printer
3. Laser printer
Dot Matrix Printer
A dot matrix printer or impact matrix printer refers to a type of computer printer with a print head that runs
back and forth on the page and prints by impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, much
like a typewriter.
Dot-matrix technology uses a series or matrix of pins to create printed dots arranged to form characters on a
piece of paper. Because the printing involves mechanical pressure, these printers can create carbon copies
and carbonless copies.
The print head mechanism pushes each pin into the ribbon, which then strikes the paper.
Many offices and government agencies use them because they can make multiple copies at lowest cost.
Although dot matrix printers have been replaced in most homes and offices by newer, sexier inkjet and laser
printers , they still retain a substantial portion of the market in their niches. Purchase your ribbon here.
Advantages:
1.They can print on multi-part stationary or make carbon copies
2. Low printing cost
3. They can bear environmental conditions.
4. Long life
Disadvantage
1. Noise
2. Low resolution
3. Very limiter Color performance
4. Low speed
Daisy wheel
A daisy wheel printer is an early type of impact printer invented in 1969 by David S. Lee at Diablo Data
Systems. A daisy wheel is a printing element that, when seen from the side, looks faintly like the flower of a
daisy. This element consists of a central disk with spokes radiating out from it. At the end of the spokes are
the characters—letters and punctuation marks. The wheel is used in a computer printer called a daisy-wheel
printer. To print, the wheel is rotated until the correct character faces the paper; a hammer strikes the
character against an ink-coated ribbon and paper. The daisy wheel is mounted on a carriage that types the
characters in lines.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito

Drum printer
An impact printer in which a complete set of characters for each print position on a line is on a continuously r
otating drum behind an inked ribbon, with paper in front of the ribbon; identical characters are printed simult
aneously at all required positions on a line, on the fly, by signal-controlled hammers. A drum printer is a line
printer that uses a rotating drum with raised characters, against which the paper is pressed.

Ink Jet Printers

An inkjet printer is a type of computer printer that creates a digital image by propelling droplets of ink onto
paper. Inkjet printers are the most commonly used type of printer and range from small inexpensive consumer
models to very large professional machines that can cost up to thousands of dollars. Its consumable called inkjet
cartridge.
Advantages:
1. Low printer cost
2. Compact size
3. Low noise
4. no warm up time compare to laser printer
Disadvantage
1. The ink is often very expensive (for a typical OEM cartridge cost RM70 for 16ml, RM4375 per liter)
2. Lifetime of inkjet prints produced by inkjet printer is limited. They will eventually fade and the color balance
may change.
3. Easy get “blur” if get water drop.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
4. Easy to get clogging on inkjet nozzles.
5. Must print it once every few days. Make sure print head won’t dried up.

Laser Printers:
Laser printing is the most advance technology. In Laser printing, a computer sends data to the printer.
Printer translates this data into printable image data. This kind of printers uses xerographic principle. A
laser beam discharges photo sensitive drum. A Latent Image is created on drum, during development
process toner is attracted to the drum surface and then transferred to the paper. Its consumable called
toner cartridge or laser toner. Buy laser toner here.
Advantages:
1. Low cost per page. Compare to inkjet printer
2. Low noise
3. High speed
4. High printing quality
Disadvantage
1. Laser printers are more expensive, but getting more affordable these year. (Now can get RM 2xx for
mono laser printer, below RM 600 for color laser printer)
2. Their size are generally larger.

Advantages and disadvantages of both laser and ink jet printers.

Laser printers. Ink jet printers.
Advantages. Advantages.
 They are quiet and fast when printing.  They are also quiet & fast when printing.
 Produces excellent quality printout.  Less expensive to buy compared to laser printers.
 Most of them are single color printers.  Produce colored printout.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
 They are expensive in terms of price  They are routinely slow when printing a colored
and maintenance. document.
Comparison between impact & non-impact printers.
Impact printers. Non-impact printers.
 Cheap to buy.  Expensive to buy.
 Slow when printing.  Fast when printing.
 Relatively poor quality printout.  Produces high quality printout.
 Noisy when printing.  Quiet when printing.

PLOTTERS
A device that draws pictures on paper based on commands from a computer. Plotters differ from printer in
that they draw lines using a pen. As a result, they can produce continuous lines, whereas printers can only
simulate lines by printing a closely spaced series of dots. Multicolor plotters use different-colored pens to
draw different colors.
In general, plotters are considerably more expensive than printers. They are used in engineering applications
where precision is mandatory.

Computer output on microfilm(com)

Computer Output Microfilm is a system that converts stored data directly to microfilm or microfiche.
In essence, both microfilms and microfiche are similar products that can be used for the purpose of safely
keeping documents and old photographs. These products are usually employed by libraries and other such
institutions to store old newspaper clippings that can be accessed later by researchers and the public alike. To
view images, you have to place the microfilm or the microfiche within different machines which magnify the
images to make them conveniently visible.
Basic Design
One of the most apparent differences between microfilm and microfiche is their outward appearance.
Microfilm, as the name suggests, is basically a reel of film similar to that of a camera. It is usually 35 mm
wide and wound on a spool. A single microfilm reel has the ability to store a large number of documents and
pictures. However, microfiche, a 6-inch by 4-inch polyester sheet, provides users with the ability to store
information on every page of a normal-sized book. A microfiche sheet has the ability to store images with a
lot of detail. This is a feature that one finds lacking when considering microfilm as a storage media device.
Microfilm- It’s rolled.
Is a film containing microphotographs of a newspaper, catalogue, or other document
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito

Microfiche- It’s flat.

A flat piece of film containing microphotographs of the pages of a newspaper, catalogue, or other document.
Headphones and headset
lot of people seem to get headphones and headsets mixed up.
►Headphones have miniature speakers (also known as drivers and transducers and receivers and receiver
elements) and are mainly used for listening to music. It's unusual to hear the word "headphone." The word
almost always has an "s" at the end. It's a contraction for "pair of headphones," like "pants" is short for a
"pair of pants" and "scissors is short for "pair of scissors."
►A Headset has miniature speakers (or a single speaker) plus a microphone (which is also a kind of
transducer), and is used for listening and talking on the phone, computer, air traffic control console, etc.
►An earphone is a tiny speaker that fits in or on your ear, commonly used for listening to a portable radio.
►EarPhone® is a tiny ear-mounted speaker with a short microphone boom (sort of a mini headset), made
by Jabra for phones.
►EarSet® is an all-in-the-ear speaker/microphone, also made by Jabra. Similar products from other
companies are called ear buds.
►HeadPHONE is an advertising label that Panasonic uses for some phones that have headset jacks.
►A handset is the part of a phone that you hold in your hand. (Some people call it a receiver.) If the phone
is a cellphone, the whole phone can be called a handset.
Computer monitors
A computer monitor is an electronic device that shows pictures. Monitors often look similar to televisions.
The main difference between a monitor and a television is that a monitor does not have a television tuner to
change channels. Monitors often have higher display resolution than televisions. A high display resolution
makes it easier to see smaller letters and fine graphics.
There are three types of computer displays:
Types Of Monitors
Monitors are one out of three most important parts of computer; rest of the two are keyboard and Central
Processing Unit. Monitors are more commonly referred as display screen.
Monitors are available from 12” to 42”, which you can pick according to your needs and space you have.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
Here, in this piece of writing, we would be discussing some types of monitors. Some of which are not more
in use, while some can be found easily, on the other hand, few are used for commercial or special purposes
only.
CRT Monitors
Cathode Ray Tube, or in simpler words CRT, are oldest among all available models these days. These
monitors function on the old cathode ray tube phenomena.
The best thing in CRTs is that they are easily available and are in cheaper in price. These monitors have high
dynamic range and remarkable color and resolutions with excellent viewing angles.
These monitors allow the use of external devices like light pens and light guns. One of the drawbacks of
these monitors is their weight and another is their size.
They consume more power, like many other old electrical and electronic appliances. That is why, experts on
energy do not advice to buy CRT.

LCD Monitors
Liquid crystal display monitors consists of a layer of color or monochrome pixels arranged schematically
between a couple of transparent electrodes and two polarizing filters. Optical effect is made possible by
polarizing the light in varied amounts and making it pass through the liquid crystal layer. The two types of
LCD technology available are the active matrix of TFT and a passive matrix technology. TFT generates
better picture quality and is more secure and reliable. Passive matrix, on the other hand, has a slow response
time and is slowly becoming outdated.
The advantages of LCD monitors include their compact size which makes them lightweight. They also don’t
consume much electricity as CRT monitors, and can be run off of batteries which makes them ideal for
laptops.

Plasma Monitors
Plasma screen and/or plasma monitors are considered as high contrast screen with bright, vibrant colors and
brightness that claims to make your visual experience worthwhile.
It works on plasma discharge on almost ideally flat panel of glass. The discharge is composed of xenon and
neon without any use of mercury in it. Plasma monitors are in, mainly because of their excellent and
remarkable viewing angles, color saturation, and contrasts.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
CPU is the component that actually responsible for interpreting and executing most of the commands from
the computer hardware and software and also controls the operation of all other components such as
memory unit, input and output devices. It simply accepts binary data as input and processes data according
to those instructions and provides the result as output. It is the logic machine. So, its main function is run
the program by fetching instructions from the RAM, evaluating and executing them in sequence. In
summary, the function of CPU are as follow:
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
 Read instruction from memory
 Communicate with all peripherals using the system bus.
 It controls the sequence of instructions.
 It controls the flow of data from one component to another component.
 Performs the computing task specified in the program.
The CPU has three components responsible for different function, these components are Control units,
arithmetic-logical unit (ALU) and Register.
Components of the processor
 Control Unit (CU)
 Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU)
 Registers
Control Unit
The control unit provides the necessary timing and control signals to all the operations on the computer. It
controls the flow of data between the CPU, memory and peripherals. It also controls the entire operation of
a computer. It obtains the instructions from the program stored in the main memory, interprets the
instructions and issues the signals, which cause the other units of the system to execute them. So, it is
considered as a central nervous system of a computer that provides status, control and timing signals
necessary for the operation of other parts of CPU, memory and I/O devices. The main functions of control
units are given below:
 It performs the data processing operations with the aid of program prepared by the user and send
control signals to various parts of the computer system.
 It gives commands to transfer data from the input devices to the memory to an arithmetic logic unit.
 It also transfers the results from ALU to the memory and then to the output devices.
 It stores a program in the memory.
 It fetches the required instruction from the main storage and decode each instruction and hence
execute them in sequence.

Control unit repeats four basic operations:
• Fetch - obtain program instruction or data item from memory
• Decode - translate instruction into commands
• Execute - carry out command
• Store - write result to memory
Arithmetic Logic Unit
This is the area of CPU where various computing functions are performed on data. The ALU performs
arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division and logical operation such
as comparison AND, OR and Exclusive OR. The result of an operation is stored in Accumulator or in some
register. The main functions of ALU are as follow:
 It accepts operands from registers.
 It performs arithmetic and logic operations.
 It returns a result to register or a memory.
The logical operations of ALU give the computer the decision-making ability.
Registers
Registers are the high-speed temporary storage locations in the CPU made from electronic devices such as
transistors, flip-flops, etc. So, registers can be thought as CPU’s working memory. Register are primarily
used to store data temporarily during the execution of a program and are accessible to the user through
instructions. These are the part of Control unit and ALU rather than of memory. Hence, their contents can
be handled much faster than the contents of memory. Although the number of registers varies from
computer to computer. There are some registers which are common to all computers. Five registers that are
essential for instruction execution are:
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
 Program Counter (PC): Contains the address of the next instruction to be fetched.
 Instruction Register (IR): Contains the instruction most recently fetched.
 Memory Address registers (MAR): Contain the address of a location in memory for read and
write operation.
 Memory Buffer Register (MBR): It contains the value to be stored in memory or the last value
read from memory.
 Accumulator (ACC): An accumulator is a general purpose register used for storing temporary
result and result produced by the arithmetic logic unit.
What is a machine cycle?
•Four operations of the CPU comprise a machine cycle . Also called instruction cycle
• Execution time (e-time) - time taken to execute and store e-time
• Instruction time (i-time) - time taken to fetch and decode
What is pipelining? Machine Cycle (without pipelining) Machine Cycle (with pipelining) Instruction 1
Instruction 2 Instruction 3 Instruction 4
 CPU begins executing second instruction before completing first instruction
 Results in faster processing
What is the system clock?
Its a device that generates clock pulses (timings) that the CPU uses to control an operation. It synchronizes
all computer operations
What is a microprocessor?
 Single processor chip found in personal computers

MEMORY
Are devices that hold data, instructions and information temporarily ie for a short period of time. Also
known as temporal memory or primary memory or internal memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the
storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored.
The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique
number called memory address which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example if
computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory locations. The address of
these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
A collection of cells form a location and a location has the following:
 Memory address which is a unique number assigned to each location to uniquely identify a location
 Size which measures the volume of data stored in a given location which can be in different units
such as bytes, Megabytes, Kilobytes
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
 Name- is a name given to each location
Memory is primarily of three types
 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory
 Secondary Memory
Cache Memory Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It
acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program
which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to cache
memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows:
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.

The cache memory lies in the path between the processor and the memory. The cache memory therefore, has
lesser access time than memory and is faster than the main memory..
Primary memory
Also called main memory or temporal memory or internal memory. Main memory refers to physical memory
that is internal to the computer which stores data, instructions and information for a short period of time. The
computer can manipulate only data that is in main memory. Therefore, every program you execute and every
file you access must be copied from a storage device into main memory. The amount of main memory on a
computer is crucial because it determines how many programs can be executed at one time and how much
data can be readily available to a program.
Characteristics of Main Memory
 Usually volatile memory, it only holds data when powered hence data is lost in case power is
switched off.
 It is working memory of the computer, what the computer is working on must be loaded to main
memory
 Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without primary memory.
Types of primary memory

 Random Access Memory

 Read Only Memory
Random access memory (RAM)
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
RAM(Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and
information. It is read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine
is switched off, data is erased.
Characteristics of RAM
 Read/ write memory. Users can access what is stored on RAM and also store on memory. The process
of accessing data from a memory device is called reading from memory while writing onto memory
refers to the process of saving data on memory device
 It is volatile memory
 It is expensive
RAM is of two types
 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied. However,
data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and
no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed
on a regular basis
Characteristic of the Static RAM
 It has long life
 There is no need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by placing
the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for
most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells which are
composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM
 It has short data lifetime
 Need to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Lesser in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption
Read Only Memory (ROM)
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This
type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during
manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred
to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing
machine and microwave oven.
Image of ROM
Characteristics of ROM
 It is nonvolatile ie stores data even if power is switched off
 It stores system configuration information also called settings
 It’s a read only. ie a user cannot save data on ROM
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
Types of ROM
1. PROM (Programmable Read only Memory) PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only
once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside
the PROM chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only
once and is not erasable.
2. EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory) The EPROM can be erased by exposing it
to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function.
During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for
more than ten years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is
passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During
normal use the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
3. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory) The EEPROM is
programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both
erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively
erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip.
Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:
 Non-volatile in nature
 These cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 These are static and do not require refreshing
 Its contents are always known and can be verified
Cache memory
Cache is a small amount of high-speed random access memory (RAM) built directly within the processor. It
is used to temporarily hold data and instructions that the processor is likely to reuse. This allows for faster
processing as the processor does not have to wait for the data and instructions to be fetched from the RAM.
Cache Memory is memory area which contains recently used data and it is used by CPU to increase speed.
Whenever a program is to be executed, it is copied to cache memory and then CPU executes it. If it is already
present, then program is executed. A Cache memory is a high-speed memory which is used to reduce the
access time for data.
Virtual Memory
Virtual Memory is a technique to increase the main memory capacity. It uses data swap technology and hard
disk area is used as virtual memory. Virtual memory is not exactly a physical memory it is a technique which
extends the capacity of the main memory beyond its limit. Virtual memory is a concept of utilizing the
memory by subdividing programs being loaded from permanent storage into main memory into segments/
pages/ frames instead of transferring the whole program. Virtual memory is not a physical memory but just
an idea of utilizing a computer with a low amount of main memory
The major difference between virtual memory and the cache memory is that a virtual memory allows a user
to execute programs that are larger than the main memory whereas, cache memory allows the quicker access
to the data which has been recently used.
Direct Memory Access (DMA)
Direct memory access (DMA) is a method that allows an input/output (I/O) device to send or receive data
directly to or from the main memory, bypassing the CPU to speed up memory operations.
An input or output device to access main memory directly without the intervention of the processor. For a
direct memory access to occur the CPU is frozen or put in a hold state. There's no activity like an input
activity that can place without the intervention of the CPU
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
Secondary storage devices
Are devices that keep data, instructions and information permanently ie for a long period of time. Also
known as permanent storage or backing storage or external memory
Secondary or external storage is not directly accessible by the CPU. The data from secondary storage needs
to be brought into the primary storage before the CPU can use it. Secondary storage contains a large amount
of data permanently.
Secondary storage media differ by
 storage capacity
 speed of access
 permanency of storage
 mode of access
 cost
You know that processor memory, also known as primary memory, is expensive as well as limited. The
faster primary memory are also volatile. If we need to store large amount of data or programs permanently,
we need a cheaper and permanent memory. Such memory is called secondary memory. Here we will
discuss secondary memory devices that can be used to store large amount of data, audio, video and
multimedia files.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
These are some characteristics of secondary memory, which distinguish it from primary memory −
 It is non-volatile, i.e. it retains data when power is switched off
 It is large capacities to the tune of terabytes
 It is cheaper as compared to primary memory
Depending on whether secondary memory device is part of CPU or not, there are two types of secondary
memory – fixed and removable

Type of secondary storage

1. Magnetic storage
The primary storage device for a personal computer is a hard drive, also known as a type of magnetic media.
Data is written to a hard drive using magnetism and is read by the computer as a combination of 1s or 0s,
depending on whether or not there is a piece of data in a particular location. Data is read from the hard drive
by means of a read-write head on a mechanical arm that scans the surface of the disk for the presence or
absence of magnetism, or 1s and 0s.
Examples of magnetic storage
 hard disk
 Floppy disk
2. Optical storage
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
Optical disc is any storage media that holds content in digital format and is read using a laser assembly is
considered optical media. The most common types of optical media are
 Blu-ray (BD)
 Compact Disc (CD)
 Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)
3. Fixed devices
Fixed Storage media is an internal storage medium like hard disk that is fixed inside the computer. An
example is a hard disk
4. Removable Devices
Removable storage is any type of storage device that can be removed/ejected from a computer system while
the system is running. Examples of external devices include CDs, DVDs and Blu-Ray disk drives, as well as
diskettes and USB drives.
Magnetic disk
Hard Disk Drive
Hard disks are the most famously used secondary storage devices. They are round, flat pieces of metal
covered with magnetic oxide. They are available in many sizes ranging from 1 to 14 inch diameter. Data is
stored by magnetizing or demagnetizing the magnetic coating. A magnetic reader arm is used to read data
from and write data to the disks
Floppy Disk
They are flexible plastic discs which can bend, coated with magnetic oxide and are covered with a plastic
cover to provide protection. Floppy disks are also known as floppies and diskettes.

Flash Drive
This is also known as a pen drive. It helps in easy transportation of data from one system to another. A pen
drive is quite compact and comes with various features and designs. Pen drive is a portable memory device
that uses solid state memory rather than magnetic fields or lasers to record data. It uses a technology similar
to RAM, except that it is nonvolatile.

Optical disks
1. CD Drive
CD stands for Compact Disk. CDs are circular disks that use optical rays, usually lasers, to read and write
data. They are very cheap as you can get 700 MB of storage space for less than a dollar. CDs are inserted in
CD drives built into CPU cabinet. They are portable as you can eject the drive, remove the CD and carry it
with you. There are three types of CDs −
 CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory) − The data on these CDs are recorded by the
manufacturer. Proprietary Software, audio or video are released on CD-ROMs.
 CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable) − Data can be written by the user once on the CD-R. It
cannot be deleted or modified later.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
 CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable) − Data can be written and deleted on these optical disks
again and again.

2. DVD Drive
DVD stands for Digital Video Display. DVD are optical devices that can store 15 times the data held by
CDs. They are usually used to store rich multimedia files that need high storage capacity. DVDs also come in
three varieties – read only, recordable and rewritable.
3. Blu Ray Disk (BD) is an optical storage media used to store high definition (HD) video and other
multimedia filed. BD uses shorter wavelength laser as compared to CD/DVD. This enables writing arm to
focus more tightly on the disk and hence pack in more data. BDs can store up to 128 GB data.
Peripheral Device
A peripheral device, also sometimes called an auxiliary device, is any connected device, internal or external,
that provides a computer with additional functionality.
Peripheral devices can be external or internal. For example, a printer is an external device that you connect
using a cable, while an optical disc drive is typically located inside the computer case. Internal peripheral
devices are also referred to as integrated peripherals. When most people refer to peripherals, they typically
mean external ones.
 Examples of external peripherals include mouse, keyboard, printer, monitor, external Zip drive or
scanner.
 Examples of internal peripherals include CD-ROM drive, CD-R drive or internal modem.
Measurements of memory
Memory size or memory capacity refers to the maximum amount of data that a memory device can
hold. Memory can be can be measured in several units.These units include:-
 Bit
 Byte
 Kilobyte
 Megabyte
 Gigabyte
Therefore we can say that:-
I digit= 1 bit
8 bits=1 byte
1000 bytes=1 Kilobyte
1024 Kilo bytes= 1 Megabyte
1024 Megabyte= 1 Gigabyte
COMPUTER BUSES
A computer system comprises so many components which need to work together and therefore there is a
great need to have these components interconnected for them to work. This interconnection is provided for
by the use of internal pathway through which information is passed through one component to the other.
Inside computers, there are many internal components. In order for these components to communicate with
each other they make use of wires that are known as a ‘bus’ .
A bus is a common pathway through which information flows from one computer component to another.
This pathway is used for communication purpose and it is established between two or more computer
components. We are going to check different computer bus architectures that are found in computers.
FUNCTIONS OF BUSES
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
I. Data Addressing. For data to be sent to and from the processor, the computer has to have pathways that
facilitate data addressing processes at the speed of the Processor.
II. Data Sharing. The Peripherals connected to the computer have to share data with the computer
through the Expansion bus.
III. Power. Chipsets mounted inside the computer such require power to operate. This power is supplied
within the computer through special pathways, unlike Hard Disks, Floppy Disks and CD-ROMs which
need to be connected to the Power Supply channels.
IV. Timing. To synchronize the operations of the computer devices together with the peripherals
connected to it, the signals generated by the System Clock have to be communicated between these
components.
All PCs internal components, external devices and peripherals are connected to the CPU and Main Memory
through Buses. The fastest Bus is that between the Processor and the Primary cache. The next level is the
System Bus which links the Processor with the Main Memory.
he computer case serves critical functions much as skin does for the human body. System cases protect the
computer chassis, hard drive, motherboard, and other internal components for advanced blade servers,
computer networks, or small desktop units. The desktop computer case protects internal components from
electrical interference, physical damage, and intrusive foreign objects. Systems cases provide an
aesthetically pleasing appearance, generate organized internal structure, keep components separated, and
help to cool systems by enabling better air circulation. These external computer case shells generate space
for expansion slots, warning lights, graphics cards, RAM, and other server applications.
The computer system unit is the enclosure for all the other main interior components of a computer. It is
also called the computer case, computer chassis, or computer tower. Cases are typically made of steel or
aluminum, but plastic can also be used.
Functions
The primary function of the computer system unit is to hold all the other components together and protect
the sensitive electronic parts from the outside elements.
The desktop computer case protects internal components from electrical interference, physical damage, and
intrusive foreign objects. Systems cases provide an aesthetically pleasing appearance, generate organized
internal structure, keep components separated, and help to cool systems by enabling better air circulation.
These external computer case shells generate space for expansion slots, warning lights, graphics cards,
RAM, and other server applications.
The motherboard holds together the central processing unit or CPU and connectors for input and output
devices
A hard disk functions as a secondary media that uses magnetic principle to store data and information
permanently
Optical drive functions as a secondary media that uses magnetic principle to store data and information
permanently
Connectors also known as ports provides physical connection between peripheral devices such as mouse,
keyboard with the system units
Power supply is a hardware component that supplies a refined power output to all other components such
as hard disk, optical drive etc
CPU:-The CPU is the central electronic chip that determines the processing power of the computer
Expansion slots allows one to add more hardware devices such as sound card, tv card, network card so as
to improve on the functionalities of a computer
Bays:-A bay is a space inside the computer case where a hard drive, floppy drive or CD- ROM drive sits

Types of system case

ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
Full Tower
Full-tower cases are generally big with a height that is about or more than 30 inches (more than 76 cm).
The number of internal drive bays inside these cases can be between 6 and 10.
Mid Tower
Another case that might be a step down, would be classified as a mid tower case. Mid-tower cases are the
most widely used computer cases. Mid Tower cases are about 18 to 24 (45 to 60 cm) inches high and they
usually contain 2 to 4 internal drive bays and a similar number of external bays (for CD/DVD readers and
similar).
Mini Tower
Mini-tower usually have up to 2 or sometimes 3 internal drive bays. Mini-cases normally stand at a height
of 12 to 18 inches (30 to 45 cm). Expand ability is a problem with these cases.
Desktop Case:
Considered the most classical version of computer cases, these are primarily designed for personal/business
computers that are placed on top of a desk. The basic objective of these cases is to conserve the available
desk space as the monitor is placed on top of the computer.
Factors considered when purchasing computer hardware
Ø Manufacturer Reputation/Culture – consider the history of the manufacture. Is the product from a
respected, well-known manufacturer .Do they use the hardware themselves. Does the manufacturer provide
technical assistance?
Ø Price – consider the cost of the hardware. Does the product cost more or less than comparable products on
the market? Again, take your time evaluating the alternatives.The budget, we always want the best but we
need to be grounded on what we can afford. So Get a budget and stick to it.
Ø Warranty-Does the product come with a warranty and what are the conditions of that warranty? before
buying look at the site of the manufacturer and see if it has a good driver download and support
Ø Usability. Does the product have a clear, step-by-step tutorial? Is the product easy to learn? Is the product
accompanied by clear, easy-to-follow instructions or documentation?
Ø Compatibility-Is the product compatible with other programs, such the operating system that I am
running (DOS, Windows, NeXT Step, UNIX)?
Computer networks
A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing hardware devices that are linked
together through communication channels to facilitate communication and resource-sharing among a wide range
of users
A computer network is a set of computers connected together for the purpose of sharing resources.
A network consists of 2 or more computers connected together, and they can communicate and share resources
(e.g. information)
Computer network hardware and software
1) Computer network hardware
Refers to those physical components/devices which make up computer networks and include the following:
a) Servers - Servers are computers that hold shared files, programs, and the network operating system. Servers
provide access to network resources to all the users of the network. There are many different kinds of
servers, and one server can provide several functions. For example, there are file servers, print servers, mail
servers, communication servers, database servers, fax servers and web servers, to name a few.
b) Clients - Clients are computers that access and use the network and shared network resources. Client
computers are basically the customers (users) of the network, as they request and receive services from the
servers.
c) Transmission Media - Transmission media are the facilities used to interconnect computers in a network,
such as twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, and optical fiber cable. Transmission media are sometimes called
channels, links or lines.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
d) Shared data - Shared data are data that file servers provide to clients such as data files, printer access
programs and e-mail.
e) Shared printers and other peripherals - Shared printers and peripherals are hardware resources provided
to the users of the network by servers. Resources provided include data files, printers, software, or any other
items used by clients on the network.
f) Network Interface Card - Each computer in a network has a special expansion card called a network
interface card (NIC). The NIC prepares (formats) and sends data, receives data, and controls data flow the
computer and the network. On the transmit side, the NIC passes frames of data on to the physical layer,
which transmits the data to the physical link. On the receiver's side, the NIC processes bits received from the
physical layer and processes the message based on its contents.
g) Local Operating System - A local operating system allows personal computers to access files, print to a
local printer, and have and use one or more disk and CD drives that are located on the computer. Examples
are MS-DOS, Unix, Linux, Windows 2000, Windows 98, Windows XP etc.
h) Network Operating System - The network operating system is a program that runs on computers and
servers, and allows the computers to communicate over the network.
i) Hub - Hub is a device that splits a network connection into multiple computers. It is like a distribution
center. When a computer requests information from a network or a specific computer, it sends the request to
the hub through a cable. The hub will receive the request and transmit it to the entire network. Each
computer in the network should then figure out whether the broadcast data is for them or not.
j) Switch - Switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of computer network components. Switch is
like a Hub but built in with advanced features. It uses physical device addresses in each incoming messages
so that it can deliver the message to the right destination or port.
k) Like a hub, switch doesn't broadcast the received message to entire network, rather before sending it checks
to which system or port should the message be sent. In other words, switch connects the source and
destination directly which increases the speed of the network. Both switch and hub have common features:
Multiple RJ-45 ports, power supply and connection lights.
l) A router is a device that forwards data packets along networks. A router is connected to at least two
networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP's network. Routers normally connect LANs
and WANs together and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on
routing the data packets.

m) A modem enables you to connect your computer to the

available internet connection over the existing telephone
line. Like NIC, Modem is not integrated with a
computer motherboard. It comes as separate part which
can be installed on the PCI slots found on
motherboard.
n) Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network
before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal can be
transmitted over the same network. An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify
the signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original
strength. It is a 2 port device.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
o) Bridge – A bridge operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on functionality of filtering
content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination. It is also used for interconnecting two
LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port
device.
p) Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks together that may work
upon different networking models. They basically works as the messenger agents that take data from one
system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are also called protocol converters and can
operate at any network layer. Gateways are generally more complex than switch or router.
Computer networks software
Refers to programs which are used with network hardware components to make up complete computer networks
and include
a) Network Operating system
A network operating system (NOS) is a computer operating system system that is designed primarily to
support workstation, personal computer, and, in some instances, older terminal that are connected on a local area
network (LAN).
A network operating system provides printer sharing, common file system and database sharing, application
sharing, and the ability to manage a network name directory, security, and other housekeeping aspects of a
network.
b) Applications e.g. browsers
Refers toprogram thatallows the user to find and read encoded documents in a form suitable
for display, especially such a program for use on the World Wide Web.
Properties of a Good Network
1. Interpersonal Communication: We can communicate with each other efficiently and easily. Example:
emails, chat rooms, video conferencing etc, all of these are possible because of computer networks.
2. Resources can be shared: We can share physical resources by making them available on a network such
as printers, scanners etc.
3. Sharing files, data: Authorised users are allowed to share the files on the network
Basic Communication Model
A Communication model is used to exchange data between two parties. For example: communication between a
computer, server and telephone (through modem).

Communication Model: Source

Data to be transmitted is generated by this device, example: telephones, personal computers etc.
Communication Model: Transmitter
The data generated by the source system is not directly transmitted in the form its generated. The transmitter
transforms and encodes the data in such a form to produce electromagnetic waves or signals.
Communication Model: Transmission System
A transmission system can be a single transmission line or a complex network connecting source and
destination.
Communication Model: Receiver
Receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it into a form which is easily managed by
the destination device.
Communication Model: Destination
Destination receives the incoming data from the receiver.

DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA

ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
Transmission media: is a pathway that carries the information/data from sender to receiver. We use different
types of cables or waves to transmit data. Data is transmitted normally through electrical or electromagnetic
signals.
Types of Transmission Media
Transmission media is broadly classified into two groups.
1. Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media
2. Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media
Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media: wired transmission media are the cables that are
tangible or have physical existence and are limited by the physical geography. Popular wired transmission
media in use are:
I. twisted pair cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together. One of these wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as ground
reference
Twisted Pair is of two types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable
It is the most common type of telecommunication when compared with Shielded Twisted Pair Cable which
consists of two conductors usually copper, each with its own colour plastic insulator. Identification is the reason
behind coloured plastic insulation.
UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4 pair cable use
RJ-45 connector.

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

 Installation is easy
 Flexible
 Cheap
 It has high speed capacity,
 100 meter limit
 Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet.
It consists of two insulating copper wires (1mm thick). The wires are twisted together in a helical form to reduce
electrical interference from similar pair.
Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable
 Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable
 Provides less protection from interference.
Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair of insulated conductors.
Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. Shielding also eliminates crosstalk (explained in
KEY TERMS Chapter).
It has same attenuation as unshielded twisted pair. It is faster the unshielded and coaxial cable. It is more
expensive than coaxial and unshielded twisted pair.

Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

 Easy to install
 Performance is adequate
 Can be used for Analog or Digital transmission
 Increases the signalling rate
 Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair
 Eliminates crosstalk
Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
 Difficult to manufacture
 Heavy
II. co-axial cable
A coaxial cable has a central copper wire core, surrounded by an insulating (dielectric) material. Braided metal
shielding surrounds the dielectric and helps to absorb unwanted external signals (noise), preventing it from
interfering with the data signal travelling along the core. A plastic sheath protects the cable from damage.
Coaxial cable has a fairly high degree of immunity to noise, and can be used over longer distances (up to 500
metres) than twisted pair cable.

Types of coaxial
Thicknet cable (also known as 10Base5) is a fairly thick cable (0.5 inches in diameter). The 10Base5
designation refers to the 10 Mbps maximum data rate , baseband signalling and 500 metre maximum segment
length
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito

Thinnet cable (also known as 10Base2) is thinner than Thicknet (approximately 0.25 inches in diameter) and as a
consequence is cheaper and far more flexible. The 10Base2 designation refers to the 10 Mbps maximum data
rate , baseband signalling and 185 (nearly 200) metre maximum segment length

III. Fiber optical cable.

Optical fibres are thin, solid strands of glass that transmit information as pulses of light. The fibre has a
core of high-purity glass which the light pulses travel. The core is surrounded by a covering layer made
of glass, known as the cladding. An outer plastic covering, the primary buffer, provides some protection,
The structure of an optical fibre is shown below.

Types
Single mode

Multimode

Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media: wireless transmission media are the ways of
transmitting data without using any cables. These media are not bounded by physical geography. This type of
transmission is called Wireless communication. Nowadays wireless communication is becoming popular.
Wireless LANs are being installed in office and college campuses. This transmission uses Microwave, Radio
wave, Infra red are some of popular unbound transmission media.
Factors to be considered while selecting a Transmission Medium
1. Transmission Rate
2. Cost and Ease of Installation
3. Resistance to Environmental Conditions
4. Distances
Types of Networks
Criteria for classifying networks
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
i. According to span( distance between the nodes)
ii. Relationship between the nodes
iii. According to topology
iv. Jlj
1) According to span( distance between the nodes)
a) Local Area Network (LAN)
A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. It is smallest network compared to the
other two networks.
The simplest form of LAN is to connect two computers together. LAN is operated within a limited physical
area, such as at home, school, a single building or several buildings.
A network which consists of less than 500 interconnected devices across several buildings is still recognized
as a LAN.
In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and managed by a
single person or organization. They also tend to use certain connectivity technologies,
primarily Ethernet and Token Ring
b. Wide Area Network (WAN)
A wide area network (WAN) is a network that exists over a large-scale geographical area. A WAN connects
different smaller networks, including local area networks (LAN) and metro area networks (MAN). This ensures
that computers and users in one location can communicate with computers and users in other locations. WAN
implementation can be done either with the help of the public transmission system or a private network.
A WAN connects more than one LAN and is used for larger geographical areas. WANs are similar to a banking
system, where hundreds of branches in different cities are connected with each other in order to share their
official data.
A WAN works in a similar fashion to a LAN, just on a larger scale. Typically, TCP/IP is the protocol used for a
WAN in combination with devices such as routers, switches, firewalls and modems.
c) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is similar to a local area network (LAN) but spans an entire city or campus.
MANs are formed by connecting multiple LANs. Thus, MANs are larger than LANs but smaller than wide area
networks (WAN).
MANs are extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers, such as fiber optic
cables.
A MAN is ideal for many kinds of network users because it is a medium-size network. MANs are used to build
networks with high data connection speeds for cities and towns.
The working mechanism of a MAN is similar to an Internet Service Provider (ISP), but a MAN is not owned by
a single organization. Like a WAN, a MAN provides shared network connections to its users. A MAN mostly
works on the data link layer, which is Layer 2 of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
Campus Area Network – it is a network spanning multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN, such as on a
university or local business campus.
2. According to topology
Network topology is the how computers are physically interconnected and they communicate
Types of topology
a) Physical topology
How computers are physically interconnected
 Star topology
A star network features a central connection point called a "hub" that may be a hub, switch or router. This
topology consist of a central nodes or a central wiring system to which all other nodes are connected,
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito

Merits
 Diagnostic and isolation of problem is easy
 Easy to add a new computer system to the network
 Failure of one workstation does not affect the entire network
 Uses a single access protocols
 Provide ease of service
 Is very fast
Demerits
 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.
 Becomes expensive when purchasing the nodes
 Always requires very long cable length when connecting many nodes
 Ring topology
In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All messages (token)
travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise each node is connected to
form a single, closed data path. Data from one node is passed along to the next node from which it will be
examined, and if that node is not the intended destination, then it is transmitted to the next node until the
destination is reached. Versions of ring topology include
 Single ring – All the devices on the network share a single cable
 Dual ring – The dual ring topology allows data to be sent in both directions.
Merits
 The ability to achieve transmission rates of the order of 10 million bits per second
 Provision of local communication via a single channel
 No central server which reduces the cost of establishing the ring topology
Demerits
 Failure of one node result into entire network failure
 Detection of fault is very difficult in ring topology
 Isolation of fault is not easy in this topology
Dual Ring
Single Ring
 ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito

 Bus topology
It is the simplest method of networking computers. It consists of a single cable known as a trunk, backbone or
segment that connects all the computers in the network. Each system is directly attached to a common
communication channel. Signal that is transmitted over the channel makes up the messages.

Trunk/backbone

Merits
 Cheap because of its simplicity
 Requires a short cable length
 Easy to expand the network
 Simple to setup compared to Star and Ring topology
 There is no chances of data collision since one computer transmit at a time
 Locating cable fault in a bus topology is relatively easy
 Bus topology is ideal for one to many data transmission
 Signal on the cable are bidirectional hence reaches all the nodes
Demerits
 Fault diagnosis is difficult in a bus topology – detection of fault may have to be performed from any point in
the network.
 Fault isolation is difficult – if fault in the node is detected the node can simply be removed but if the fault is
in network medium itself and entire segment of the Bus must be disconnected to isolate the fault

 Mesh topology
A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As shown in the
illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to others.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito

 Tree topology
Tree Topology Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest
form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the "root" of a tree
of devices.

b) Logical topology refers to how computers communicate

3. Relationship between the nodes
i. Peer to peer network
a peer-to-peer (P2P) network is created when two or more PCs are connected and share resources without
going through a separate server computer. Each computer can access any of the others, although access can
be restricted to those files that a computer's user chooses to make available. Peer-to-peer networks are less
expensive than client/server networks but less efficient when large amounts of data need to be exchanged
ii. Client-server network
A computer network in which one centralized, powerful computer (called the server) is a hub to which many less
powerful personal computers or workstations (called clients) are connected. The clients run programs and access
data that are stored on the server
Advantages of computer networks
1. It enhances communication and availability of information.
Networking, especially with full access to the web, allows ways of communication that would simply be
impossible before it was developed. Instant messaging can now allow users to talk in real time and send files to
other people wherever they are in the world, which is a huge boon for businesses. Also, it allows access to a vast
amount of useful information, including traditional reference materials and timely facts, such as news and
current events.
2. It allows for more convenient resource sharing.
This benefit is very important, particularly for larger companies that really need to produce huge numbers of
resources to be shared to all the people. Since the technology involves computer-based work, it is assured that
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
the resources they wanted to get across would be completely shared by connecting to a computer network which
their audience is also using.
3. It makes file sharing easier.
Computer networking allows easier accessibility for people to share their files, which greatly helps them with
saving more time and effort, since they could do file sharing more accordingly and effectively.
4. It is highly flexible.
This technology is known to be very flexible, as it gives users the opportunity to explore everything about
essential things, such as software without affecting their functionality. Plus, people will have the accessibility to
all information they need to get and share.
5. It is an inexpensive system.
Installing networking software on your device would not cost too much, as you are assured that it lasts and can
effectively share information to your peers. Also, there is no need to change the software regularly, as mostly it
is not required to do so.
6. It increases cost efficiency.
With computer networking, you can use a lot of software products available on the market which can just be
stored or installed in your system or server, and can then be used by various workstations.
7. It boosts storage capacity.
Since you are going to share information, files and resources to other people, you have to ensure all data and
content are properly stored in the system. With this networking technology, you can do all of this without any
hassle, while having all the space you need for storage.
Disadvantages of computer networks
1. It lacks independence.
Computer networking involves a process that is operated using computers, so people will be relying more of
computer work, instead of exerting an effort for their tasks at hand. Aside from this, they will be dependent on
the main file server, which means that, if it breaks down, the system would become useless, making users idle.
2. It poses security difficulties.
Because there would be a huge number of people who would be using a computer network to get and share some
of their files and resources, a certain user’s security would be always at risk. There might even be illegal
activities that would occur, which you need to be careful about and aware of.
3. It lacks robustness.
As previously stated, if a computer network’s main server breaks down, the entire system would become useless.
Also, if it has a bridging device or a central linking server that fails, the entire network would also come to a
standstill. To deal with these problems, huge networks should have a powerful computer to serve as file server to
make setting up and maintaining the network easier.
4. It allows for more presence of computer viruses and malware.
There would be instances that stored files are corrupt due to computer viruses. Thus, network administrators
should conduct regular check-ups on the system, and the stored files at the same time.
5. Its light policing usage promotes negative acts.
It has been observed that providing users with internet connectivity has fostered undesirable behavior among
them. Considering that the web is a minefield of distractions—online games, humor sites and even porn sites—
workers could be tempted during their work hours. The huge network of machines could also encourage them to
engage in illicit practices, such as instant messaging and file sharing, instead of working on work-related
matters. While many organizations draw up certain policies on this, they have proven difficult to enforce and
even engendered resentment from employees.
6. It requires an efficient handler.
For a computer network to work efficiently and optimally, it requires high technical skills and know-how of its
operations and administration. A person just having basic skills cannot do this job. Take note that the
responsibility to handle such a system is high, as allotting permissions and passwords can be daunting. Similarly,
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
network configuration and connection is very tedious and cannot be done by an average technician who does not
have advanced knowledge.
7. It requires an expensive set-up.
Though computer networks are said to be an inexpensive system when it is already running, its initial set up cost
can still be high depending on the number of computers to be connected. Expensive devices, such as routers,
switches, hubs, etc., can add up to the cost. Aside from these, it would also need network interface cards (NICs)
for workstations in case they are not built in.
THE INTERNET
Introduction to the internet
The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite
(TCP/IP) to link billions of devices worldwide. The Internet links are computer networks all over the world so
that users can share resources and communicate with each other.
Common terminologies used in internet
a) World wide web(www)
Is an information system on the Internet that allows documents to be connected to other documents by hypertext
links, enabling the user to search for information by moving from one document to another. Is a system that
supports documents that are formatted in a hypertext markup language called HTML (HyperText Markup
Language) that supports links to other documents, as well as graphics, audio, and video files.
b) Uniform Resource Locators, or URLs:
Is a reference (an address) to a resource on the Internet. This is the unique ID of a resource on the internet. A
Uniform Resource Locator or URL is the address of a document you'll find on the WWW.
d) Browser
This is the piece of software used to view WebPages on the internet. The most common browsers are Internet
Explorer and Netscape. Most browsers can show images, text and animations but some, mainly used to give
internet access to the blind, only show text content allowing them to be read out audibly by the computer.
e) Internet service provider (ISP)
Is the company or group that provides internet access to the user.
f) http
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol: this is the most common protocol used on the Web and is used for normal web
pages which do not require any authentification
g) search engine
A site that allows you to quickly locate relevant pages across the Web
h) web page
a hypertext document connected to the World Wide Web.

APPLICATIONS OF INTERNET
3.4.1 Applications of internet:
The internet is treated as one of the biggest invention. It has a large number of uses.
1. Communication
2. Job searches
3. Finding books and study material
4. Health and medicine
5. Travel
6. Entertainment
7. Shopping
8. Stock market updates
9. Research
10. Business use of internet: different ways by which internet can be used for business are:
• Information about the product can be provided can be provided online to the customer.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
• Provide market information to the business
• It helps business to recruit talented people
• Help in locating suppliers of the product.
• Fast information regarding customers view about company’s product
• Eliminate middle men and have a direct contact with contact with customer.
• Providing information to the investor by providing companies back ground and financial information on web
site.
INTERNET SERVICES
1- World Wide Web (WWW)
The World Wide Web is commonly known as web. It is a network of web servers that stores web pages. The
web pages are connected to each other using hyperlinks. The user can jump from one page to another by clicking
the hyperlinks. The web web pages are accessed using web browsers. The HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)
protocol is used for communication between browser and web servers.
2- E-Mail
E-mail stands for electronic email. It is the most popular service provided by the Internet. It provides the fast
and efficient way to send and receive messages through Internet. One message can be sent to many persons with
a single e-mail. Different types of files can also be sent through e-mail.
3- Telnet
Telnet is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It is software. It is used to connect to a remote or host
computer for accessing information. Through this service, the user can also access information on the Internet.

When a user runs this software on his/her computer, it provides a prompt on the user's computer screen. The user
can access the host computer by giving commands through this prompt. When a command is sent to the host
computer, information is accessed from host and displayed on user's computer screen. The user's computer
linked to the remote computer will act as a terminal. The expert users mostly use this service. In some remote
servers, this service is not allowed.
4- File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a way for transferring files from one computer to another. The
process of transferring a file from a server (or remote computer) to local computer is called downloading.
Similarly, the process for transferring a file from local computer to the server on the Internet is called uploading.

Different FTP client programs are available for uploading and downloading files to and from the server. The
most commonly used FTP client programs are WS_FTP and Cute FTP.
5- Gopher
A gopher is a menu-based information retrieval system. It is used for retrieving files and programs on the
Internet. Gopher allows access to files found on FTP servers and web servers.

6- Chat Groups
Internet provides the facility to Internet users to chat (talk) with people online all over the world. Different
programs like MSN Messenger, Yahoo Messenger, AOL online etc. are available for chatting on the Internet.
Chat rooms allow the users to participate in a chat on the Internet. Chat rooms on are locations on the web that
provide facilities to the users to chat with each other online over the Internet. They send messages by typing with
keyboard and receive messages from other end instantly. Some chat rooms support voice chats and video chats
where people talk with each other and see them also.
a) Explain any three benefits of computer networks
 Facilitate communication via email, video conferencing, instant messaging, etc.
 Enable multiple users to share a single hardware device like a printer or scanner
 Enable file sharing across the network
 Allow for the sharing of software or operating programs on remote systems
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
 Make information easier to access and maintain among network users
b) Describe any three uses of the internet
 Research: Anyone can be able to find articles or information readily available on the Internet. It is an
open library with access to some university online libraries.www.google.com
 To Communicate: The Internet has enabled users to get faster and more reliable communication.
Communication ranges from electronic mail to Internet access. Through chatting and emails the Internet
can be used to meet people. www.yahoo.com.
 To shop: The Internet offers a wide range of goods that can be bought online e.g. cars, books e.t.c.
However, security online is still questionable. E.g www.amazon.com
 To have Fun: The Internet provides access to many games that one can download to play online.
(Entertainment in form of music, movies etc)
Internet
Internet is defined as an Information super Highway, to access information over the web. However, It can be
defined in many ways as follows:
 Internet is a world-wide global system of interconnected computer networks.
 Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
 Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
 IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a computer location.
 A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to the IP Address so that user can
locate a computer by a name.
 For example, a DNS server will resolve a name http://www.tutorialspoint.com to a particular IP address
to uniquely identify the computer on which this website is hosted.
 Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.

Evolution
The concept of Internet was originated in 1969 and has undergone several technological & Infrastructural
changes as discussed below:
 The origin of Internet devised from the concept of Advanced Research Project Agency Network
(ARPANET).
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
 ARPANET was developed by United States Department of Defense.
 Basic purpose of ARPANET was to provide communication among the various bodies of government.
 Initially, there were only four nodes, formally called Hosts.
 In 1972, the ARPANET spread over the globe with 23 nodes located at different countries and thus
became known as Internet.
 By the time, with invention of new technologies such as TCP/IP protocols, DNS, WWW, browsers,
scripting languages etc.,Internet provided a medium to publish and access information over the web.
Advantages
Internet covers almost every aspect of life, one can think of. Here, we will discuss some of the advantages of
Internet:

 Internet allows us to communicate with the people sitting at remote locations. There are various apps
available on the wed that uses Internet as a medium for communication. One can find various social
networking sites such as:
o Facebook
o Twitter
o Yahoo
o Google+
o Flickr
o Orkut
 One can surf for any kind of information over the internet. Information regarding various topics such as
Technology, Health & Science, Social Studies, Geographical Information, Information Technology,
Products etc can be surfed with help of a search engine.
 Apart from communication and source of information, internet also serves a medium for entertainment.
Following are the various modes for entertainment over internet.
o Online Television
o Online Games
o Songs
o Videos
o Social Networking Apps
 Internet allows us to use many services like:
o Internet Banking
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
o Matrimonial Services
o Online Shopping
o Online Ticket Booking
o Online Bill Payment
o Data Sharing
o E-mail
 Internet provides concept of electronic commerce, that allows the business deals to be conducted on
electronic systems
Disadvantages
However, Internet has prooved to be a powerful source of information in almost every field, yet there exists
many disadvanatges discussed below:

 There are always chances to loose personal information such as name, address, credit card number.
Therefore, one should be very careful while sharing such information. One should use credit cards only
through authenticated sites.
 Another disadvantage is the Spamming.Spamming corresponds to the unwanted e-mails in bulk. These e-
mails serve no purpose and lead to obstruction of entire system.
 Virus can easily be spread to the computers connected to internet. Such virus attacks may cause your
system to crash or your important data may get deleted.
 Also a biggest threat on internet is pornography. There are many pornographic sites that can be found,
letting your children to use internet which indirectly affects the children healthy mental life.
 There are various websites that do not provide the authenticated information. This leads to misconception
among many people.
Intranet
Intranet is defined as private network of computers within an organization with its own server and firewall.
Moreover we can define Intranet as:
 Intranet is system in which multiple PCs are networked to be connected to each other. PCs in intranet are
not available to the world outside of the intranet.
 Usually each company or organization has their own Intranet network and members/employees of that
company can access the computers in their intranet.
 Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
 Each computer in Intranet is also identified by a IP Address, which is unique among the computers in that
Intranet.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito

Benefits
Intranet is very efficient and reliable network system for any organization. It is beneficial in every
aspect such as collaboration, cost-effectiveness, security, productivity and much more.

Communication
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
Intranet offers easy and cheap communication within an organization. Employees can communicate using chat,
e-mail or blogs.
Time Saving
Information on Intranet is shared in real time.
Collaboration
Information is distributed among the employees as according to requirement and it can be accessed by the
authorized users, resulting in enhanced teamwork.
Platform Independency
Intranet can connect computers and other devices with different architecture.
Cost Effective
Employees can see the data and other documents using browser rather than printing them and distributing
duplicate copies among the employees, which certainly decreases the cost.
Workforce Productivity
Data is available at every time and can be accessed using company workstation. This helps the employees work
faster.
Business Management
It is also possible to deploy applications that support business operations.
Security
Since information shared on intranet can only be accessed within an organization, therefore there is almost no
chance of being theft.
Specific Users
Intranet targets only specific users within an organization therefore, once can exactly know whom he is
interacting.
Immediate Updates
Any changes made to information are reflected immediately to all the users.
Issues
Apart from several benefits of Intranet, there also exist some issues.. These issues are shown in the following
diagram:
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito

Applications
Intranet applications are same as that of Internet applications. Intranet applications are also accessed
through a web browser. The only difference is that, Intranet applications reside on local server while
Internet applications reside on remote server. Here, we've discussed some of these applications:
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito

Document publication applications

Document publication applications allow publishing documents such as manuals, software guide, employee
profits etc without use of paper.
Electronic resources applications
It offers electronic resources such as software applications, templates and tools, to be shared across the network.
Interactive Communication applications
Like on internet, we have e-mail and chat like applications for Intranet, hence offering an interactive
communication among employees.
Support for Internet Applications
Intranet offers an environment to deploy and test applications before placing them on Internet.
Internet vs. Intranet
Apart from similarities there are some differences between the two. Following are the differences between
Internet and Intranet:
Intranet Internet

Localized Network. Worldwide Network

Doesn't have access to Intranet Have access to Internet.

More Expensive Less Expensive

More Safe Less Safe

More Reliability Less Reliability

ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
Basic Parts of an Email Message and Address
Email is one of the most popular ways to communicate in the 21st century. But do you know the different parts
of an email message? What about the parts of an email address? Keep reading to learn about the basic parts of
the messages and addresses you use every day.
Elements of an Email Message
When you think of an email message, you might think of the person you’re sending it to and what you’re going
to say. However, an effective email has many more elements than these few. Double check these parts before
sending your next email.
1. Subject Line
What is the email about? A good subject line summarizes the email and makes it sound important enough for the
reader to open. Subject lines like “Hello” or “Meeting” are vague and make it difficult to know what the email
will be about.
2. Sender
The email address of the person who sent the message appears here. Most email services display the person’s
name before their email address to make it easier to identify them. When you press “reply,” your email will only
go to this person.
3. Recipient
If you are receiving the message, your email address probably won’t appear here. Instead, you might see
wording like “to me.” Message recipients might also include email addresses in these sections:
 Carbon Copy (CC) – people who receive the email for their own information, but who are not expected
to reply. When you press “reply all,” all of these addresses receive your response.
 Blind Carbon Copy (BCC) – people who receive the email but are not listed as recipients. Senders use
the BCC section if they don’t want recipients to know who else has received the email. They do not
receive “reply all” responses.
4. Salutation
After the subject line, your email salutation, or greeting, is the next part that the recipient will see. It should
match the tone you’re trying to set in the rest of your email. Don’t skip this part unless you are emailing back
and forth quickly with someone in a virtual conversation.
5. Email Body
The email body contains the message of the email. Effective emails keep their email bodies short and add more
extensive information to the attachments. For formal emails, such as messages to an employer or emails to your
teacher, it’s best to avoid
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6. Closing
If an email message is an electronic letter, it’s polite to end it with a closing. The closing you choose should
match the tone of the rest of the email. Formal closings include “Sincerely” and “Thank you,” while more
friendly messages can use “Talk to you soon!” or “See you later!”
7. Signature
Friendly letters might sign off with the sender’s name. But many business email accounts have signature sections
that include the sender’s position, company and even company logo. These extended signatures are helpful when
reaching out to clients or employees from other companies.
8. Attachments
An email might include an attachment that provides more information. The attachment could be a document for
review, a picture to share or any other file type. Most email accounts have limits on the size of attachments, so
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
the sender might add the file to the email body itself rather than attaching it.

Parts of an Email Address

Believe it or not, your email address provides a lot of information about you. It can reveal your name, interests,
online savvy, and professionalism. Check your email address against these parts and see if it’s time to change
your online persona to a new one.
1. Username
The username is the first part of an email address. Back in the early days of the Internet, people chose fun
usernames like “musicfan156” or “blueeyes563” that described their hobbies or personalities. But now that email
is so prominent in the professional world, usernames tend to include the person’s real name or initials. For
example, Javier Martinez is more likely to be taken seriously as “jmartinez” than as “heavymetallover42628.”
2. @ Symbol
The @ symbol, which means “at,” separates the username from the rest of the email address. It means that the
username belongs to the domain on the other side of the @ symbol. A server receiving the email uses the @
symbol to determine into which mail server it should sort the incoming message.
3. Mail Server
The name of the person’s mail server is on the right side of the @ symbol. It indicates the organization that hosts
the server where their emails go. Many companies create their own domain names for their employees to use,
while other domains are available for personal use (for example: Gmail, Yahoo, Outlook).
4. Top-Level Domain
The mail server and top-level domain (TLD) combine to make a user’s domain name. The top-level domain tells
users what type of organization they are emailing. There are six common top-level domains:
 .com – company
 .edu – educational institution
 .gov – government institution
 .org – organization
 .net – network
 .mil – military
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito

PowerPoint is a program that allows you to present ideas with text, graphics, sounds, video, and animation. To
understand PowerPoint better, you must first become familiar with special terms used by the program. This
document provides definitions of many terms you may encounter when working with PowerPoint.
Animations
Animation is a visual or sound effect accompanying text or graphics. For example, you can have an Excel pie
chart appear one slice at a time, allowing you to discuss one slice before the next appears. For more information
on animation, refer to Using Animation (Win | Mac).
Clip Art
Clip Art is the collection of pictures available in the PowerPoint Clip Art gallery.
Master
A Master contains formatting and design elements common to every slide in your presentation. There are three
types of master slides: the Slide Master (Win | Mac), Handout Master (Win | Mac), and Notes Master.
Objects
An Object can be an item that you create or a graphic that you import from another source (such as a scanned
image). Some examples include text boxes, Clip Art, WordArt, SmartArt, and shapes.
Presentation
The Presentation is the file containing the collection of slides. A PowerPoint 2007/2008 file has
a .pptxextension.
Slide Show
A Slide Show is the presentation of your PowerPoint slides. A slide show can be viewed online, on a computer
(e.g., set to loop continuously in a display booth), or projected to a screen (e.g., live conference presentation).
Template
A Template contains slide default settings. These characteristics include colors, fonts, bullet types, and special
elements such as graphics.
Transitions
A Transition is the effect that takes place when you advance from one slide to the next. This feature is available
only with Slide Shows.
Wizard
A Wizard is a step-by-step guide for completing a task.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
Slide and Slideshow
Think back to the days of the old-fashioned slideshow that used a slide projector. PowerPoint produces an
updated version of sorts. Slideshows can comprise text and graphics or be completely covered by a single
picture, as in a photo album.
Each page of a PowerPoint presentation is called a slide. The default orientation of the slide is landscape. You
can change the slide orientation and the slide size. Add text, graphics, and pictures to the slide to enhance its
appeal and illustrate your point.
Bullet or Bulleted List
Bullets are small dots, squares, dashes, or graphic objects that begin a short descriptive phrase. Almost every
slide type in PowerPoint contains a placeholder text box for a bulleted list. You'll use these bulleted list text
boxes to enter key points or statements about your topic. When creating the list, press Enter to add a new
bullet for the next point you want to add.
Design Template
Think of a design template as a coordinated package deal. When you decorate a room, you use colors and
patterns that work together. A design template acts in much the same way. Even though different slide
types can have different layouts and graphics, the design template ties the whole presentation together in an
attractive package.
Slide Layouts and Slide Types
The terms slide type and slide layout are used interchangeably. PowerPoint has a few types of slide layouts.
Depending on the type of presentation you are creating, you may use several different slide layouts or just
keep repeating the same few.
Slide types/layouts include, for example:
 Title slides
 Section heading slides
 Picture with caption slides
 Content slides for adding charts, pictures, and tables
 Blank slides
Slide Views
There are several ways to view slides and slideshows. These views are:
 Normal view: Also commonly known as slide view. It is the main working window in the presentation.
The slide is shown at its full size on the screen.
 Outline view: Shows all the text of all slides, in a list on the left of the PowerPoint screen. No graphics
display in this view. Outline view is useful for editing and can be exported as a Word document to use
as a summary handout.
 Slide Sorter view: Displays thumbnail versions of all your slides, arranged in horizontal rows. This
view is useful for making global changes to several slides at one time. Rearranging or deleting slides is
easy to do in slide sorter view.
 Notes Page view: Shows a smaller version of a slide with an area underneath for notes. Each slide is
created on its own notes page. Print these pages to use as a reference while making the presentation.
The notes do not show on the screen during the presentation.
Task Pane
Located on the right side of the screen, the task pane changes to show options that are available for the current
task that you are working on. For example, when changing the background for a slide, the Format Background
task pane appears; when adding animations, you'll set animation options in the Animation pane.
Transition
Slide transitions are the visual effects that appear as one slide changes to another. PowerPoint offers several
different transitions, such as fade and dissolve.
Animations and Animation Schemes
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
In Microsoft PowerPoint, animations are visual effects applied to individual items such as graphics, titles, or
bullet points, rather than to the slide itself. Apply preset visual effects to paragraphs, bulleted items, and titles
from a variety of animation groupings.
PowerPoint Online
PowerPoint Online is the web version of PowerPoint. It allows a PowerPoint presentation to be played on any
computer, even one that doesn't have PowerPoint installed. To use PowerPoint Online, you'll need a Microsoft
account or an Microsoft 365 work or school account. To view a presentation in a web browser, save the
presentation to OneDrive or Dropbox and open it in PowerPoint Online.
Slide Master
The default design template when starting a PowerPoint presentation is a plain, white slide. When you want to
design your own template, use the Slide Master. After you update the Slide Master with your design choices,
all the slides in your presentation will use the fonts, colors, and graphics in the Slide Master. Each new slide
that you create takes on these aspects.
Action Button: An action button is an item that can be added to a presentation that contains pre-programmed
commands for performing commonly done tasks. An example of an action button is the right pointing arrow
which, when clicked during a presentation, will advance the viewer to the next slide.

Animation: Animation refers to visual effects that are added to individual items (such as titles, bulleted text
and graphics) on a slide rather than to the slide itself. Animation that is applied to the changing of one slide to
the next is known as "Transistion".
Bullets/ Bulleted List: A bulleted list is used to enter key points or phrases. Each key point or phrase begins
with a bullet, which is a small dot, square or other graphic. The 'Enter' key on the keyboard is used to end one
list item and begin another one with a new bullet. The bulleted list layout is the preferred method of presenting
text in a slideshow.

Color Theme: A predefined set of complementary colors that can be applied to elements in a PowerPoint
presentation.
Design Theme: A design theme is a predefined set of formatting options that control the look and feel of
your presentation. Theme settings include backgrounds, layout, colors, fonts, sizes and bullets.
Flip: Flipping an object (either horizontally or vertically) will create a mirror image of the object in the
direction that is chosen.
Handouts: When printing a PowerPoint presentation, it is important to check the print settings before
sending the file to print. One of the options most commonly used is to print a presentaton is the "Handouts"
option rather than "Full Page Slides". The handouts options allows you to print multiple slides on a page, saving
paper, ink and toner.

Handout Master: The master view that determines the layout and formatting of the printable handouts. (see
also "Master" and "Slide Master").
Layout (Slide Layout): When adding a new slide to a presentation, you must first decide on the type of
layout you would like to use. There are several different types of layouts available in PowerPoint and the layout
that you choose depends on the type of information that you will be displaying on the slide. For example, the
first introductory slide in a presentation would most likely use the Title Slide Layout, while a Bulleted Slide
Layout would be more appropriate for a slide that is covering several key points presented in a list. Other slide
layouts include Content Layout (which could contain items such as images, video and charts) and Section
Header Layout (which assists you in breaking up and separating sections of a larger presentation into
manageable parts). In addition to the predefined layouts, you can also choose the Blank Layout option which
would allow you to place items wherever you would like to on the slide.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
Master (Slide Master): The Slide Master is a template that stores all of the design options that you would
like to apply including font styles, placeholder sizes and positions, color schemes and background designs and
images. The power of the slide master comes when you would like to make a change to all slides in a
presentation. For example if you would like to add a logo or image to the bottom right corner to all slides in your
slideshow, you could simply add the image to the Slide Master in the desired location. Every slide based on the
Slide Master would then have the image added to it. The Slide Master can also be used to make global changes
in formatting such as font type, size, bullet shape and color. There are also similar Master templates for speakers
notes and handouts.
Normal View: The Normal View in Powerpoint displays three items as you work on creating your
presentation. The items in the normal view are the Slides and Outline Pane (found on the left of side of the
window), the Slide Pane (the main area of the window for working on the content of your slides) and the Notes
Pane (found at the bottom of the window).

Notes Master: The Notes Master view determines the layout and formatting of the printable speaker's notes.
(see also "Master" and "Slide Master").

Notes Pane: The Notes Pane is the white area at the bottom of the Powerpoint window, directly below the
main Slide Pane. It is used to add speaker notes to your slides that will not appear to your audience during the
slideshow.

Notes Page View:The Notes Page View displays an image of the current slide as well as any Notes that have
been added to it in the Notes Pane. In the Notes Page View, the area in which you can type is larger and allows
you to add additional items to your notes such as images.
Outline View: The Outline View is found on the left side of the PowerPoint window with the Slides and
Outline Pane. You control how the pane displays your presentation in this pane by using Slides and Outline tabs
at the top of the pane. The Slide view will show miniature images of your slides (complete with images, layout
and formatting) while the Outline View will only show the text (in bullet form) that exists on each slide. The
outline view is very useful for proofreading an entire presentation, editing text, or exporting text-based content to
another application such as Microsoft Word.
Placeholder: A placeholder on the slide is a holding area where you will add your content. When you choose
a particular slide layout, it will included standard placeholders (in the shape of rectangles) in which you can click
to either type text or insert another item, such as an image. Additional placeholders can be added to the standard
slide layout as needed.

Presentation File: A presentation file is the end result of what is created using the PowerPoint application.
The presention file contains any work that you have done in PowerPoint such as your slides, text, images, sound,
transitions, animations, timing settings and notes pages.
Rotate: Rotating an object is the action of turning an object on a slide so that it faces another direction. When
a placeholder is selected in Powerpoint, a green dot will appear at the top of the placeholder. This dot can be
used to rotate the object to the desired new angle.
Slide: A slide is an individual page (or screen) in a slideshow. Content such as text (bullets), images, sound,
animations, etc. are added to each slide.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
Slide Layout: When adding a new slide to a presentation, you must first decide on the type of layout you
would like to use. There are several different types of layouts available in PowerPoint and the layout that you
choose depends on the type of information that you will be displaying on the slide. For example, the first
introductory slide in a presentation would most likely use the Title Slide Layout, while a Bulleted Slide Layout
would be more appropriate for a slide that covering several key points presented in a list. Other slide layouts
include Content Layout (which could contain items such as images, video and charts) and Section Header
Layout (which assists you in breaking up and separating sections of a larger presentation in to manageable parts.
In addition to the predefined layouts, you can also choose the Blank Layout option which would allow you to
place items wherever you would like to on the slide.

Slide Master: The Slide Master is a template that stores all of the design options that you would like to apply
including font styles, placeholder sizes and positions, color schemes and background designs and images. The
power of the slide master comes when you would like to make a change to all slides in a presentation.
Presentation
a set of slides or handouts that contains information you want to convey to an audience.
Normal View
PowerPoint's default view that displays the slide pane, the Notes pane , and the slides / Outline pane.
Placeholders
Designated areas in PowerPoint layouts that can be used to easily insert text, graphics, or multimedia objects.
Active Slide
The slide currently selected or displayed.
Slide Layout
Prearranged sets of placeholders for various types of slide content.
Theme
Formatting feature that applies a background, colors, fonts, and effects to all slides in a presentation.
Clip Art
Pre-drawn artwork, photos, animations, and sound clips that you can insert into your files.
Contextual Tab
a Ribbon tab that displays only when needed for a specific task such as formatting a table or offering picture
formatting options.
Font
A set of characters with a specific size and style.
Template
A presentation that is already formatted with a slide design and may also include sample text to guide you in
completing the presentation.
Footer
An area at the bottom of a slide in which you can enter a date, slide number, or other information.
Header
An area at the top of a slide in which you can enter a date or other information that repeats for each page.
Handouts
Printed copies of the presentation for the audience to refer to during and after the slide show.
Landscape Orientation
A slide or printout that is taller than it is tall.
Portrait Orientation
A slide or printout is taller than it is wide.
AutoFit
PowerPoint feature designed to reduce font size to fit text in the current placeholder.
Crop
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
Remove a portion of a picture that you don't want.
Scaling
Specifying a percentage of the original dimensions to enlarge or reduce a picture or shape.
Slide Master
A slide that stores information about the formats applied in a presentation, such as theme, fonts, layouts, and
colors.
Template
A document that contains formatting, styles, and sample text that you can use to create new documents.
Transitions
The visual effects used when one slide moves off of the screen and another moves onto the screen.
Advance Slide Timing
A setting that controls the amount of time a slide displays on the screen.

COMPUTER FILES
Computer files
A computer file is a resource for storing information, which is available to a computer program and is usually
based on some kind of durable storage. A file is "durable" in the sense that it remains available for other
programs to use after the program that created it has finished executing.
, computer file types can be characterized in a few major groups as follows:
 System File - These usually exist in the “Windows” folder. In most litigation cases, these files are not
necessary, but in some cases, they may be critically important. This needs to be documented in the Litigation
Response Plan.
 Program Files - These usually exist in the “Program Files” folder (e. g. Microsoft and Adobe products). In
most litigation cases, these files are not necessary, but in some cases, they may be critically important. This
needs to be documented in the Litigation Response Plan.
 Document Files – For example, Microsoft Word or Excel files. These are often important in litigation.
 Multimedia Files – For example, video, audio, and graphic files. These are often important in intellectual
property cases.
 Emails – A common and important data type in litigation.
What is File Organizations?
 File organization refers to the way data is stored in a file. File organization is very important because it
determines the methods of access, efficiency, flexibility and storage devices to use. There are four
methods of organizing files on a storage media. This include:
 sequential,
 random,
 serial and
 indexed-sequential
1. Sequential file organization
 Records are stored and accessed in a particular order sorted using a key field.
 Retrieval requires searching sequentially through the entire file record by record to the end.
 Because the record in a file are sorted in a particular order, better file searching methods like the binary
search technique can be used to reduce the time used for searching a file .
 Since the records are sorted, it is possible to know in which half of the file a particular record being
searched is located, Hence this method repeatedly divides the set of records in the file into two halves
and searches only the half on which the records is found.
 For example, of the file has records with key fields 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 and the computer is searching for a
record with key field 50, it starts at 40 upwards in its search, ignoring the first half of the set.
Advantages of sequential file organization
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
 The sorting makes it easy to access records.
 The binary chop technique can be used to reduce record search time by as much as half the time taken.
Disadvantages of sequential file organization
 The sorting does not remove the need to access other records as the search looks for particular records.
 Sequential records cannot support modern technologies that require fast access to stored records.
 The requirement that all records be of the same size is sometimes difficult to enforce.
1. Random or direct file organization
 Records are stored randomly but accessed directly.
 To access a file stored randomly, a record key is used to determine where a record is stored on the
storage media.
 Magnetic and optical disks allow data to be stored and accessed randomly.
Advantages of random file access
 Quick retrieval of records.
 The records can be of different sizes.
1. Serial file organization
 Records in a file are stored and accessed one after another.
 The records are not stored in any way on the storage medium this type of organization is mainly used on
magnetic tapes.
Advantages of serial file organization
 It is simple
 It is cheap
Disadvantages of serial file organization
 It is cumbersome to access because you have to access all proceeding records before retrieving the one being
searched.
 Wastage of space on medium in form of inter-record gap.
 It cannot support modern high speed requirements for quick record access.
1. Indexed-sequential file organization method
 Almost similar to sequential method only that, an index is used to enable the computer to locate individual
records on the storage media. For example, on a magnetic drum, records are stored sequential on the tracks.
However, each record is assigned an index that can be used to access it directly.
File Access Methods
Information is kept in files. Files reside on secondary storage. When this information is to be used, it has to be
accessed and brought into primary main memory. Information in files could be accessed in many ways. It is
usually dependent on an application. There are three file access methods.
a) Sequential Access: A simple access method, information in a file is accessed sequentially one record
after another. To process the with record all the 1-1 records previous to 1 must be accessed. Sequential
access is based on the tape model that is inherently a sequential access device. Sequential access is best
suited where most of the records in a file are to be processed. For example, transaction files.
b) Direct Access: Sometimes it is not necessary to process every record in a file. It may not be necessary to
process records in the order in which they are present. Information present in a record of a file is to be
accessed only if some key value in that record is known. In all such cases, direct access is used. Direct
access is based on the disk that is a direct access device and allows random access of any file block.
Since a file is a collection of physical blocks, any block and hence the records in that block are accessed.
For example, master files. Databases are often of this type since they allow query processing that
involves immediate access to large amounts of information. All reservation systems fall into this
category. Not all operating systems support direct access files. Usually files are to be defined as
sequential or direct at the time of creation and accessed accordingly later. Sequential access of a direct
access file is possible but direct access of a sequential file is not.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
c) Indexed Sequential Access: This access method is a slight modification of the direct access method. It is
in fact a combination of both the sequential access as well as direct access. The main concept is to access
a file direct first and then sequentially from that point onwards. This access method involves maintaining
an index. The index is a pointer to a block. To access a record in a file, a direct access of the index is
made. The information obtained from this access is used to access the file. For example, the direct access
to a file will give the block address and within the block the record is accessed sequentially. Sometimes
indexes may be big. So hierarchies of indexes are built in which one direct access of an index leads to
info to access another index directly and so on till the actual file is accessed sequentially for the particular
record. The main advantage in this type of access is that both direct and sequential access of files is
possible.
COMPUTER VIRUS?
A computer virus is a small software program that spreads from one computer to another and interferes with
computer operation. A computer virus might corrupt or delete data on a computer, use an email program to
spread the virus to other computers, or even delete everything on the hard disk.
Computer viruses are frequently spread by attachments in email messages or by instant messaging messages.
Therefore, you must never open an email attachment unless you know who sent the message or you are
expecting the email attachment. Viruses can be disguised as attachments of funny images, greeting cards, or
audio and video files. Computer viruses also spread through downloads on the Internet. They can be hidden in
pirated software or in other files or programs that you might download.
Types of Computer Virus
There are different types of Computer Virus it depend on the intent the Virus designer what to achieve and the
ease of doing so. However, for the sake of simplicity there are two broad categories. The Operating System
Virus and the Application Virus.
The Operating System is the platform on which Computer applications operates. It is the brain behind the
computer functionality. Computer Operating System Virus is more difficult to deal with than application
Viruses.
1. Boot Sector Virus: The Boot sector of the Computer control the Computer switch to on or off the System. If
this sector is infected with a Virus, it can deter the Computer from switching on. If perhaps the System comes
on, as the Computer boot, the Virus can use it as a medium to replicate itself to other parts of the Computer.
2. Fat Virus: This is the type of Virus that attack File, applications or programs directory of a Computer System.
It has the ability to modify the instruction base of the directory in order to gain control over the Computer
System. It can indicate that there are no more space for new applications or files which is not true.
3. Resident Virus: This type of Computer Virus resides in the RAM of a Computer. It usually waits for the
system to boot and in the cause of using the Computer, it will spread itself.
4. Macro Virus: This is a recent name in the World of Computer Viruses. Macro Virus target are documents and
the mostly attack Microsoft Word Documents are the most targeted by this Virus.
5. Companion Virus: This is a Computer Virus that attaches itself with files and maliciously gets activated each
time such files are opened or worked upon. In the process they can corrupt or replace existing files or programs.
6. Trojan Horses: Trojan Horses is not a Virus per say going by the definition of Computer Virus but have the
ability to create a loophole in a Computer for Virus infection. Trojan Horses is the brain behind Rootkit Virus
infection against Computer.
What is a worm?
A worm is computer code that spreads without user interaction. Most worms begin as email attachments that
infect a computer when they're opened. The worm scans the infected computer for files, such as address books or
temporary webpages, that contain email addresses. The worm uses the addresses to send infected email
messages, and frequently mimics (or spoofs) the "From" addresses in later email messages so that those infected
messages seem to be from someone you know.
What is a trojan horse?
A trojan horse is a malicious software program that hides inside other programs. It enters a computer hidden
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
inside a legitimate program, such as a screen saver. Then it puts code into the operating system that enables a
hacker to access the infected computer. Trojan horses do not usually spread by themselves. They are spread by
viruses, worms, or downloaded software.
What is spyware?
Spyware can install on your computer without your knowledge. These programs can change your computer’s
configuration or collect advertising data and personal information. Spyware can track Internet search habits and
can also redirect your web browser to a different website than you intend to go to.
Virus infection in Computers can be contacted through different means. Below are the commonest causes of
Computer Virus attack.
 1. Through the internet: The easiest and quickest means of spreading Computer Virus is through the
internet. Basically through downloaded files and documents. When the source of a document is not
trusted it should not be downloaded. If at all it will be downloaded it has to be thoroughly scanned for
virus with a reliable anti-virus Software.
 2. Through Email attachments: When the source of an email attachment is not known and trusted it
should not be opened especially the messages of “get rich quickly”. Some of them are Scam and coded
virus. This kind of offer is usually appealing and used as a bait to trap the unsuspecting public or
computer user.
 3. Removable Storage Devices: Going by the definition of a Computer Virus, it has the ability to
replicate itself through every medium instructed in the coded software. One of the means of doing so is
through a removable storage facility such as Floppy Disc, USB Flash drive, Memory cards etc. Before
accepting any of these devices used on a system they should be scanned for Virus.
 4. Through Bluetooth Transfer: Viruses can be contacted through a transfer of documents via a
Bluetooth once one of the Computers is infested with a Virus or the document so transferred. This called
for the installation of a reliable anti- Viru
 Rogue security software
Examples of Online Cybersecurity Threats
Computer Viruses
Perhaps the most well-known computer security threat, a computer virus is a program written to alter the way a
computer operates, without the permission or knowledge of the user. A virus replicates and executes itself,
usually doing damage to your computer in the process.
Carefully evaluating free software, downloads from peer-to-peer file sharing sites, and emails from unknown
senders are crucial to avoiding viruses. Most web browsers today have security settings which can be ramped up
for optimum defense against online threats. But, as we'll say again and again in this post, the single most-
effective way of fending off viruses is up-to-date antivirus software from a reputable provider.
Spyware Threats
A serious computer security threat, spyware is any program that monitors your online activities or installs
programs without your consent for profit or to capture personal information. We’ve amassed a wealth of
knowledge that will help you combat spyware threats and stay safe online.
While many users won't want to hear it, reading terms and conditions is a good way to build an understanding of
how your activity is tracked online. And of course, if a company you don't recognize is advertising for a deal that
seems too good to be true, be sure you have an internet security solution in place and click with caution.
We’ve amassed a wealth of knowledge that will help you combat spyware threats- learn more about the dangers
of spyware and stay safer online
Hackers and Predators
People, not computers, create computer security threats and malware. Hackers and predators are programmers
who victimize others for their own gain by breaking into computer systems to steal, change, or destroy
information as a form of cyber-terrorism. These online predators can compromise credit card information, lock
you out of your data, and steal your identity. As you may have guessed, online security tools with identity theft
protection are one of the most effective ways to protect yourself from this brand of cybercriminal.
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
What scams are hackers using lately? Learn more about the dangers of hacking how to combat protect yourself
against dangerous malware attacks online.
Phishing
Masquerading as a trustworthy person or business, phishers attempt to steal sensitive financial or personal
information through fraudulent email or instant messages. Phishing attacks are some of the most successful
methods for cybercriminals looking to pull off a data breach. Antivirus solutions with identity theft protection
can be "taught" to recognize phishing threats in fractions of a second.
Pharming:
The activity in which a hacker accesses an web server and modifies the source code of an web page to redirect
all requests to the website to another fake or bogus website or intentionally harmful website. An hacker can also
this by hacking DNS servers. Targets of Pharming are many such as takings users of a famous website to a
bogus website to bring down the reputation of the famous website etc.

TOPIC5: DATA PROCESSING

Data
The word data is derived from Latin language. It is plural of Datum (But Data is usually used as a singular
term.) Datum (singular) – Data (plural). Data is any collection of facts of figures. The data is the raw
material to be processed by a computer.
Example
Names of students, marks obtained in the examination, designation of employees, addresses, quantity, rate,
sales figures or anything that is input to the computer is data. Even pictures, photographs, drawings, charts
and maps can be treated as data. Computer processes the data and produces the output or result
Types of Data
Mainly Data is divided into two types:
1. Numeric Data
2. Character Data
1. Numeric Data
The data which is represented in the form of numbers is known as Numeric Data. This includes 0-9 digits, a
decimal point (.), +, /, – sign and the letters “E” or “D”.
2. Character Data
Character data falls into two groups.
 String Data
 Graphical Data
String Data
String data consists of the sequence of characters. Characters may be English alphabets, numbers or space.
The space, which separates two words, is also a character. The string data is further divided into two Types
of string data
a. Alphabetic Data
Data that consist of letters of the alphabet
b. Alphanumeric Data
Data that consist of both letters of the alphabet, numerals and other special symbols like #,?
Graphical Data
It is possible that pictures, charts and maps can be treated as data. The scanner is normally used to enter this
type of data. The common use of this data is found in the National Identity Card.
Information
A collection of data which conveys some meaningful idea is information. It may provide answers to
questions like who, which, when, why, what, and how.
or
ICT class notes prepared by Derek Kizito
The raw input is data and it has no significance when it exists in that form. When data is collated or
organized into something meaningful, it gains significance. This meaningful organization is information
or
Observations and recordings are done to obtain data, while analysis is done to obtain information
Data Processing

Data processing refers to any operation or set of operations performed upon data, whether or not by
automatic means, such as collection, recording, organization, storage, adaptation or alteration to convert it
into useful information.
Data processing is the conversion of data into usable and desired form. This conversion or “processing” is
carried out using a predefined sequence of operations either manually or automatically. Most of the data
processing is done by using computers and thus done automatically. The output or “processed” data can be
obtained in different forms like image, graph, table, vector file, audio, charts or any other desired format
depending on the software or method of data processing used.
DATA PROCESSING CYCLE
Data processing cycle as the term suggests a sequence of steps or operations for processing data, i.e.,
processing raw data to the usable form. The processing of data can be done by number of data processing
methods.
Once data is collected, it is processed to convert it into useful information. The data is processed again and
again until the accurate result is achieved. This is called data processing cycle.
STAGES OF DATA PROCESSING:
The data processing is very important activity and involves very careful planning. Usually, data processing
activity involves three basic activities
1. Input – The raw data after collection needs to be fed in the cycle for processing. This is considered the
first step and called input.
2. Processing – Once the input is provided the raw data is processed by a suitable or selected processing
method. This is the most important step as it provides the processed data in the form of output which will be
used further.
3. Output – This is the outcome and the raw data provided in the first stage is now “processed” and the data
is useful and provides information and no longer called data.