Food Production Training Manual

MS. SHAHEEN KHAN

Our CEO and Founder, Ms. Shaheen Khan

believes that learning should be a continuous
process and a prominent skill to extend one’s
knowledge.

It will encourage individuals to learn and explore

new things and enhance their knowledge level.

MR. VASIM SHAIKH

Our managing director, Mr. Vasim Shaikh is a

mentor par excellence. He motivates CEDPians to
grow and improve their skills by conducting a
training session.

It develops our strengths and ability to contribute

to our organization and achieve the set goals.

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Food Production Training Manual

CEDP JOURNEY

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Food Production Training Manual

CEDP Values

RESPECT
One who respects others is constantly respected by them. Be peaceful, be disciplined, obey the rules
and regulations, and always respect everyone. Respect in your relationship with classmates and
teachers builds a feeling of trust.

INTEGRITY
Integrity is the practice of being honest and adheres to strong moral and ethical principles and values.
It's a personality trait which means a person has a moral compass that doesn't waver. You should
always do the right things in a reliable way.

SPEED
Maintain a culture of speed in your institute for higher levels of performance and innovation. To
remain competitive and respond to the challenges, you must work faster and more dynamically.

EXCELLENCE
You should be persistent, determined and focused to achieve excellence in whatever you do. Build
and promote a culture of excellence to enhance your capacity and potential for enhanced results.

COLLABORATION
Students must work together to accomplish common goals and targets. In a small group setting, each
student has the opportunity to express her or his unique ideas and concepts. This way you can get
most out of collaboration and achieve your targets.

SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Social responsibility creates a productive and rich environment in the institute. Show a positive and
joyful attitude towards others as it helps you achieve positive results. Having a positive attitude makes
your view of life full of possibilities.

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Food Production Training Manual

RULES & REGULATIONS

Fees policies:

1. The fees paid are Non Refundable and Non-transferable under any circumstances and no
communication / correspondence regarding the same will be entertained/executed from the side of
institute.

2. Failure to pay the fees by due date shall result in imposition of fine and must be paid by the
students as per the late fees policies.

3. In case of cheque/PDC cheque issued by the student, sufficient funds to be maintained as per the
date mentioned on the cheque. In case of cheque bounce or dishonoured due to any reason, Rs.
600/- against the same will be collected by the students.

4. By availing the instalment facility, student agrees to pay extra fees as explained during counselling
as per the payment policy.

5. Batch transfer in special cases only can be done on payment of requisite transfer fees only.

6. Institute does not hold any responsibility towards the delayed OJT and further exam, certification
and placements in case of delayed fees payment by the student.

For Educational Loan cases only

7. Students willing to avail the Educational loan must submit all the required documents within 3 days
of admission failing to which the fees as per the protocol will be recovered from them on immediate
basis.

8. Students availing educational loans must pay the interest and EMls as applicable on time failing to
which they will not be allowed to sit for the lecture, exams as well as OJT.

Information and documents Submission:

9. Institute must be informed and updated with any changes done with respect to address, phone
numbers and /or email ids done if any by the students compulsorily from time to time.

10. All the mandatory genuine documents in Xerox and original (Last qualification mark sheet) as per
the checklist must be submitted at the time of admission only whereas the Institute can ask to make
the submission of any other certificate or document in original and/or xerox mandatory at any point of
time throughout your course tenure as per the need for the admission or otherwise.

11. In case of fake documents and false information provided to the institute, the fees of the student
will be forfeited and separate legal action will be initiated by the institutes.

12. The Institute reserves all the rights to cancel the admission and recover the fees on immediate
basis without any intimation to the student in case a student fails to provide relevant documents for
admission, loan process (if applicable), long absentee is without prior communication and necessary
permissions or any other false information/document submitted by him/her to the institute

Attendance and code of conduct:

13. Minimum 80% attendance for classroom sessions and 100% attendance for weekly exam make
students eligible to appear for the unit exam failing to which student will not be allowed to appear for
the unit exam.

14. Students must adhere to the course time table and mark their attendance in the Bio Metric from
the day one compulsorily. Necessary action will be initiated against the late comers.

15. Students must behave and dressed properly within the premises of institute. No bad/foul language
to be used inside/outside Institute premise.

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Food Production Training Manual

16. In case of loss/theft of ID card/books/aprons/bag or any other material provided by the institute
should be immediately reported to the Centre Manager. Reissuing the same will be done at additional
cost.

17. Mobiles should be switched off or to be kept on silent mode during the classroom sessions and
practical. If anyone found using mobile for any reason in the class room and/or lab, the same will be
forfeited on immediate basis. Parents will be called for the meeting in such cases.

18. The Management does not hold any responsibility towards the loss or theft of any valuable
belongings of the student in the Institute premise.

19. Recording of classroom and practical sessions is strictly prohibited. If found guilty, full fees (if
balance) will be collected along with the fine from such student on immediate basis followed by the
termination of admission.

20. 100% attendance for camps and industrial visits is compulsory failing to which institute will not be
responsible to recover the loss. All the travelling and other expenses if any to be borne by the
students. Institute will not provide any transport or food facility during camps and industrial visits.
Wearing the T - shirt provided by institute is mandatory on the day of visit.

21. Parents will be informed by the Institute in case their ward is not performing/not attending lectures/
breach of code of conduct and necessary action will be initiated against the same.

22. Parents must attend the meetings as and when scheduled by the Institute.

Absenteeism:

23. Student if going to remain absent for lecture must inform and take permission from faculty and
Dean.

24. For more than 2 days of planned leave, leave note duly signed by parents must be submitted to
faculty minimum 3 days before the leave.

25. In case of unplanned absentee, the leave note duly signed by parent must be submitted to the
faculty on the very next day.

26. Uninformed absenteeism for more than 7 days can be lead to cancellation of admission without
any refund.

27. It is the sole responsibility of the student to coordinate with faculty to attend the lecture in another
batch in case of absentee and recover the syllabus covered in the missed lecture.

Exams/On job training and placement:

28. Attending all the exams as per the time table is compulsory failing to which the On Job Training
(OJT) and /or further placement will not be provided.

29. Students not performing well in exams will have to undergo refresher training program
compulsorily failing to which the institute will have no bindings on providing the OJT as well as job
placement to such students.

30. Students failing in Final Unit test, Intermediate exam on 6 months completion of OJT in case of
courses of 18 months or 24 months duration and Final exam, have to give re exams compulsorily
failing to which the further commitments from the side of institute will not be fulfilled.

31. Attending Intermediate exam on 6 months completion of OJT in case of courses of 18 months or
24 months duration as per the time table declared by exam department is compulsory.

32. Students will be placed for On Job Training (OJT) as per the availability and performance in the
interview. Institute has not promised to provide OJT on the location/companies/ organizations
preferred by the students.

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Food Production Training Manual

33. Attending OJT is compulsory for 100% placement courses and it makes the candidate eligible to
appear for the final exam only then. Final certification will be awarded only on successful completion
of final exam.

34. Students must wear the apron provided by Institute during OJT.

35. 100% job placement will be provided as per the availability and performance in the interview. The
remuneration varies from organization to organization and employer reserved all the rights in this
regards under its sole discretion.

36. After successful completion of OJT and final exam, our internal placement team will line up
interviews in various organizations. Student has to be in touch with our placement team and attend
the interviews as per the schedule failing to which Institute does not hold the responsibility t to provide
100% placement

Certification:

37. Final Certification will be strictly provided only on successful completion of all phases of course.

38. Institute should not be hold responsible in case the process of certification gets delayed on the
part of affiliating body/University.

Communication and Feedback:

39. Students must keep themselves well connected and versed with all the instructions, information
and necessary updates from time to time provided through the notice boards, telephonic calls,
personal/group sessions, websites, emails, SMS done by all concerned departments failing to which
Institute will not be responsible to recover loss if any.

40. Ignorance towards the communication from the side of Institute can result into cancellation of
admission without refund.

41. Feedbacks/concerns/suggestions if any can be communicated to the Centre Managers and

Student Coordinators from time to time. In case of lack of response/action from them, the same can
be communicated to the higher authorities of the Institute.

The institute reserves all the rights to make changes/ amendments in the terms and conditions
of admissions/various fees structures from time to time without any prior information to the
students.

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Food Production Training Manual

FOOD PRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION TO COOKERY

• HISTORY OF COOKING- neither Discovery nor invention, Cooking has always

evolved
• ONE OF THE BASIC NEEDS
• DEVELOPING NATIONS AND IMPACT UPON FOOD- civilizations changed the
food, food demarcated on basis of castes and royalty
• TECHNOLOGY AND COMMODITY DEVELOPMENT- From Organic food to
hybrid technology and going back to basics.
THE FOUR PS
• PRODUCT- Food and service
• PROCESS- Systems and procedures, standards
• PROFIT- Food cost, Standardized recipes, wastage control
• PEOPLE- Organizational chart
ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOUR IN THE KITCHEN
KITCHEN RULES TOP TEN

KITCHEN RULE: ONE

ALLOW ENOUGH TIME

Read and be prepared well in advance the day earlier for tasks waiting
to be done the next day!

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Food Production Training Manual

KITCHEN RULE: TWO

 Plan your work

Proceed in the logical order taught to you…Stop and ask in case of a
doubt…Don't feel shy or inhibited

KITCHEN RULE: THREE

 Sharp knives
Well maintained knives help you work better and produce better
results.
Keep all knives organized in clear view.

KITCHEN RULE: FOUR

 Use appropriate, clean and sanitized equipment:

Appropriate clean equipment produce desired results

KITCHEN RULE: FIVE

 Keep clean, work clean and clean as you go:

Hygiene and clean working habits should be a natural habit
Don't wait for someone else to do

KITCHEN RULE: SIX

 Respect for the ingredients:

Ingredients are expensive. They need to be treated with care and
passion.
Only then would you see great quality in the dishes you

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Food Production Training Manual

KITCHEN RULE: SEVEN

 Store all food ingredients in a proper manner:

Food can get spoiled or contaminated if not handled and stored in the
proper manner

KITCHEN RULE: EIGHT

 Practice makes perfect:

All great skills and art require a lot of dedication and perseverance
Never give up 

KITCHEN RULE: NINE

 Cook with passion for pleasure and fun

Enjoy yourself and have fun.

Cooking is not a profession it is a way of life!

KITCHEN RULE: TEN

 Always keep your superiors informed:

It is very important and a good work culture to keep your
immediate superior and your chef informed of any abnormalities

2. KITCHEN HYGIENE & FOOD SAFETY

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Food Production Training Manual

Thi nk
Hygi ene

FOOD HYGIENE
• Protecting food from the risk of contamination, including harmful bacteria, poisons
and foreign bodies
• Preventing any bacteria present multiplying to a level which would result in the
illness of consumers or the early spoilage of food
• Destruction of harmful bacteria in the food by thorough cooking, processing or
irradiation
• Discarding unfit/contaminated food
SAFE FOOD
Food which is free from contaminants and will not cause illness or harm.
Personal hygiene – rules in food rooms (DONT’S)
• Blow into bag
• Lick fingers
• Smoke
• Spit
• Eat sweets
• Wear jeweller
• Wear false nails
• Wear nail varnish
• Wear watches
• Touch mouth
• Pick nose

Personal hygiene – rules in food rooms (DOE’S)

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Food Production Training Manual

• Keep hands clean

• Keep nails clean
• Keep nails short
• Wear waterproof dressings
• Replace above when loose
• Change soiled over- clothing
• Shower regularly
• Keep hair clean
• Wear head covering
Being involved in a service industry such as Tourism and Hospitality means that you can
have a direct effect on the health and wellbeing of customers and fellow staff members.
It is your duty to ensure that you do not put other people, or yourself, at risk of health
problems.
Personal hygiene also portrays professionalism
You have a legal and civil obligation to apply correct hygiene practices
As a Hospitality employee it is extremely important to maintain high levels of personal
hygiene, especially if you are working with food. Human bodies naturally harbour trillions of
bacteria which are easily transferred
Why is Personal Hygiene and Health Important?
A key element of food safety are guidelines on personal hygiene, especially if you are
working with food. Good personal hygiene means you should:
Shower daily
Shave (if required) and wash your hair
Do not touch your hair during work. Brush your hair prior to service but never in a
food area! Tie back long hair or cover it with a hairnet or hat
 Do not wear makeup or jewellery in the kitchen
 Keep your nails short and clean, do not wear nail polish
 Cuts, abrasions and open sores harbour bacteria
Bad habits include touching or scratching parts of your body and then transferring bacteria
onto food... Other bad habits are eating or chewing while on-the-job, biting your nails and
smoking. Ensure that you clean yourself and the work environment regularly.

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Food Production Training Manual

UNIFORMS

Uniforms are worn not only for protection and a professional image but also for hygiene
reasons.
Wash uniforms daily
 Each part of the uniform fulfils a purpose:
 The chef’s hat or toque blanche prevents the hair and sweat from contaminating the
food
 The jacket should be light coloured and wide to allow for air circulation. Keep it
clean during service and swap the front panels over if you go into the dining area of
the restaurant. It should not have external pockets and press studs or Velcro are easier
to keep clean than buttons. Use the protection of the long sleeves; this way you also
prevent contamination from the arms
 The pants also provide protection and must be kept clean
 The apron is also protective and should not be used to wipe your hands. Use paper
towels for this purpose
 Shoes need to be clean and polished to prevent food items from sticking. They also
need to have non-slip soles and be sturdy to provide sufficient support for a long day
at work. Leather shoes without laces are preferable
Hand washing facilities
Washing hands regularly is essential. Equally important as the hand washing process is using
the appropriate facilities:
Hand washing should be carried out in a designated hand washing sink. Do not wash
your hands in a food preparation basin!
Taps should be lever or foot pedal operated to avoid recontamination
Soap and sanitiser should be contained in dispensers. Do not use bar soaps as these
spread bacteria and re-contaminate your hands!
Use single use drying aids such as paper towels or air dryers
The water supply should be hot

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IT IS IMPORTANT TO WASH YOUR HANDS THOROUGHLY, USING A SPECIAL

TECHNIQUE:

1. Wet your hands under hot running water (don’t burn yourself!)
2. Lather hands with an anti-bacterial liquid soap
3. Scrub hands thoroughly including between the fingers, the wrists, up to the elbows and
under nails
4. Rinse off hands under hot running water
5. Dry hands thoroughly using single use paper towels
6. Apply a sanitiser
7. Repeat this process throughout the day
Washing your hands
Hands are a major conductor of diseases. They are constantly in contact with food, surfaces,
our bodies and other people. Just as a doctor would scrub up for work, so must Hospitality
workers and food handlers. You should always wash your hands prior to starting work. Not
only that, but you should also wash your hands every time you:
Go to the bathroom
Every time you enter a food preparation area, regardless of whether you washed them in the
bathroom

 Touch/scratch body parts, e.g. hair, nose, mouth

 Smoke
 Cough, sneeze or blow your nose
 Take a break or start your shift
 Eat or drink
 Handle raw food
 After handling money
 After treating a wound
 Change from one task to another
 Handle animals

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Food Production Training Manual

WEARING GLOVES
Food safe disposable gloves have become widely used in the industry.
These are perfect when:
Handling money – money, especially coins, can carry lots of
bacteria. One way to avoid contaminating food is to use disposable
gloves, which are changed every time you take a customer’s money
Handling garbage – wear gloves, remove the garbage and line
cleaned bin, remove gloves and wash hands
Handling contaminated linen – process the linen based on
enterprise policy and then remove gloves and wash hands
Working in front of the public preparing food items such as sandwiches or cutting
roasts as it provides a clean image and can act as a heat barrier
Suffering any cuts as the bandaged finger is protected even further and prevents any
bacterial contamination
Disadvantages
Regular changing of gloves can add considerable cost to food preparation
Gloves can provide a false sense of security as you may not change them as often as
washing your hands
Cause skin infection as the skin cannot breathe and dermatitis could be exaggerated
What if I'm Sick?
If you are aware that you have a contagious illness such as the flu, gastroenteritis,
hepatitis, skin irritations, etc., you must stay at home to avoid contaminating food and/or
infecting others. This is a legal requirement
Diseases that cause vomiting and diarrhea are often highly contagious and could be
the result of food poisoning
Even if you just have a cold, you need to inform your supervisor and minimise the
spread of germs when coughing or sneezing. Use paper towels or tissues and always wash
your hands thoroughly afterwards. Never spit, because this can spread illness quickly
Understand that carriers of diseases can be healthy people that do not , or not yet show
symptoms.
Convalescents are recovering from a virus or bacterial infection and can pass it on
Do not return to work until at least 48 hours after your symptoms have ceased. If you
are unsure, speak to your doctor and your manager for advice. This is often referred to as fit
for work, a medical certificate that clears the patient
Note: Always report any incidents of or potential food contamination to your supervisor,
especially those that have resulted from a personal health issue!

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Food Production Training Manual

Cuts and Abrasions

Cuts, abrasions and open sores must be covered up. This prevents bodily fluids and
bacteria coming into contact with food . Cover any injuries with brightly non-food coloured
dressings for ease of detection in case they come off. Wear gloves as added protection.
Remember to change the dressing frequently, disposing of the used bandage appropriately
Plasters or bandages should be waterproof
Some plasters contain a metal strip for ease of detection
The key contaminant of uncovered cuts and sores is Staphylococcus aureus . The
incubation period is 0.5-8 hours and leads to nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea

Records
Keeping records of any injuries suffered in the workplace and the treatment given are further
points of importance for food safety.

WORKPLACE & HYGIENE

While food safety legislation may seem complicated, appropriate procedures are relatively
easy to follow.
Make sure that you follow your organisation’s hygiene procedures, the procedures outlined in
the food safety program, as well as the underlying HACCP principles.
This will help you to ensure that you have a safe and hygienic workplace and that you do not
contaminate food.

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Follow the policies and procedures of your establishment and you will stay safe. Keeping
your workplace clean and hygienic is a key target for a successful food safety program.
Remember that food safety should be your primary focus!
Why is Workplace Hygiene Important?
As a food handler, not only must you follow your organisation’s hygiene procedures
diligently, you must keep alert to any activities that breach these standards. You have a legal
and civil obligation to identify and report any unsatisfactory hygiene practices. It is important
to notify your supervisor or manager immediately so that swift action can be taken if there
are:
 Incorrect cleaning practices that are not in line with your organisation’s food safety
program
 Outdated practices that are not consistent with current requirements
 Contaminated food
 The presence of vermin or pests
 Any airborne dust
 Linen contaminated with human products, food or microorganisms
 Dirty equipment and utensils
 Contaminated rubbish
Products Used for Cleaning
Cleaning products are designed to remove dirt, dust, grease and other unwanted grime from
products. Common cleaning products are:

 Water
 Detergent
 Abrasives
 Degreasers
 Acid cleaners

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Products Used for Sanitising

 Heat
 Radiation
 Chemicals

Equipment used for cleaning

Brooms, dust pan, mops, buckets, cloths, brushes, scourers, vacuum cleaner
Correct Cleaning Procedures
The most practical process for cleaning is to ‘clean as you go’ which means you tidy up after
each step of preparation or cooking, rather than ending up in a big mess!
The general cleaning procedure for a kitchen is the six stage method:
Pre-clean, main clean, rinse, disinfect, rinse, dry
In applied sense it means:
 Pre-clean – Remove all food debris, rubbish or dirt from the area before you wash it
 Place warning signs – “Caution wet floor” or “Cleaning in progress” to prevent
injury
 Obtain clean water and mix it with the right type of cleaning agent
 Main clean – Use separate equipment and water to clean food preparation benches
and other areas
 Rinse with clean hot water to comply with health regulations
SANITISE
Final hot water rinse
Check that all surfaces are free from all residue.
Dry surface with a paper towel before reuse.
Equipment Concerns
Food poisoning can occur through negligent hygiene with serving dishes, glasses or cutlery.
Implement a cleaning schedule for all items. Regular maintenance prevents breakdown and
ensures that equipment does not pose a hygiene risk.
Cross-Contamination
Cross-contamination is the transfer of bacteria and viruses from a contaminated surface or
food item to food that is ready to eat. Common causes of cross-contamination include:

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Using the same utensils (knives, cutting boards) for preparing raw food, then cooked food
without washing between tasks
Defrosting meat without a drip tray and on a high shelf, so that the juices drip onto cooked
food
 Using the same cloth to clean benches, cutlery, crockery and tables
 Storing cooked and uncooked food together
 Not washing hands when changing tasks

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Food Production Training Manual

3. HIERARCHY AREA OF DEPARTMENT AND KITCHEN

The brigade system was instituted by Escoffier to streamline and simplify work in hotel
kitchens. It served to eliminate the chaos and duplication of effort that could result when
workers did not have clear-cut responsibilities. Under this system, each position has a station
and defined responsibilities, outlined below. In smaller operations, the classic system is
generally abbreviated and responsibilities are organized so as to make the best use of workspace
and talents. A shortage of skilled personnel has also made modifications in the brigade system
necessary. The introduction of new equipment has helped to alleviate some of the problems
associated with smaller kitchen staffs.
The chef is responsible for all kitchen operations, including ordering, supervision of all
stations, and development of menu items. He or she also may be known as the chef de cuisine
or executive chef. The sous chef is second in command, answers to the chef, may be responsible
for scheduling, and fills in for the chef, and assists the station chefs (or line cooks) as necessary.
Small operations may not have a sous chef.
One of the definitions of a business organization is an arrangement of people in job to
accomplish the goals of the operation. Similarly, the organizational structure of the Kitchen
staff will reflect the needs of the operation, the job functions and the various goals. Food
Production organization vary according to the needs of the enterprise’s design.
The classical (continental) organization of a Kitchen varies widely, bust commonly in such
an organization a Chef de Cuisine (Exec. Chef) is in charge and a Sous Chef (under Chef)
supervises the kitchen and the heads of the various departments or section (Chef de Parties).
Under these Chefs are Assistant Cooks (Demi Chefs), Commis and other workers.

Of the several categories of organization the Kitchen is an example of a Line Organization.

(A Line Organization is one in which authority and responsibility flows down from the top
(Exec. Chef) through the various positions to the last position of the operation. There can be
no jump of authority or responsibility. If the top man gives an order it runs down the ranks
until it is delegated to the proper level. Every job even the lowest, in a line organization has a
certain amount of responsibility.
Naturally, as one goes higher in the line organization the responsibility becomes greater. In a
line organization, the top position holds full responsibility for everything that happens in the
organization.

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Food Production Training Manual

THE BASIS OF KITCHEN ORGANIZATION

The purpose of kitchen organization is to assign or allocate tasks so they can be done
efficiently and properly and so all workers know what their responsibilities are. The way a
kitchen is organized depends on several factors.
1. The menu.
The kinds of dishes to be produced obviously determine the jobs that need to be done. The
menu is, in fact, the basis of the entire operation. Because of its importance, we devote a
whole chapter to a study of the menu.
2. The type of establishment.
The major types of food service establishments are as follows:
• Hotels
• Institutional kitchens
Schools
Hospitals, nursing homes, and other health-care institutions
Employee lunchrooms
Airline catering
Military food service
Correctional institutions
• Catering and banquet services
• Fast-food restaurants
• Carry-out or take-out food facilities
• Full-service restaurants
3. The size of the operation (the number of customers and the volume of food served).
4. The physical facilities, including the equipment in use.

Depending on the above factors the classical kitchen brigade can be fabricated as follows:

Sections, commi I,II AND III should be included

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CHEF DE CUISINE (HEAD CHEF)

The Chef de Cuisine in the large establishment is much more a departmental manager than a
working craftsman. He is selected for his organizing and executive abilities than for his
culinary skill. Though it is obvious that he should have such skill and a large appreciation of
fine cookery. His principle function is to plan, organize and supervise the work of the
kitchen.
He prepares the menus for the management in accordance with the costing and catering
policies laid down. He has full responsibility for staff, selection and policy or major
responsibility for staff, selection and dismissal in conjunction with the personnel department.

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He will also be concerned with the planning and equipment of his kitchen. Thus the
executive responsibilities for his Kitchen. Thus, the executive responsibilities of the Chef de
Cuisine can be considered under the principal head of.
 Food and food costs (through menu planning & ordering)
 Kitchen Staff
 Kitchen plant and equipment
Under his control all three activities must be coordinated to produce goods efficiently and
economically. His status is normally second only to the manager and he will expect complete
control of his department.
In addition to the crafts skill and technical knowledge acquired as a result of apprenticeship,
technical training and experience, the Chefs de Cuisine must additionally acquire managerial
qualities and administrative knowledge particularly in regard to the organization of work,
control of staff, the efficient use of machinery, costing and food control. He must be aware
of modern development in manufacturing and processing food for his kitchen. Present trends
indicate that the Chef must increasingly concern himself not only with cookery but with the
quality of the food and art of food presentation. In the widest sense. This calls for a degree
of the merchandising skill and on occasion showmanship. Hygiene is of top importance in the
kitchen and there is hardly a better beginning than with the Chef’s own person.
A Chef de Cuisine must have knowledge of French, Current Affairs, commodities and tools
of his trade.

SOUS CHEF
Sous Chef or under chef is the principal assistant of the Chef de Cuisine. In large
establishments the Sous Chef will have no sectional or partial responsibility but will aid the
chef in his general administration and in particular in supervising the work of preparing food
and in overseeing its service at the (Pick up counter). Where a considerable kitchen operation
is involved there may be more than one Sous Chef.
The Sous Chef acts as a Chef de Cuisine in the absence of the Chef. When the Chef de
Cuisine is engaged at work within his office, i.e. occupied in Menu Planning, checking
records figures or in similar administrative routines, the Sous Chef directly supervises the
practical kitchen activities.
Sous chef directly supervises the food pick-up during meal service times and can make adhoc
staff changes during the working day to relieve pressure.
In large establishments it is possible for there to be as many as four to six Sous Chefs,
particularly it is so when separate kitchens are set up for say Grill room, Restaurant, Banquet
Service, specialist cuisines etc.

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DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF EXECUITIVE SOUS CHEF

 Supervises kitchen shift operations and ensures compliance with all Food & Beverage
policies, standards and procedures.
 Assists Executive Chef with all kitchen operations.
 Performs all duties of kitchen managers and associates as necessary.
 Recognizes superior quality products, presentations and flavor.
 Maintains purchasing, receiving and food storage standards.
 Ensures compliance with food handling and sanitation standards.
 Calculates accurate theoretical and weighted food costs.
 Estimates daily production needs on a weekly basis and communicates production needs
to kitchen personnel daily.
 Coordinates banquet production with Banquet Chef.
 Supports procedures for food & beverage portion and waste controls.
 Assists in maintaining associate cafeteria operation and food quality standards.
 Follows proper handling and right temperature of all food products.
 Knows and implements Taj Palace Hotel Hygiene Standards.
 Helps the Executive Chef Research and test new food products in conjunction with
company initiatives.
 Assists the Executive Chef with maintaining all standard recipes.
 Participates in training the Restaurant and Catering staff on menu items including
ingredients, preparation methods and unique tastes.
 Operates and maintains all department equipment and reports malfunctions.
 Assists with an effective kitchen equipment repair and maintenance program.
 Orders associate uniforms according to budget and ensures uniforms are properly
inventoried and maintained.
 Purchases appropriate supplies and manage inventories according to budget
 Reviews staffing levels to ensure that guest service, operational needs and financial
objectives are met.
 Interacts with guests/customers, community, Company representatives, vendors and local
education systems as needed.
 Trains associates in safety procedures and supervises their ability to follow loss
prevention policies to prevent accidents and control costs.
Effectively investigates reports and follows-up on associate accidents

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CHEF DE PARTIE
Partie is a French word meaning "part (of a whole) or section." A Partie system is one in
which an operation's space equipment, and jobs are divided up into sections. The Partie
system for chefs evolved in the Escoffier era from an analysis of the tasks needed for
production and then a grouping of those tasks so as to maximize production speed and
efficiently. The original system lasted up to the 1930s and was designed primarily for large
restaurants, especially those in major hotels providing extensive a la carte and table d'hôte
menus in the classic French tradition. As the task of the professional kitchen came to involve
serving more customers in more and different ways, it organization inevitably became more
complex. Highly elaborate dishes required highly specialized experts rather than general
chefs who must handle all types of cookery at once.
Chef de partie is a working cook in charge of a clearly defined section of activities within
the kitchen. The Chef de Partie particularly of the sauce and Grade Manager may have the
status and duties of a Sous Chef in addition to sectional responsibilities.
All the Chef de Parties may be regarded as supervisors or foremen of their sections as well as
skilled craftsmen.

JOB DESCRIPTION OF DEMI CHEF DE PARTI

 Cooking and presentation as per the standardized recipes
 Allocation of work
 Checking miss-en-place on quality and quantity
 Control wastage
 Maintain quality
 Innovate new dishes
 Maintain discipline and grooming of staff
 To Maintain Hygiene and sanitation
 Portion control
 Storage of food and provisions
 Raw material quality check
 Allot duties to commis
 Control over production and wastage.
 Assist in implementing TBEM processes
 Adhering to HACCP

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 Enabling and adherence of the principles and work practices detailed under HACCP
System in the department viz., Food Safety, Hygiene and Cleanliness, Health, Storage etc
as applicable to the area of your work place.

INTERDEPARTMENTAL CO-ORDINATION:
To coordinate and cooperate mainly with F&B Service, Room Service purchase and stores
department. Coordinate with all Department Heads.
CHEF GARDE MANGER
The Chef Grade Manger is incharge of the larder. The larder is not only a place where food
is steamed but also a place where the raw materials of cookery are prepared and dressed.
In larger establishments larder work may be broken into sections and in one or two instances,
it is possible that the sub-sections may have independence of the Chef Garde Manger, i.e.
Boucherie might by directly controlled by the Chef De Cuisine or Sous Chef.
This is rarely true in smaller establishments, the sub-sections within the Grade Manger will
both indicate the wide range of this Chef de Parties duties and explain why he enjoys a status
in the Kitchen brigade comparable to that of the Chef Saucier.
The Chef Grade Manger is normally accommodated adjoining the main kitchen but will have
its own cooking facilities. According to the size of the establishment, its sub-section too will
be separate to a greater or smaller extent. This also incorporates Hors d’oeuvres section and
a salad room, sometimes a fruit room where such items as melons, grapefruit, fruit salad etc.
are prepared. There is a great deal of work organization and careful distribution of work to
be carried out. Chef Grade Manger caters to such dishes as those commonly found on a cold
table, and comprises not only of cold dishes and salads. Sandwiches are his responsibility
with the exception of sale of the hot or toasted sandwiches such as club sandwiches (Chef
Rotisseur). Mayonnaise, vinaigrette sauce, and other dressings and sauces for cold food are
made by Chef Grade Manger. Various sections looked after by Chef Grade Manger are as
follows
JOB DESCRIPTION OF CHEF GARDE MANGER

 Performs all duties of Culinary and related kitchen area associates to train new associates
and step in and assist during high demand times.
 Supervises daily shift operations and overseas production and preparation of culinary
items.
 Opens and closes kitchen shifts and ensures completion of assigned duties.
 Maintains food handling and sanitation standards.
 Works with Restaurant and Banquet departments to coordinate service and timing of
events and meals.
 Assists with developing menus and promotions.

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 Operates all department equipment as necessary and reports malfunctions.

 Purchases appropriate supplies and manages food and supply inventories according to
budget.
 Supervises staffing levels to ensure that guest service, operational needs and financial
objectives are met.
 Understands and implements Marriott's 30 Point Safety Standards.
 Develops railroad-cleaning schedules for associates; ensures associates follow cleaning
schedules and keep their work areas clean and sanitary.
 Ensures all associates have proper supplies, equipment and uniforms.
 Communicates areas in need of attention to staff and follows up to ensure follow through.
 Helps train associates in safety procedures and supervises their ability to execute
departmental and hotel emergency procedures.
 Participates as needed in the investigation of associate accidents.
 Understands and complies with loss prevention policies and procedures.
Other
 Performs other duties as assigned to meet business needs.
 BOUCHERIE (Butcher Shop) :
Boucherie in hotel differs in many important regards from that of retail trade. It includes the
dissecting of quarters of beef and careasses of lamb etc. It will also include the dressing o
meat either for joints such as contre filet or small cuts like noisette, cotelettes or tournedos
etc.

 CHACUTIER (Pork Butcher and Sauage maker) :

Charcutier involves Pork butcher, the preparation of Pork products and sausage, etc. He is
also responsible for the rendering and clarifying of dripping. Again the extent to which the
Charcutier work is separated from the staff of the Grade Manger depends on the volume of
work.

 VOLAILLEUR (Poulterer) :
Where there is an extremely large establishment, the Poulterer who is responsible for the
plucking cleaning and dressing not only of the poultry but game birds, hares and rabbits may
be separated from the fish monger and the larder proper.

 POISSONER (Fishmonger) :
The hotel fish monger prepares fish not in the style of the tradesman, in retail trade for he
must have the raw materials ready for the immediate attention of the appropriate Chef, either
for the Chef Piossoner or in some instances for cold dishes for Chef Grade Manger.

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A wide range of products of sea, river and lake will normally come to him for treatment
which includes skinning, illeting and portioning. Fish, such as eel, osysters, lobsters and
ernbs will demand his attention as well as the ordinary range of river, sea and shell fish.
 HORD D’OEUVRIER (Hors d’ ocuvre cook) :
Where work justifies it, the preparation of Hors d’ oeuvre of all kinds is organized separately.
The dishes for this section can be great and involve the regular preparation of commodities
e.g. preparation of dressings, varieties of vegetables salads (Potato, Russian), varieties of
meat and fish dishes found on the Hors d’ oeuvries is often entrusted not only to a Chef Horss
d’ oeuvrier and assistant of Chef Grade Manger but to semi-skilled hands, often women
workers trained only in assembling prepared material and in decorating dishes.
 SLADIER (Salad Maker) :
The person responsible for the preparatory work and assembling of salads usually works in
the Grade Manger.

CHEF DE NUIT
Night duty cook is a chef whose main duties are to take over when the main kitchen staff
leave.A separate Chef de Nuit may be retained in the Grade Manger but normally one person
suffices. Night duty cook does not necessarily remain on duty throughout te night but only
until such time, the late meals have ceased.
The duties of Chef de Nuit are sometimes carried out by a Sous Chef. The Sous Chef doing
this is present for the service of dinner but not lunch and is responsible for all the work when
the normal brigade has gone off duty. This system is used in 75% of places where late
service is given. Sous Chef must make sure that he has all the necessary facilities and that
the correct mis-en-place is left by Chef de Partie before they go off duty.
CHEF POTAGER (Soup Cook)
The Chef’s importance within kitchen is also supported by the fact that the repertory of soups
including consomme, cremes and veloutes, purees, broth’s bisques and many speciality and
nation favouring essences and garnished in hundreds of ways, besides all basic stocks are
prepared by him.
Chef portager can be supplied by other parties with some of the garnishes required. For
example, he receives material not only from the Grade Manger but for consommé celestine,
receive pancakes from the Chef Entremetier. He receives stocks from the Chef poissonier for
fish and other ordinary tools, particularly producing vegetables of wide variety of shapes and
sizes. Like all cooks, a cultivated palate is an importance requirement for adjustment.

CHEF SAUCIER (Sauce Cook)

He prepares all fundamental sauces i.e. Bechamel, tomato sauce, veloute. He prepares all
light and heavy entrees for example volauvent (light entrée). Heavy entrée (Steaks) i.e. meat,
poultry and game dishes which are not roasted or grilled.

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It is difficult to differentiate between the duties of Chef Saucier and that of Chef Rotisseur.
The Saucier prepares the peolage stews braised, boiled and sauted dishes which approximates
a roasting process.
He is considered to be the senior Chef de Partie and normally takes over the responsibility of
the Sous Chef when absent. He requires knowledge because his work covers an extensive
variety of dishes and specialty sauces.
CHEF COMMUNAR (Staff/Cafeteria Cook)
The staff cook provides the meals for the employees who use the staff room for the wage
earning staff and includes uniformed and maintenance staff, chambermaids, waiters, lower
grade clerical staff, etc. Catering of this nature should be influenced by nutritional factors.
CHEF ENTREMTIER (Vegetable Cook)
The Entremet course is, on the modern menu, the sweet, which is the responsibility to the
Chef Patissier and not the Chef Entremetier. Traditionally, an important Entremet course on
traditional menu in France was however the entremet de legumes when skillfully prepared
and cooked vegetables were presented on a dish apart. An entremet was originally something
sent to the table between the courses and this practice still sarvives in France as far as
vegetables are concerned.
The Entremetier therefore is concerned mainly with the following things:
 All vegetables dishes
 All potato dishes other than deep fried
 All egg dishes
 All farinaceous dishes
N.B.: In some circumstances, it is not possible to employ a Chef Potager, therefore, Chef
Entremetier prepares all soups.
BREAKFAST COOK
The cooking and service of breakfast is commonly entrusted to a specialty cook whose range
is limited o the needs of breakfast. He does not rank as a full Chef de Partie, but needs to be
of good skill. He works alone with a Commis and parters. After the breakfast preparation he
attaches himself to the roast section. Here he prepares mis-en-place and continues cooking
roasts and grill for late service lunch when the Chef de Patie and staff go off.
The mis-en-place for breakfast including the boning and slicing of bacon and preparation for
the various types of fish eaten at breakfast time, carried out in advance by a subordinate of
Grade Manger and semi-skilled assistants in the patisserie. The breakfast cooks and helpers
are left with the simple tasks of assembling and cooking breakfast dishes.
Toasts and beverages are the responsibility of the Still Room.

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CHEF ROTISSEUR
This is a very responsible section, finest roast cooks are English as roasting has always been
renowned in England as a specialization. Roasts are very popular. This parties is responsible
for deep – frying of foods of all kinds, including fried potatces and the Rotisseur may have an
assistant le friturier (Frying cook) for the task.
Chef Rotisseur is responsible for savouries such as Welsh rarebit and for Hot Sandwiches
(Club Sandwich types). This corner is also occupied with the preparation of stock for gravies
which accompany the roasts and other dishes.
Foods to be roasted cover a wide range of poultry, game and meat include the baking or pies,
the joints poultry and game to be cooked by the Rotisseur are given the basic preparatory
treatment (plucking, preparation etc.) for the oven in the larder by the butcher or poulterer.
Sometimes commis from the roast corner may help the larder for clearing the trussing of
poultry of dissection trimming and trying of joints of butcher’s meat. The roast corner is
located in the main stove section and all the necessary cooking apparatus for roasting, for
deep frying for finishing of savouries under the salamander are grouped together and make
this section of the hottest. Some dishes are identical basically, but different methods of
handling are employed therefore they are sometimes done by Rotisseur and sometimes by the
saucier.
In short the duties of roast cook are:
 Responsible for roasting poultry and game feathered and furred.
 Responsible for all deep-fried dishes, Pommes frites, pont- neuf, etc.
 Responsbile for all deep fried fish dishes.
 Mis-en-place e.f. if separate grilled pommes pailles mut be prepared by Rotisseur. These
are used as a garnish on certain grills.
 Savouries e.g. Oyster rolled in bacon grilled on skewer, Welsh rarebit.
Certain types of savouries, scotch wood cock, scrambled eggs, are prepared by entremetier
but it is completed and served at the last minute by the Rotisseur.

TRANCHEUR (Craver)
Chef Trancheur or carver may be under the control of the Rotisseur. Trancheur is killed only
in carving not in cooking. He may operate only behind the scenes at the hotel service counter
or may alternatively stationed in the dining room and patrol the restaurant with a heated
voiture (trolley).
(CHEF GRILLARDIN Grill Cook/CHEF SAVOURIER (Savoury Cook)
The work of the grill cook is simply undertaken by a subordinate of the Chef Rotisseur.
Where a separate grillardin is set he might deal with the savouries & combine the functions of
grillardin with that of Savourier (Savoury Cook).

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The grill cook is a semi-skilled speciality cook; his duties relative to those of other chefs are
narrow but deal with grilling, using charcoal or more modern grills using electricity or gas.
Experience and judgement is required for this job.

CHEF POISSONIER (Fish Cook)

The Chef Poissonier is responsible for the cooking, garnishing and sauce making for the fish
courses with the exception of deep fried fish, the grilled of fish possible by done by the grill
cook.
Cleaning including scaling, skinning, fileting portioning and bread crumbing are the
responsibility of the Chefs Grade Manger. The subordinate engaged in egg and crumbing is
called in French the Panadier.
This chef is responsible for the cooking, garnishing, sauce making and the dishing of fish.
Fish featuring fresh water fish, sea water fish, shell like crab, crayfish, shrimps, lobster and
mussels.
Oysters are ordinarily served either direct from fishmonger or a convenient cool place. If
they are cooked, they are dished out direct from Chef Poissonier.
Methods of cooking fish include poaching, a’la menuiere, en poele and elaborate dressings
are done by Chef Poissonier.
Veloute de poisson is a fundamental sauce produced only by Poissonier made froma roux and
a fond de poisson. Poissonier is responsible for making stock and then veloute, the fish bones
are supplied by the Grade Manger.
He stores the sauces properly which are made in advance as precautions against food
poisonisng. The Reportoire of the fish dishes and their accompanying sauces requires great
experience training and judgment from this Chef de Partie.

CHEF DE BANQUETS (Banquet Chef)

In large establishments completely separate arrangements may be provided if not for the
complete cooking of banquet and function meals at least for their assembling and service.
The Chef given responsibility for special service of banquet may be known as Chef de
Banquets.
CHEF PATISSIER
The Chef Patissier has a different status but certainly not less than the Chef Saucier and the
Chef Garde Manger. The work of this department is normally separated from the main
kitchen and is self-contained in the matter of cold stage, machinery and equipment for
making ices and with its own baking and cooking facilities.
Chef Patissier is responsible for all hot and cold sweets, lunches, dinners and functions and
for pastries served at tea time or other occasions. He is also responsible for the making of

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pastes like short and puff pastry, frying batters, making nooldes and Italian pastas for supply
to other corners of the Kitchen.
Sorbets and water ice-like items are made in pastry section. The service of ices and these
sweets which are based upon ice cream are prepared and assembled in Patisserie. They
include the sweet ‘omelette au surprise’ and ‘souffle surprise’, ‘peach melba’, ‘Poire Helene’,
dipped fruits, etc.
The art of pastry includes work like colored sugars to make flower baskets and similar
decorative center pleces, work with fondant and icing sugar, gum pastes, fashioning of
praline into boxes and decorative objects containing chocolates.
The work of the Patissier has always been highlighted by the beauty of the cold sweets, ices
and their accompaniments. Chef Patissier requires great skill, imagination and experience.
In bag establishments semi-skilled assistants will prepare fresh fruit salads for service not
only at lunch and dinner but also at breakfast. The Chef Patissier is therefore like the Grade
Manger, something like a Chef de Cuisine of a specialty kitchen and in addition to his own
skills must coordinate and organize the work of a number of subordinates.
 BOULANGERS (Baker):- He is baker working under Chef Pattisier. He is responsible
for all baked items bread rolls, breads, breakfast rolls like croissant, brioches etc.
 GLACIER: (He would be responsible for making various kinds of ices such as bombes,
biscuits, glaces and many varieties of ice cream. HE is one of the assistants of Chef
Patissier.
COMMIS
Dependent on the Partie concerned the sectional Chef will be assisted by one or more trained
cooks who have not yet reached full chef status. These assistants or commis should have
completed their apprenticeship or training but will still be getting experience before taking
full Partie responsibility. The first commis as the senior of the assistants is called, should be
capable of taking charge, when the Chef de Partie is off, and as second in command takes a
considerable responsibility under his chef.
COORDINATION WITH OTHER DEPARTMENTS
The primary function of the food and beverage department is to provide food and drink to a
hotel’s guests. In earlier times, when an inn had a single dining room that could hold a
limited number of guests, this was a fairly simple task. Today, however, providing food and
drink is much more complicated. A large hotel might well have a coffee shop, a gourmet
restaurant, a poolside snack bar, room service, two banquet halls, and ten function rooms
where food and beverages are served. It might also have a lounge, a nightclub, and a lobby
bar. On a busy day (or night), it’s quite likely that functions will be booked in many outlets at
the same time. In addition, some outlets may have multiple events scheduled for a single day.
As you can see, there is great diversity in the types of activities performed by a food and
beverage department, requiring a significant variety of skills on the part of its workers. The
primary function of the food and beverage department is to provide food and drink to a
hotel’s guests. In earlier times, when an inn had a single dining room that could hold a
limited number of guests, this was a fairly simple task. Today, however, providing food and

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drink is much more complicated. A large hotel might well have a coffee shop, a gourmet
restaurant, a poolside snack bar, room service, two banquet halls, and ten function rooms
where food and beverages are served. It might also have a lounge, a nightclub, and a lobby
bar. On a busy day (or night), it’s quite likely that functions will be booked in many outlets at
the same time. In addition, some outlets may have multiple events scheduled for a single day.
As you can see, there is great diversity in the types of activities performed by a food and
beverage department, requiring a significant variety of skills on the part of its workers.
Because of the diversity of services provided, the food and beverage department is typically
split into subunits. The executive chef, a person of considerable importance and authority in
any full-service hotel, runs the food production, or kitchen, department. A variety of culinary
specialists who ever responsible for different aspects of food preparation report to the
executive chef?
The actual serving of food in a large hotel’s restaurants is usually the responsibility of a
separate department, headed by the assistant food and beverage director. The food service
department is composed of the individual restaurant and outlet managers, maître d’s, waiters,
and waitresses.
Because of their special duties and concerns, many large hotels have a separate subunit that is
responsible only for room service. Because of the high value and profit margins associated
with the sale of alcoholic beverages, some hotels have a separate department that assumes
responsibility for all outlets where alcoholic beverages are sold. The person responsible for
this department is the beverage manager.
Most full-service hotels also do a considerable convention and catering business. The typical
convention uses small function rooms for meetings and larger rooms for general sessions,
trade shows, exhibits, and banquets. As a hotel or lodging business increases the use of its
facilities for conventions and meetings, it may form a separate convention services
department. The convention services department and its personnel are introduced to the
client, a meeting planner, or an association executive by the marketing and sales department.
The convention services department then handles all of the client’s meeting and catering
requirements. Individually catered events include parties, wedding receptions, business
meetings, and other functions held by groups. To provide for the unique needs of these types
of customers, hotels often organize separate catering and convention departments.
Depending on the size of the hotel, the job of cleaning the food and beverage outlets
themselves as well as of washing pots and pans, dishes, glasses, and utensils is often
delegated to a subunit known as the stewarding department.
It is only through continuous cooperation and coordination that a hotel’s food service
function can be carried out effectively. A guest who is dining in a hotel restaurant requires
the joint efforts of the kitchen, food service, beverage, and stewarding departments. A
convention banquet cannot be held without the efforts of the convention and catering
department along with the food production, beverage, and stewarding departments. The
sequence of events and cooperation required among the food and beverage staff is even more
important than in the rooms department, thus increasing the importance of communication
between managers and employees alike. Another challenge faced by management is the

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diversity of the employees in the food and beverage department; the dishwasher in the
stewarding department is at a dramatically different level than the sous chef in the kitchen.
Coordination is not as important an issue in the marketing and sales department, which is
generally much smaller than the food and beverage department. The primary responsibility of
the sales managers who make up the marketing and sales department is sales, or the selling of
the hotel facilities and services to individuals and groups. Sales managers sell rooms, food,
and beverages to potential clients through advertising, attendance at association and
conference meetings, and direct contacts.
In many hotels, the accounting department combines staff functions and line functions, or
those functions directly responsible for servicing guests. Another dimension of the
accounting department’s responsibilities deals with various aspects of hotel operations, cost
accounting, and
Cost control throughout the hotel.
The two areas of central concern to the accounting department are rooms and food and
beverage. The accounting department’s front office cashier is responsible for tracking all
charges to guest accounts.
The food and beverage department may be responsible for food preparation and service, but
the accounting department is responsible for collecting revenues. The food and beverage
controller and the food and beverage cashiers keep track of both the revenues and expenses of
the food and beverage department. The food and beverage controller’s job is to verify the
accuracy and reasonableness of all food and beverage revenues

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3. KITCHEN LAYOUT

The plan or layout of a kitchen will be determined by the catering policy of the establishment.
The plan is often limited by space availability. The production area is divided into 3 very
distinctive areas.
1. Receiving, Preparation & Storage.
2. Cooking.
3. Service (Dispatching) and wash-up.
As in any other industrial production unit, the kitchen has three functions:
1. Receiving raw materials
2. Transforming them into finished goods
3. Forwarding the products.
The main factors that determine the layout of a kitchen are:
1. Whether the hotel is primarily for guests or if there is a busy chance trade.
2. The locality.
3. The type of customer.
4. The type of menu/service.
5. Seasonal pressure of trade.
6. Possibility of expansion.
Among current trends in cooking, kitchen organization and food service, the following are
readily noticeable.
1. Greater mechanization
2. Simpler operations
3. Increased use of convenience foods

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The information that will be required before beginning kitchen planning will be:
1. What type of meal is offered?
2. How many persons will he served?
3. Meal timings and how many sittings.
4. What type of service?
5. Will convenience foods be used?
6. Is allowance to be made for special functions/seasons?

Area Requirements: It is possible that kitchen space will be reduced to provide more seating
capacity in the restaurant. However cramped, inadequate kitchens will lead to delays and
faults in service. This will invariably affect the turnover. Inadequate facilities will also affect
staff morale. Kitchen areas will depend on the type of service. Normally a kitchen will
occupy between 25%-33% of the space allotted to the restaurant. Whereas 10-12 sq. ft. per
cover is the norm in the restaurant, the kitchen space is generally 2½–4 sq. per cover. In
smaller establishments this will go up to 6-9 sq. ft. per cover. Generally ¼th the kitchen area
is set aside for storage. The remaining is divided between food pre-preparation, cooking and
service.

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4. RECEIVING AND PREPARATION AND STORAGE AREAS

Receiving area: The receiving area should be large and convenient enough to receive the
volume and type of goods delivered. The receiving clerk must inspect all items before
acceptance. The receiving area should be located near the entrance to the storage area so that
once checked, goods can be stored quickly.

Delivery Quay: The delivery quay will be situated near the store and will consist of a
platform of lorry level for easy unloading. It should be well lit, and fitted with anti-pest fans
and an air curtain at the door. A water connection with hosepipe will ensure easy regular
cleaning. Trolleys must be kept for easy unloading and cartage.

Gas Bank: If cylinders are used, these must, be kept outside. Incase of a gas tank the
distance from the building must be at least 150 yards. A daily check of gas shelters and tank
is necessary as a safety measure.

Garbage Disposal: Wet and dry garbage must be stored separately. Wet garbage is stored in
containers in a cool area to prevent fermentation and smell. Dry garbage can be incinerated.
Disposal of garbage must be on a daily basis. Garbage areas must be cleaned daily, then
disinfected and deodorized.

Central stores: Dry stores must be maintained at 70ºF (21º C). Lightweight items could be
stored on top of shelves and heavy weight items at the bottom. Cases/Cartons can be stored
either on shelves or pallets. Nothing should be stored on the floor. 8” height above the floor
will ensure easy cleaning. Shelves should not touch the wall. A 2” space must be maintained.

The Cold Room: Many foodstuffs will have to be maintained at refrigerated temperatures.
There are two types of cold rooms:
1. Negative cold room (freezer) with an ideal temperature of -18ºC.
2. Positive cold room (walk-in) with a temperature of 3ºC- 5ºC.
Recommended temperatures for various food stuffs:
Meat 0-1ºC
Fish 2-3ºC
Dairy 4-5ºC
Veg. & Fruits 6-7ºC

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Vegetable Pre-preparation Area: The work here consists of:

1. Washing and Cleaning.
2. Paring and Trimming
3. Cutting, Chopping etc.
Use of frozen vegetables will determine the area required here. This room is sometimes air-
conditioned, and in small establishments will be combined with the Butchery.
The Butchery: It is an air-conditioned room for meat pre-preparation. Bone saws, weighing
scales and butchers blocks will be provided. The butchery must be situated close to the
freezer. Non slip flooring is essential and flycatchers must be installed.
The Larder: The larder must be situated near to but separate from the kitchen. It must be air-
conditioned, well lit and well equipped.
COOKING AREA
In this area, raw materials and pre-prepared goods are turned into finished products. This area
can range from a simple kitchen to a more complex group or sections or even satellites.
- Pastry/Confectionery - Bakeshop
- Short order kitchen - Pantry
- Hot Kitchen - Main Kitchen
The Bake Shop- The control of costs and quality of desserts and breads sold in hotels is very
important for successful operation. In a small hotel, this will be a corner of the main kitchen
whereas in big hotels, this will be a separate fully equipped department. There are two
sections
Hot: equipped mainly with ovens (single, double decker or triple tier) (convection or
conventional), racks, dough mixer, food processor and will provide all bread, cakes and
gateaux.
Cold: is equipped with refrigerated marbles, laminators, ice-cream machines, and food
processors. It is usually air-conditioned, and provides all the desserts.
The Pantry- As the name suggests all the short orders are executed from here. These will
include sandwiches, ice-creams and beverages. Quick service equipment, such as toasters,
juicers and shakers will be provided.
The Main Kitchen- Known as the heart of the kitchen. The area is divided into work islands
where various jobs will be performed.
A) Roasting and Baking
B) Grilling
C) Frying

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The equipment must be placed so as to avoid unnecessary movement. Bain Maries must be
located near the gas ranges. Exhaust fans are essential. Good lighting, non-slip floors, and
easy-to-clean walls are necessary.
In a classical organization the main kitchen is divided according to partie system. But in India
it is divided according to the cuisine. E.g. Continental, Chinese, Indian.
SERVICE AND WASH-UP AREA
The Service Area is situated between the kitchen and the restaurant and has the following
functions.
1. Cleans dirty equipment corning from the restaurant or floors.
2. Supplies clean equipment to the restaurant and kitchen.
3. Calling point for food orders.
4. Delivery of food.
5. Cashiering.
Issuing meals to the restaurant is carried out in this area. A kitchen clerk called the Aboyeur
is stationed at the survey counter throughout the meal period. On receipt of the waiter’s check
(KOT) he announces in a loud and clear voice the order with special instructions. The section
must acknowledge the order in return. Most orders are executed in parts (en suite.)

The Cashier prepares the bills and gives it to the waiter for presentation. The paid check and
cash is returned to the cashier who will stamp it with a PAID stamp. A dispense bar is also
situated in this area for drinks in the restaurant and in rooms
The Wash-up Area: Dish washing has a high rate of importance because of its significance
in sanitation and hygiene. The wash-up area consists of three parts, manned by the kitchen
steward.
a) Loading – dirty equipment is pre-washed and loaded on baskets/trays for machine or
hand washing.
b) Washing – consists of cleaning, rinsing and sanitizing.
c) Unloading – The clean equipment is kept on racks, picked by waiters or delivered by
stewards.
Pre-rinsing calls for water of a warm temperature. 120º F will melt fat but not cook foods
firmly onto the surfaces.
The washing temperature must be 140º F hot enough for effective cleaning action. Sanitizing
calls for a temperature of 180º F for 10 seconds. In small hotels, dish washing is done
manually, but the process is the same. Ideally separate workers should be provided for
handling dirty and clean dishes. To ensure effective dish washing water temperatures must be
maintained, detergent concentration should be effective and correct handling procedures
followed.

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5. KITCHEN EQUIPMENTS

Kitchen Equipment
Having the proper tools and equipment for a particular task may mean the difference between
a job well done and one done carelessly, incorrectly or even dangerously. This chapter
introduces most of the tools and equipment typically used in a professional kitchen. Items are
divided into categories according to their function: hand tools, knives, measuring and
portioning devices, cookware, strainers and sieves, processing equipment, storage containers,
heavy equipment, buffet equipment and safety equipment. A wide variety of specialized tools
and equipment is available to today's chef. Breading machines, croissant shapers and
doughnut glazers are designed to speed production by reducing handwork. Other devices for
instance, a duck press or a couscous ere are used only for unique tasks in preparing a few
menu items. Launch of this specialized equipment is quite expensive and found only in food
manufacturing operations or specialized kitchens; a discussion of it is beyond the scope of
this chapter. Brief descriptions of some of these specialized devices are, however, found in
the Glossary. Baking pans and tools are discussed in Chapter 29, Principles of the Bakeshop.
Before using any equipment, study the operator’s manual or has someone experienced with
the particular item instruct you on proper procedures for its use and cleaning. And remember,
always think safety first.
Selecting tools & Equipment
In general, only commercial food service tools and equipment should be used in a
professional kitchen. Household tools and appliances that are not NSF- certified may not
withstand the rigors of a professional kitchen. Look for tools that are well constructed. For
example, joints should be welded, not bonded with solder, handles should be comfortable,
with rounded borders; plastic and rubber parts should be seamless.

Before purchasing or leasing any equipment, you should evaluate several Factors:
1. Is this equipment necessary for producing menu items?
2. Will this equipment perform the job required in the space available?
3. Is this equipment the most economical for the operations specific needs?
4. Is this equipment easy to clean, maintain and repair?
Hand tools
Hand tools are designed to aid in cutting, shaping, moving or combining foods. They have
few, if any, moving parts. Knives, discussed separately later, are the most important hand
tools. Others are metal or rubber spatulas, spoons, whisks, tongs and specialized cutters. In
addition to the items shown here, many hand tools designed for specific tasks, such as
pressing tortillas or pitting cherries, are available. Sturdiness, durability and safety are the
watchwords when selecting Hand Tools. Choose tools that can withstand the heavy use of a
professional Kitchen and those that are easily cleaned.

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Knives
Knives are the most important items in your tool kit. With a sharp knife, the skilled chef can
accomplish a number of tasks more quickly and efficiently than any machine. Good quality
knives are expensive but will last for many years with proper care. Select easily sharpened,
well-constructed knives that are comfortable and balanced in your hand. Knife construction
and commonly used knives are discussed here; knife safety and care as well as cutting
techniques are discussed in Chapter 6, Knife Skills. A good knife begins with a single piece
of metal, stamped, cut or best of all forged and tempered into a blade of the desired shape.

The metals generally used for knife blades are;

1 Carbon steel—an alloy of carbon and iron, carbon steel is traditionally used for blades
because it is soft enough to be sharpened easily. It corrodes and discolours easily, however,
especially when used with acidic foods.
2 Stainless steel — Stainless steel will not rust, corrode or discolour and is extremely
durable. A stainless steel blade is much more difficult to sharpen than a carbon steel one,
although once an edge is established; it lasts longer than the edge on a carbon steel blade.
3 High-carbon stainless steel —an alloy combining the best features of carbon steel and
stainless steel, high—carbon stainless steel neither corrodes nor discolours and can be
sharpened almost as easily as carbon steel. It is now the most frequently used metal for
blades.
4 Ceramic—A ceramic called zirconium oxide is now used to make knife blades that are
extremely sharp, very easy to clean, rustproof and nonreactive. With proper care, ceramic
blades will remain sharp for years, but when sharpening is needed, it must be done
professionally on special diamond wheels. Material costs and tariffs make ceramic-bladed
knives very expensive. Although this ceramic is highly durable, it does not have the
flexibility of metal, so never use a ceramic knife to pry anything, to strike a hard surface (for
example, when crushing garlic or chopping through bones) or to cut against a china or
ceramic surface. A portion of the blade, known as the tang, fits inside the handle. The best
knives are constructed with a full tang running the length of the handle; they also have a
bolster where the blade meets the handle (the bolster is part of the blade, not a separate
collar). Less expensive knives may have a 3/4th—length tang or a thin “rattail" tang. Neither
provides as much support, durability or balance as a full tang.

Knife handles are often made of hard woods infused with plastic and riveted to the tang.
Moulded poly- propylene handles are permanently bonded to a tang without seams or rivets.
Stainless steel handles welded directly to the blade are durable but very lightweight. Any
handle should · be shaped for comfort and ground smooth to eliminate crevices where
bacteria can grow.
Knife shapes and sharpening Equipment you will collect many knives during your career,
many with specialized functions not described here. This list includes only the most basic
knives and sharpening equipment

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FRENCH OR CHEF"S KNIFE An all purpose knife used for chopping, slicing and
mincing Its rigid 8 to 14 inch long blade is wide at the heel and tapers to a point at the tip.
UTILITY KNIFE and all purpose knife used for cutting fruits and vegetables and carving
poultry its rigid 6 to 8 inch-long blades is shaped like a chef’s Knife but narrower.
BONING KNIFE A smaller knife with a thin blade used to separate meat from Bone. The
blade is usually 5 to 7 inches long and may be flexible or rigid.
PARING KNIFE a short knife used for detail work or cutting fruits and vegetables the rigid
blade is from 2 to 4 inches long. A tour née or bird’s beak knife is similar to a paring knife
but with a curved blade it is used to cut curved surfaces or tour née vegetables.
CLEAVER A Knife with a large, heavy rectangular blade used for Chopping or cutting
through bones.
SLICER A knife with a long, thin blade used primarily for slicing cooked meat. The tip
may be round or pointed, and the blade may be flexible or rigid. A similar knife with a
serrated edge is used for slicing bread or pastry items.
BUTCHERS KNIFE sometimes known as a scimitar because the rigid blade curves up in a
25- degree angle at the tip, it is used for fabricating raw meat and is available with 6 to 14-
inch blades.
OYSTER AND CLAM KNIVES The short, rigid blades of these knives are used to open
oyster and clam shells. The tips are blunt; only the clam knife has a sharp edge
Sharpening Stone
Also known as a whetstone, a flat brick of synthetic abrasives that is used. To put an edge on
a dull blade. Various grit Sizes are available. The most practical sets include both coarse and
fine-grit stones.
Steel
A scored, slightly abrasive steel rod used to hone or straighten a blade immediately after and
between sharpening.
Cookware
Cookware includes the sauté pans and stockpots used on the stove top as well as the roasting
pans, hotel pans and specialty moulds used inside the oven. Cookware should be selected for
its size, shape, ability to conduct heat evenly and overall quality of construction.
Metals and Heat Conduction
Cookware that fails to distribute heat evenly may cause hot spots that burn foods. Because
different metals conduct heat at different rates, and thicker layers of metal conduct heat more
evenly than thinner ones, the most important considerations when choosing cookware are the
type and thickness (known as the gauge) of the material used. No one cookware or material
suits every process or need, however; always select the most appropriate material for the task
at hand.

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Copper
Copper is an excellent conductor: It heats rapidly and evenly and cools quickly. Indeed,
unlined copper pots are unsurpassed for cooking sugar and fruit mixtures. But copper
cookware is extremely expensive. lt also requires a great deal of care and is often quite heavy.
Moreover, because copper may react with some foods, copper cookware usually has a tin
lining, which is soft and easily scratched. Because of these problems, copper is now often
sandwiched between layers of stainless steel or aluminium in the bottom of pots and pans.
Aluminium
Aluminium is the metal used most commonly in commercial utensils. It is light- weight and,
after copper, conducts heat best. Aluminium is a soft metal, though. So it should be treated
with care to avoid dents. Do not use aluminium containers for storage or for cooking acidic
foods because the metal reacts chemically with many foods. Light-coloured foods, such as
soups or sauces, may be discoloured when cooked in aluminium, especially if stirred with a
metal whisk or spoon.
Anodized aluminium has a hard, dark, corrosion—resistant surface that helps preventing
sticking and discoloration.
Stainless Steel
Although stainless steel conducts and retains heat poorly, it is a hard, durable metal
particularly useful for holding foods and for low temperature cooking where as hot spots and
scorching is not problems. Stainless steel pots and pans are available with aluminium or
copper bonded to the bottom or with an aluminium layered core, Although expensive, such
cookware combines the rapid, uniform heat conductivity of copper and aluminium with the
strength, durability and non-reactivity of stainless steel. Stainless steel is also ideal for
storage containers because it does not react with foods.
Cast Iron
Cast iron cookware distributes heat evenly and holds high temperatures well. It is often used
in griddles and large skillets. Although relatively inexpensive, cast iron is extremely heavy
and brittle. It must be kept properly conditioned and dry to prevent rust and pitting.
Glass
Glass retains heat well but conducts it poorly. it does not react with foods. Tempered glass is
suitable for microwave cooking provided it does not have any metal band or decoration.
Commercial operations rarely use glass cookware because of the danger of breakage.
Ceramic
Ceramics, including earthenware, porcelain and stoneware, are used primarily for baking
dishes, casseroles and baking stones because they conduct heat uniformly and retain
temperatures well. Ceramics are nonreactive, inexpensive and generally suitable for use in a
microwave oven (provided there is no metal in the gaze). Ceramics are easily chipped or
cracked, however, and should not be used over a direct flame. Also, quick temperature
changes may cause the cook- ware in crack or shatter.

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Plastic
Plastic containers are frequently used in commercial kitchens for food storage or service but
they cannot be used for heating or cooking except in a microwave oven. Plastic microwave
cookware is made of phenol resin. It is easy to clean, relatively inexpensive and rigidly
shaped, but its glasslike structure is brittle, and it can crack or shatter.
Enamelware
Pans Lined with enamel should not be used for cooking; in many areas, their use in
commercial kitchens is prohibited by law. The enamel can chip or crack easily providing
good places for bacteria to grow. Also, the chemicals used to bond the enamel to the
cookware can cause food poisoning if ingested.
Non-stick Coatings
Without affecting a metals ability to conduct heat, a polymer (plastic) known as
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and marketed under the trade names Teflon and Silverstone
may be applied to many types of cookware. It provides a slippery, nonreactive finish that
prevents food from sticking and allows the use of less fat in cooking. Cookware with non-
stick coatings requires a great deal of care, how- ever since the coatings can scratch, chip and
blister. Do not use metal spoons or spatulas in cookware with non-stick coatings.
Common Cookware
Pots are large round vessels with straight sides and loop handles. Available in a range of sizes
based on volume, they are used on the stove top making stocks or soups, or for boiling or
simmering foods, particular] where rapid evaporation is not desired. Flat lids are available.

Pans
Pans are round vessels with one long handle and straight or sloped sides. They are usually
smaller and shallower than pots. Pans are available in a range of diameters and are used for
general stove top cooking, especially sautéing, frying or reducing liquids rapidly.
Woks
Originally used to prepare Asian foods, woks are nova found in many professional kitchens.
Their round bottoms and curved sides diffuse heat and make it easy to toss or stir c0ntents.
Their large dimmed lids retain heat for steaming vegetables Woks are useful for quickly
sautéing strips 0f meat, simmering a whole fish or deep frying appetizers. Stove top woks
range in diameter from l2 to 30 inches larger built—in gas 0r electric models are also
available.
Hotel PANS
Pans (also known as steam table pans) are rectangular stainless steel designed to hold food
for service in steam tables. Hotel pans are also used for baking, roasting or poaching inside an
oven. Perforated pans use- and for draining, steaming or icing down foods are also available.
The Standard pan is 12 by 20 inches, with pans one—half, one-third, one- and other

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fractions of this size available. Hotel pan depth is not standardized at 2 inches (referred to as
a “2OO pan"), 4, 6 and 8 inches.
Moulds
The moulds are available in several shapes and sizes, and are usually made from tinned steel.
Those with hinged sides, whether smooth or patterned, and more properly referred to as a
crome molds. The hinged sides make it easier to remove the baked pate. Terrine molds are
traditionally lid- earthenware or enameled cast—iron containers used for baking. They may
be round, oval or rectangular. Timbale molds are metal or ceramic containers used for
moulding aspic individual portions of mousse, custard vegetables. Their slightly flared sides
allow the contents to release cleanly when removed
Strainer & Sieves
Strainers and sieves are used primarily to aerate and remove impurities from dry ingredients
and drain or puree cooked foods. Strainers, colanders, drum sieves, other caps and chinois are
non-mechanical devices with a stainless steel mesh or screen through which food passes the
size of the mesh or screen varies from extremely fine to several millimetres wide; select the
fineness best suited for the task at hand.
Chinois and China cap
Both the chinois and china cap are cone-shaped metal strainers. The conical shape allows
liquids to filter through small openings. The body of a chinois is made from a very fine mesh
screen, while a china cap has a perforated metal body. Both are used for straining stocks and
sauces. With the chinos being particularly useful for consommé. A china cap can also be used
with a pestle to puree soft foods.
Skimmer & Spider
Both the skimmer and spider are long—handled tools used to remove foods or impurities
from liquids. The flat, perforated disk of a skimmer is used for skimming stocks or removing
foods from soups or stocks. The spider has a finer mesh disk, which makes it better for
retrieving items from hot fat. Wooden—handled spiders are available but are less sturdy and
harder to clean than all—metal designs.
Cheesecloth
Cheesecloth is loosely woven cotton gauze used for straining stocks and sauces and wrapping
poultry or fish for poaching, Cheesecloth is also indispensable for making sachets. Always
rinse cheesecloth thoroughly before use; this removes lint and prevents the cheesecloth from
absorbing other liquids.
Food mill
A food mill purees and strains food at the same time. Food is placed in the hop- per and a
hand—crank mechanism turns a blade in the hopper against a perforated disk, forcing the
food through the disk. Most models have interchangeable disks with various—sized holes.
Choose a mill that can be taken apart easily for cleaning.

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Flour Sifter
A sifter is used for aerating, blending and removing impurities from dry ingredients such as
flour, cocoa and leavening agents. The 8-cup hand—crank sifter shown here uses four curved
rods to brush the contents through a curved mesh screen. The sifter should have a medium-
fine screen and a comfortable handle.
Processing equipment
Processing equipment includes both electrical and nonelectrical mechanical devices used to
chop, puree, slice, grind or mix foods. Before using any such equipment, be sure to review its
operating procedures and ask for assistance if necessary. Always turn the equipment off and
disconnect the power before disassemble cleaning or moving the appliance. Any problems or
malfunctions should be reported immediately. Never place your hand into any machine when
the power is on. Processing equipment is powerful & can cause serious injury
Slicer
Electric slicer is used to cut meat, bread, cheese or raw vegetables into uniform slices. It has a
circular blade that rotates at high speed. Food is placed in a carrier, and then passed
(manually or by an electric motor) against the blade. Slice thickness is determined by the
distance between the blade and the carrier. Because of the speed with which the blade rotates,
foods can ‘into extremely thin slices very quickly. An electric slicer is convenient for
preparing moderate to large quantities of food, but the time required to disassemble and clean
the equipment makes it impractical when slicing only a few.
Mandolin
A mandolin is a manually operated slicer made of stainless steel with adjustable slicing
blades. It is also used to make julienne and waffle- cut slices. Its narrow, rectangular body
sits on the world counter at a 45—degree angle. Foods are passed against a blade to obtain
uniform slices. It is useful for slicing small quantities of fruits or vegetables when using a
large electric slicer would be unwarranted. To avoid injury, always use a hand guard or steel
when using a mandolin.
FOOD CHOPPER OR BUFFALO CHOPPER
Chopper is used to process moderate to large quantities of uniform size, such as chopping
onions or grinding bread for crumbs. The food is placed in a large bowl rotating beneath a
hood where curved blades chop it. The size of the cut depends on how long the food is left in
the machine. Buffalo choppers are available in floor or table top models. The motor can
usually be fitted with a variety of other tools such as a meat grinder or a slicer/ shredder,
making it even more useful.
FOOD PROCESSOR
A food processor has a motor housing with a removable bowl and S shaped blade. It is used,
for example, to puree cooked foods, chop nuts, prepare compound butters and emulsify
sauces. Special disks can be added that slice, shred or julienne foods. Bowl capacity and
motor power vary; select a processor model large enough for your most common tasks.

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BLENDER
Though similar in principle to a food processor, a blender has a tall, narrow food container
and a four-pronged blade. Its design and whirlpool action is better for processing liquids or
liquid- Frying foods quickly. A blender is used to prepare smooth drinks, puree soups and
sauces, blend batters and chop ice. A vertical cutter/mixer (VCM) operates like a very large,
powerful blender. A VCM is usually floor—mounted and has a capacity of 15 to 80 quarts.
Immersion blender
An immersion blender as well as its household counterpart called a hand blender or wand-is a
long shaft fitted with a rotating four pronged blade at the bottom. Operated by pressing a
button in the handle, an immersion blender is used to puree a soft food, soup or sauce directly
in the container in which it was prepared, eliminating the need to transfer the food from
one container to another. This is especially useful when working with hot foods. Small cord-
less, rechargeable models are convenient for pureeing or mixing small quantities or
beverages, but larger heavy-duty electric models are more practical in commercial kitchens.
Mixer
A vertical mixer is indispensable in the bakeshop and most kitchens. The U- shaped arms
hold a metal mixing bowl in place; the selected mixing attachment fits onto the rotating head.
The three common mixing attachments are the whip (used for whipping eggs or cream), the
paddle (used for general mixing) and the dough hook (used for kneading bread). Most mixers
have several operating speeds. Bench models range in capacity from 4.5 to 20 quarts, while
floor mixers can hold as Whip some mixers can be fitted with shredder slicers, meat
grinders, juicers or power strainers, making the equipment more versatile.
Juicer
Two types of juicers arc available: reamers and extractors. Reamers, also known as citrus
juices, remove juice from citrus fruits. Tricky can be manual or electric. Manual use a lever
arm to squeeze the fruit with increased pressure. They are most often used to prepare small
to.

Heavy equipment
Heavy equipment includes the gas electric- or steam-operated appliances used for cooking.
Reheating or holding foods. It also includes dishwashers and refrigeration units. These items
are usually installed in a fixed location determined by the kitchen’s traffic flow and space
limitations. Heavy equipment may be purchased or leased new or used. Used equipment are
most often purchased in an effort to save money. Although the initial cost is generally less for
used equipment. The buyer should also consider the lack of a manufacturer’s warranty or
dealership guarantee and how the equipment was maintained by the prior owner. Functional
used equipment is satisfactory for back-of—the—house areas. But it is usually better to
purchase new equipment if it will be visible to the customer. Leasing equipment may be
appreciated for some operations. The cost of leasing is less than purchasing and if something
goes wrong with the equipment, the operator is generally not responsible for repairs or
service charges.

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STOVE TOPS
Stove tops or ranges are often the most important cooking equipment in the kitchen. They
have one or more burners powered by gas or electricity. The burners may be open or covered
with a cast-iron or steel plate. Open burners supply quick, direct heat that is easy to regulate.
A steel plate, known as a flat top supplies even but less intense heat. Although it takes longer
to heat than a z burnet the flat top supports heavier weights and makes a larger area available
for cooking. Many stoves include both flat tops and open burner arrangements.
Griddles
Griddles are similar A to flat tops except they are made of a thinner metal plate. Foods are
usually cooked directly on the griddle’s surface, not in pots or pans, which can nick or
scratch the surface. The surface should be properly cleaned and conditioned after each use.
Griddles are popular for short order and fast food type operations.
OVENS
An oven is an enclosed space where food is cooked by being surrounded with hot, dry air.
Conventional ovens are often located beneath the stove top. They have a heating element
located at the unit’s bottom or floor, and pans are placed on adjustable wire racks inside the
oven’s cavity. See Figure 5.5. Conventional ovens may also be separate, freestanding units or
decks stacked one on top of the other in stack ovens, pans are placed directly on the deck or
floor and not on wire racks. Convection ovens use internal fans to circulate the hot air; this
tends to cook foods more quickly and evenly. Convection ovens are almost always
freestanding units, powered either by gas or electricity. Because convection ovens cook foods
more quickly, temperatures may need to be reduced by 25°F to 50F (1O°C to 20c) from those
recommended for conventional ovens.
WOOD - BURNING OVENS
The ancient practice of baking in a retained—heat masonry oven has been revived in recent
years, with many upscale restaurants and artesian bakeries in- stalling brick or adobe ovens
for baking pizzas and breads as well as for roasting fish, poultry and vegetables. These ovens
have a curved interior chamber that is usually recessed into a wall. Although grafted models
are available, wood—firing is more traditional and provides the aromas and flavours
associated with brick ovens. A wood fire is built inside the oven to heat the brick chamber.
The ashes are then swept out and the food is placed on the flat oven floor. The combination
of high heat and wood smoke adds distinctive flavours to foods.
MICROWAVE OVEN
Microwave ovens are electrically powered ovens used to cook or reheat foods. They are
available in a range of sizes and power settings. Microwave ovens will not brown foods
unless fitted with special browning elements. Microwave cooking is discussed in more detail
in Chapter 10, Principles of Cooking.

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BROILERS AND GRILLS

Broilers and grills are generally used to prepare meats, fish and poultry. For a grill the heat
source is beneath the rack on which the food is placed. For a broiler, the heat source is above
the food. Most broilers are gas powered; grills may be gas or electric or may burn wood or
charcoal. A salamander is a small over- head broiler primarily used to finish or top- brown
foods. See Figure 5.3. A rotisserie is similar to a broiler except that the food is placed on a
revolving spit in front of the heat source. The unit may be open or en- closed like an oven; it
is most often used for cooking poultry or meats.
Tilting skillets
Tilting skillets are large, freestanding. Flat— bottomed pans about 6” inches deep with an
internal heating element below the pans bottom. They are usually made of stainless steel with
a cover, and have a handle crank mechanism that turns or tilts the pan to pour out the
contents. Tilting skillets can be used as stock pots, braziers, fry pans, griddles or steam tables,
making them one of the most versatile of commercial appliances.
Steam kettles
Steam kettles (also known as steam—jacketed kettles) are similar to stockpots except they are
heated from the bottom and sides by steam circulating between layers of stainless steel. The
steam may be generated internally or from an out- side source. Because steam heats the
kettles sides, foods cook more quickly and evenly than they would in a pot sitting on the
stove top. Steam kettles are most often used for making sauces, soups, custards or stocks.
Steam kettles are available in a range of sizes, from a 2—gallon tabletop model to a 100-
gallon floor model. Some models have a tilting mechanism that allows the contents to be
poured out; others have a spigot near the bottom through which liquids can be drained.
STEAMERS
Pressure and convection steamers are used to cook foods rapidly and evenly, using direct
contact with steam. Pressure steamers heat water above the boiling point in sealed
compartments; the high temperature and sealed compartment increase the internal pressure in
a range of 4 to 15 pounds per square inch. The increased pressure and temperature cook the
foods rapidly. Convection steamers generate steam in an internal boiler, and then release it
over the foods in a cooking chamber. Both types of steamer are ideal for cooking vegetables
with minimal loss of flavour or nutrients.
Deep-fat fryers
Deep-fat fryers are used to cook foods in a large amount of hot fat. Fryers are sized by the
amount of fat they hold. Most commercial fryers range between 15 and 82 pounds. Fryers can
be either gas or electric and are thermostatically con- trolled for temperatures between 200 F
and 400°F (90°C and 200 C). When choosing a fryer, look for a fry tank with curved, easy—
to—clean sloping sides. Some fryers have a cold zone (an area of reduced temperature) at the
bottom of the fry tank to trap particles. This prevents them from burning, creating off—
flavours and shortening the life of the fryer fat. Deep-fryers usually come with steel wire
baskets to hold the food during cooking. Fryer baskets are usually lowered into the fat and

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raised manually, al- though some models have automatic basket mechanisms. The most
important factor when choosing a deep-fryer is recovery time. Recovery time is the length of
time it takes the fat to return to the desired cooking temperature after food is submerged in it.
When food is submerged, heat is immediately transferred to the food from the fat. This heat
transfer lowers the fat’s temperature. The more food added at one time, the greater the drop in
the fats temperature. If the temperature drops too much or does not return quickly to the
proper cooking temperature, the food may absorb excess fat and become greasy.

REFRIGERATORS
Proper refrigeration space is an essential component of any kitchen. Many foods must be
stored at low temperatures to maintain quality and safety. Most commercial refrigeration is of
two types; walk—in units and reach—in or upright units. A walk—in is a large, room-sized
box capable of holding hundreds of pounds of food on adjustable shelves, A separate freezer
walk—in may be positioned nearby or even inside a refrigerated Walk-in. Reach-ins may be
individual units or parts of a bank of units, each with shelves approximately the size of a full
sheet pan. Reach—in refrigerators and freezers are usually located throughout the kitchen to
provide quick access to foods. Small units may also be placed beneath the work counters.
Freezers and refrigerators are available in a wide range of sizes and door designs to suit any
operation. Other forms of commercial refrigeration include chilled drawers located beneath a
work area that are just large enough to accommodate a hotel pan, and display cases used to
show foods to the customer.
DISH WASHERS
Mechanical dishwashers are available to wash rinse and sanitize dishware, glassware,
cookware and utensils. Small models clean one rack of items at a time, while larger models
can handle several racks simultaneously on a conveyor belt system. Sanitation is
accomplished either with extremely hot water 82°C or with chemicals automatically
dispensed during the final rinse cycle. Any dishwashing area should be carefully organized
for efficient use of equipment and employees, and to prevent recontamination of clean items.
Safety devices
Safety devices, many of which are required by federal, state or local law, are critical to the
wellbeing of a food service operation although they are not used in food preparation. Failing
to include safety equipment in a kitchen or failing to maintain it properly endangers workers
and customers.

Fire extinguishers
Fire extinguishers are canisters of foam, dry chemicals (such as sodium bi carbonate or
potassium bicarbonate or pressurized water used to extinguish small fires. They must be
placed within sight of and easily reached from the work areas in which fires are likely to
occur. Different classes of extinguishers use different chemicals to fight different types of
fires. The appropriate class must be used for the specific fire. See Table 5.2. Fire

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extinguishers must be recharged and checked from time to time. Be sure they have not been
discharged, tampered with or otherwise damaged.
Ventilation systems
Ventilation systems (also called ventilation hoods) are commonly installed over cooking
equipment to remove vapours, heat and smoke. Some systems include fire extinguishing
agents or sprinklers. A properly operating hood makes the kitchen more comfortable for the
staff and reduces the danger of fire. The system should be designed, installed and inspected
by professionals, then cleaned and maintained regularly.
First—aid Kits
First—aid supplies should be stored in a clearly marked box, conspicuously located near food
preparation areas. State and local laws may specify the kit’s ex- act contents. Generally, they
should include a first-aid manual, bandages, gauze dressings, adhesive tape, antiseptics,
scissors, cold packs and other supplies. The kit should be checked regularly and items
replaced as needed. In addition, cards with emergency telephone numbers should be placed
inside the fist—aid kit and near a telephone.

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6. FUELS USED IN THE KITCHEN

Eight important fuels used in hotel kitchens.
The fuels are:
1. LPG
2. CNG
3. Coal
4. Wood
5. Electricity
6. Steam
7. Solid Fuel/ Handy Fuel
8. Solar Energy.
Fuel # 1. LPG:
LPG or liquefied petroleum gas is the generic name for commercial propane and butane
composed fuel used in the kitchen to fuel gas burners. This gas is supplied in industrial
cylinders or in bulk storage tanks at the hotel premises. It is supplied to the hotel kitchen
through pipelines.
The LPG cylinders are stored in a separate place, usually known as. ‘Gas bank’ and are
usually operated by a department in the hotel called ‘kitchen stewarding’. Amount of gas
cylinders used in the gas bank depends on the types of operations they are used for.
A large hotel may have more than 100 cylinders. Half of these would be installed to supply
gas whereas half would always be a backup. A certain gas pressure is maintained by the
stewarding department as certain ranges require high pressure for cooking. LPG is liquefied
under pressure and converts into gas when the pressure is released.
It is almost smokeless and easy to handle. LPG should be handled with utmost care as being a
transparent gas its leakage is not easily detectable and it is also highly combustible.
There are certain government regulations regarding the usage of LPG. For example, LPG
cannot be used in basement kitchens or below the sea level and hence, in those kinds of
conditions one has to rely on electricity or steam- operated equipment.
Usage:
It is one of the most essential fuels used in the hotel kitchen and is known for its efficiency. It
is used as a fuel for cooking ranges, ovens, and salamanders. Some tandoors used in Indian
cooking are also fired by LPG.

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Fuel # 2. CNG:
Compressed natural gas is slowly gaining popularity for its fuel efficiency and environment-
friendly properties.
Usage:
It is used in eco-friendly hotels as fuel in many types of equipment such as ovens, gas ranges,
etc.
Fuel # 3. Coal:
Though it is a very crude form of fuel to be used in a modern kitchen, it is still very popular.
The smoky flavour which the charcoal imparts is much desired. Coal should always be stored
away from food area, ideally in a cool, dark room away from any moisture. Usually separate
areas are built near the receiving area for coal storage as coal is combustible and messy.
Usage:
Coal is used in a hotel kitchen to light tandoor and grills for barbecue. The coal used in the
hotels is wood charcoal only.
Fuel # 4. Wood:
One would have come across wood-fired pizza ovens in the modern restaurants today.
Gaining popularity of pizzas has led to the origin of this oven which lends an aesthetic
appearance to the restaurant, where chefs prepare pizzas in front of the guests. Though it is
also operated by LPG, few logs of wood are placed inside to impart a smoky flavour to the
pizzas.
Usage:
It is used as a fuel for wood-fired pizza ovens. The pizza ovens have LPG fire but wood is
also kept inside to impart a smoky flavour to the food.
Fuel # 5. Electricity:
Electricity is also used as fuel to operate many types of equipment. Care should be taken
while ordering such equipment as many countries operate on certain volts. In India equipment
works on 220 volts, whereas in the USA equipment works on 110 volts. So care should be
taken while importing equipment.
Some of the heavy duty equipment use three-phase electric current and some use only single
phase. So it is important that the instructions are read before installing the new machinery.
Usage:
Electricity is generally used to operate most of the equipment in the hotel kitchen. It is
popular in the hotel kitchens because it is easy to control electrical equipment.
Fuel # 6. Steam:
Most of the hotels produce steam, which is used to cook or operate equipment. Steam is
supplied to the hotel kitchen through insulated pipes.

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Usage:
Steam is used in equipment such as dishwashers and steam jacket kettles.
Fuel # 7. Solid Fuel/ Handy Fuel:
This fuel is made from petroleum jelly and comes in small tins. These are mostly used in
F&B service areas.
Usage:
This type of fuel is hardly used in hotel kitchens but is very commonly used in F&B service,
where it is used in heating up food in the chafing dishes used commonly in banquets.
Fuel # 8. Solar Energy:
The heat from the sun is used as a fuel. This is not a very commonly used fuel in the kitchens,
but many eco- friendly hotels have solar cookers that are used in cooking.
Usage:
Solar cookers utilize solar energy to cook food.

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7. A CULINARY HISTORY

Like any fine art, great cookery requires taste and creativity, an appreciation of beauty and a
mastery of technique. Like the sciences, successful cookery demands knowledge and an
understanding of the basic principles. And like any successful leader, today’s professional
chefs must exercise sound judgment and be committed to achieving excellence in their
endeavors.
Chefs and Restaurants
Cooks/Chefs have produced food in quantity for as long as people have eaten together. For
millennia, chefs have catered to the often elaborate dining needs of the wealthy and the
powerful. But the history of the professional chef is fairly recent. Its cast is mostly French,
and it is intertwined with the history of restaurants – for only with the development of the
restaurants during the late 18thC and the early 19th C were chef’s expected to produce,
efficiently and economically, different dishes at different times for different diners.
The 18th Century – Boulanger’s Restaurants
The word restaurant is derived from the French word restaurer (to restore). Since the
16th Century, the word restorative has been used to describe rich and highly flavored soups or
stews capable of restoring lost strength during recuperation from illness. Restoratives, like all
other cooked foods offered and purchased from outside the house, were made by guild
members. Each guild had the monopoly of preparing certain types of food items. For
example, during the reign of Henri IV (1533-1610), there were separate guilds
for rotisseurs (who spit roasted large joints of meat), patisiers (who cooked pies and tarts,
often made with poultry), tamisiers (who baked breads), vinaigriers (who made sauces and
some stews) and porte-chapes (caterers who organized feasts and celebrations.
The French claim that the world’s first modern restaurant was opened in 1765, when a
Parisian tavern keeper, a Monsieur Boulanger, hung a sign advertising the sale of a special
restorative, a dish of sheep’s feet in a white sauce. His establishment closed a short while
later because of a lawsuit brought by a guild, whose members claimed that Boulanger was
infringing on their exclusive rights to sell prepared dishes. Boulanger won in court and later
reopened.
Boulanger’s establishment differed from the numerous inns and taverns that existed
across Europe for centuries. These inns and taverns served foods prepared off premises by the
various guilds. The choice was very limited. The food was an add-on to the basic service of
sleeping accommodation and drink. Customers were served family style and ate at communal
tables. Boulanger’s contribution was to serve a variety of foods prepared on premises to
customers whose primary interest was dining.
Several other restaurants opened in Paris during the succeeding decades, including theGrande
Taverne de Londres in 1782. Its owner, Antoine Beauvilliers (1754-1817) was the former
steward to the Comte de Provence, later, King Louis VIII of France. He advanced the
development of the modern restaurant by offering his wealthy patrons a menu listing
available dishes during fixed hours.

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The French Revolution (1789-1799) had a significant effect on the budding restaurant
industry. Along with the aristocracy, the guilds and their monopolies were abolished. The
revolution also allowed public access to the skills and creativity of the well trained and
sophisticated chefs who had worked in the private kitchens of the aristocracy. Although many
of the aristocracy’s chefs either left the country or lost their jobs (and some even their
heads!!!), a few enterprising ones open restaurants catering to the growing urbanized middle
class in the new Republic
The Early 19th Century – Carême and Grande Cuisine
As the 19th Century progressed, more restaurants opened, serving a greater selection of items
and catering to a wider clientele. By mid-century, several large grand restaurants in Paris
were serving elaborate meals reminiscent of the Grande cuisine or haute cuisine of the
aristocracy. Grande Cuisine reached its peak at the hands of Antonin Carême, whose meals
were characterized by several courses, each intricately prepared, presented and garnished.
Other restaurateurs blended the techniques and styles of Grande cuisine with the simpler
foods and tastes of the middle classes (cuisine bourgeoisie) to create a new cuisine, simpler
than Grande cuisine but more than mere home cooking.
The Late 19th Century – Escoffier and Cuisine Classique
Following the lead set by the French in both culinary style and the restaurant business,
restaurants opened throughout Europe and indeed across the world as well. During the
19th century Charles Ranhofer opened the first American restaurant in New York –
Delmonico’s. One of the finest restaurants outside France was at the Savoy Hotel
inLondon opened by Cesar Ritz in 1898. The chef was the renowned Auguste Escoffier.
Escoffier was generally credited with the refining of Grande Cuisine established by Carême,
to create cuisine classique or classical cuisine. By doing so, he brought French cuisine to the
world and to the 20th century.
The Mid -20th century – Point and Nouvelle Cuisine
The mid-20th century witnessed a trend towards lighter and more simply prepared
[Link] Point was a master practitioner of this movement. But this master’s goal of
simplicity was carried to even greater lengths by chefs that he had trained, mainly, Paul
Bocuse, Jean and Pierre Troisgros, Alain Chapel, François Bise and Louis Outhier. They
along with Michel Guérard and Roger Verge were the pioneers of Nouvelle cuisine in the
early 1970’s. Their culinary philosophy was based on the rejection of overly rich, needlessly
complicated dishes. These chefs emphasized healthy eating. The ingredients must be
absolutely fresh and of the highest possible quality, the cooking methods must be simple. The
accompaniments must be light and contribute of overall harmony; the completed plates must
be elegantly designed and decorated. Following these guidelines, some traditional cooking
methods have been applied to non-traditional ingredients, and ingredients have been
combined in new and previously unorthodox fashions. For chefs with knowledge, skill, taste
and judgment, this works.

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MARIE – ANTOIN (ANTONIN) CARẾME

CAREME was known as the King of Cooks and the Cook of Kings. He was the
acknowledged master of French Grande Cuisine. Abandoned on the streets of Paris as a child,
he worked his way from a cook’s helper in a working class restaurant to become one of the
most prestigious chefs of his time. During his career, he was chef to the famous diplomat and
gourmand, Prince de Talleyrand, the prince regent of England, who later became King
George IV; Czar Alexander I of Russia and Baron Rothschild, among others.

His stated goal was to achieve lightness, grace, and order in the preparation and presentation
of food. As a patissier, he designed elegant and elaborate pastry and confectionary items,
many of which were based on architectural designs. As a showman, he garnished his dishes
with ornamental skewers (hatelets) threaded with colorful ingredients such as crayfish and
intricately carved vegetables, and presented his creations on elaborate bases (soccles). As
a saucier, he standardized the use of roux as a thickening agent, perfected recipes and devised
a system for classifying sauces. As agarde-manger, Carême popularized cold cuisine,
emphasizing moulds and aspic dishes.
As a culinary professional, Carême designed kitchen tool, equipment and uniforms. As an
author, he wrote and illustrated many texts on the culinary arts, including Le Maitred’hotel
Francais (1822), describing the hundreds of dishes he created and presented in the various
capitals of Europe; La Patissier royale parisienne (1825), describing elaborate and fanciful
designs for les pieces montées (center pieces), that were the crowning glory of grand dinners;
and his five volume masterpiece on the state of his profession, L’art de la cuisine au XIXe
siecie (1833), the last two volumes of which were completed after his death by his
protégé and associate Plummerey. His treatises were not mere cookbooks. Rather, he
analyzed cooking, both old and new, emphasizing procedure and order and covering every
aspect of the art of le Grande Cuisine.
Carême died before age 50, burnt out, according to Laurent Tailhade, by the flame of his
genius and the coal of the spits. But this must have been the glory he sought, for he once
wrote: ‘the shorter the life, the greater the glory’
AUGUSTE ESCOFFIER (1846-1935)
Escoffier’s brilliant career began at the age of 13 in his uncle’s restaurant and continued until
his death at 89. Called the ‘emperor of the world’s kitchens’, he is perhaps best known for
defining French cuisine and dining.

Unlike Carême, Escoffier never worked in an aristocratic household. Rather, he exhibited his
culinary skill in the dining rooms of the finest hotels in Europe including the Place Vendome
in Paris and the Savoy &Carlton hotels in London.
Escoffier did much to enhance the Grande cuisine that arguably reached its perfection under
Carême. Crediting Carême with providing the foundation, Escoffier simplified the profusion
of flavors, dishes and garnishes that typified Carême’s work. He also streamlined some of
Carême’s overly elaborate and fussy procedures and classifications. For example, he reduced

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Carême’s elaborate system to classify sauces into the five mother sauces that is still
recognized today. Escoffier sought simplicity and aimed for the perfect balance of a few
superb ingredients. Some consider his refinement of Grande cuisine to have been so radical
as to credit him with the development of a new cuisine referred to as cuisine
classique (classic or classical cuisine)
His many writings include Le livres des menus (1912), in which, discussing the principles of
a well-balanced meal, he analogizes a great dinner to a symphony with contrasting
movements that should be appropriate to the occasion, the guests and the season. His
book Ma Cuisine was published in 1934. However, his most important contribution is a
culinary treatise intended for the professional chef and was entitled Le Grande
Culinaire(1903). Still in use today, it is an outstanding collection of more than 5000 classic
recipes and garnishes. In it, Escoffier emphasizes the mastery of techniques, the thorough
understanding of cooking principles and the appreciation of ingredients – attributes he
considers to be the building blocks professional chefs should use to create great dishes.
Escoffier was honored as a Chevalier of the French Legion of Honor in 1920 for his work in
enhancing the reputation of French cuisine.

FERNAND POINT (1897-1955)

A massive man with a monumental personality, Point modernized and refined the classic
cuisine of Escoffier. By doing so, he laid the foundations for Nouvelle Cuisine.
Point received his early training in some of the finest hotel-restaurant kitchens in Paris. In
1922, he and his family moved to Vienne, a city in the south-west of France nearLyon, and
opened a restaurant. Two years later, his father left the restaurant to Fernand, who renamed
it, La Pyramide. During the succeeding years, it became one of the culinary wonders of the
world.
Point disdained dominating sauces and distracting accompaniments and garnishes. He
believed that each dish should have one dominant ingredient, flavor or theme. Garnishes
should be simple and must match like a tie to a suit. Procedure was of great importance. He
devoted equal efforts to the frying of an egg and creating marjolaine (an almond and hazelnut
sponge filled with chocolate and praline buttercream). His goal was to use the finest of raw
ingredients and to produce perfect food that looked elegant and simple. But simplicity was
not easy to achieve. As he once said, ‘a Bearnaise sauce is nothing but an egg yolk, a shallot,
a little tarragon vinegar and some butter. But it takes years of practice to make it perfect’.
INFLUENCES ON MODERN FOOD SERVICE OPERATIONS
From Monsieur Boulanger’s humble establishment, great industry has grown. The dramatic
growth and diversification of the food service industry is due in part to the Industrial
Revolution and the social and economic changes it wrought, including the introduction of
new technologies, foods, concerns and customers.
New Technologies
Technology has always had a profound effect on cooking. For example, the development of
clay and later metal vessels that could contain liquids and could whit stand and conduct heat

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offered prehistoric cooks the opportunity to stew, make soups and porridge, pickle and brine
foods and control fermentation. But it was not until the rapid technological advances fostered
by the Industrial Revolution that anything approaching the modern kitchen was possible.

One of the most important advancements was the introduction of the cast iron stove. Prior to
the 19th century,, most cooking was done on spits and grills or in cauldrons and pots set on
burning coal or wood. This did not lend itself to simultaneous cooking of different dishes or
to items requiring constant care and attention. With the introduction of cast iron stoves during
the 1800s (first wood, then coal and subsequently gas and finally electric by early
20th century) cooks could now cook more comfortably and safely, and control the
temperatures. They were also able to efficiently prepare and hold for later use or service a
multitude of smaller amounts of items requiring different cooking methods or ingredients, a
necessity at a restaurant simultaneously catering to different diners’ needs.

Also of great importance, were the development of food preservation and storage techniques..
For thousands of years, food was preserved by sun drying, salting, smoking and pickling,
sugar curing and fermentation. Although useful and effective, these methods destroy or
distort the appearance and the flavor of most foods. By the early 19thcentury, preserving
techniques that had minimal effect on appearance and flavor began to emerge. By 1800, the
Frenchman François Appert successfully canned food items by subjecting food items stored
in sterilized glass jars to very high heat. An early mechanical refrigerator was developed by
the mid-1800s; soon reliable refrigerators, iceboxes and, later, freezers were available.
During the 20th century, freeze-drying, vacuum packing and irradiation became common
preservation techniques.
While advancements were being made in preservation and storage techniques, developments
in transportation technology were also underway. During the 19th century, steam powered
ships and railroads were able to bring foods quickly to the market from distant suppliers.
During the 20th century, temperature controlled cargo ships, trains, trucks and airplanes all
were used as part of an integrated worldwide food transportation network. Combined with
reliable and dependable food preservation and storage techniques, improved transportation
networks have freed chefs from seasonal and geographical limitations in their choice of foods
and have expanded the customers’ choices and culinary horizons.
Engineering advancements also have facilitated or even eliminated much routine kitchen
work. Since the start of the Industrial revolution, chefs have come to rely increasingly on
mechanical and motorized food processors, mixers and cutters as well as a wealth of
sophisticated kitchen equipment such as high carbon stainless steel knife blades, infra-red
thermometers and induction cooktops.

New Foods
Modern food preservation, storage and transportation techniques have made both fresh and
exotic foods regularly available to the chef and the consumer.

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Advancement in agriculture such as the switch from organic to chemical fertilizers and the
introduction of pesticides and drought or pest resistant strains has resulted in higher crop
yield. This of course has recently led to serious and often heated debates as to the reliability
and the safety of these types of food. Organically grown crops have made a comeback and
are increasingly popular from the food safety point of view. Genetically Modified Foods
(GMF) are also being experimented with and some of these are already available in the
market (square watermelons!!!). Hybridized and genetically engineered foods have produced
better crops, and, for better or for worse, fruits, vegetables and other crops like grain, have a
longer shelf life and are more amenable to mass production handling, storage and
transportation methods.
Likewise, advancements in animal husbandry and aquaculture have led to a more reliable
supply of leaner meat, poultry and fish. Moreover, foods found traditionally only in the wild
(for example, game, wild rice and some kinds of mushrooms) are now being raised
commercially and are routinely available.
Food processing and preservation techniques have also led to the development of
prepackaged prepared convenience foods, some of which are actually quite good. After
careful thought and testing, today’s chef can rely on some of these products. Doing so allows
greater flexibility and more time to devote to other preparations.
New Concerns
Consumer concerns about nutrition and diet have fueled changes in the food service industry.
Obviously, what we eat, affects our health. Adequate amounts of nutrients promote good
health by preventing deficiencies; good nutrition also helps prevent chronic diseases. Chefs
must provide their customers with nutritious foods. The public has long been concerned with
food safety. Constant grading and inspection by the authorities will help improve standards.
Concerns about nutrition and food safety have also resulted in renewed interest in organically
grown food and with genetically modified food.
New Consumers
Demographic and social changes have contributed to the diversification of the food service
industry by creating and identifying new consumer groups, each with their own desires and
needs. By tailoring their menu, prices and décor accordingly, food service operators can cater
to their consumer’s needs. Through travel and exposure to books, magazines, TV shows
about food, consumers are becoming aware, better educated and sophisticated. Educated
consumers provide a market for new foods and cuisines as well as an appreciation for a job
well done. Although customers frequent a particular restaurant because of the chef or the
owner is a celebrity, or the restaurant is riding high on a crest of fad or fashion, most
consumers choose a restaurant – whether it is a fast food outlet or an elegant French
restaurant- because it provides quality food at a price they are willing to pay. To remain
successful, then, the restaurant must carefully balance its commitment to quality with
marketplace realities.

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8. AIMS & OBJECTIVES OF COOKING

Cooking means exposing food material to heat. The medium of transfer of heat from its
source could be water, air or oil.
Cooking sterilizes food partially. The growth of bacteria are restricted at 40˚c and killed at
above 60˚c. After cooking food, food gets cooked and easy to digest by human body, it
increases the palatability. Heat brings about changes in colour, texture and overall appearance
of the food and appetizing too. A single ingredient may be used by applying different ways
and cooking methods and bring a new innovative dish. If different ingredients combined in
one dish it balanced the meal. Texture is used to describe the characteristics of a ready to eat
product. The final product texture will depending on which ingredients added, the way of
mixing, and the method of cooking. Cooking it’s not mean only boiling product it is baking
too. Biscuits, nankhatai and cakes we cannot eat in raw form. After baking it we will get
different texture accordingly Biscuits( firm and close ), nankhatai ( crumbly, cakes ( spongy
), Swiss roll( light ) and puffs ( flaky ).
Application of heat on the food is plays crucial role, excess and minimum heat is define
the food texture weather it is tough, hard, mashy. Before cooking food you should
consider following points:
1. Concentration of thickening agent
2. Temperature
3. Degree of dispersion
4. Mechanical treatment
5. Time
Why thickening agent is important while cooking the food?
The consistency of coating and dripping is applicable on food and that food is in cooking
process. It shows the timing of cooking to cook the particular product. If the application of
coating is thick the more time it will take to cook the product vies versa thin will cook in less
time
Cuts of ingredients is matter a lot while cooking. Because each ingredient is having his own
cooking time. If the cuts are small it take less time to cook again it varies from soft to
[Link], leafy vegetable cooked easily and the meat will take more time for cooking though
the cuttings are same.
Cooked Food May Be Easier to Chew and Digest:
Chewed food is much more difficult for the body to digest and can lead to gas and bloating.
Additionally, it requires significantly more energy and effort to properly chew raw foods than
cooked ones. The process of cooking food breaks down some of its fibres and plant cell
walls, making it easier for the body to digest and absorb the nutrients .Cooking also generally
improves the taste and aroma of food, which makes it much more enjoyable to eat. Properly
cooking grains and legumes not only improves their digestibility, but it also reduces the

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number of anti-nutrients .Cooked foods are easier to chew and digest than raw foods. Proper
digestion is necessary to absorb a food's nutrients.
Cooking Increases the Antioxidant Capacity of Some Vegetables:
Cooking vegetables increases the availability of antioxidants like beta-carotene and lutein
Beta-carotene is a powerful antioxidant that the body converts into
Vitamin A. A diet rich in beta-carotene has been associated with a reduced risk of heart
disease. Lycopene has been associated with a decreased risk of prostate cancer in men and
lower risk of heart disease. Cooking increases the antioxidant capacity and content of plant
compounds found in carrots, broccoli and zucchini.
Cooking Kills off Harmful Bacteria and Microorganisms.
E. coli, Salmonella, Listeria and Campylobacter are some of the most common bacteria that
may be found in raw foods
Foods That Are Healthier Cooked
 Asparagus: Cooking asparagus breaks down its fibrous cell walls, vitamins A, C and
E more available to be absorbed.
 Mushrooms: Cooking mushrooms helps degrade agaritine, a potential carcinogen
found in mushrooms. Cooking also helps release ergothioneine, a powerful mushroom
antioxidant
 Spinach: Nutrients like iron, magnesium, calcium and zinc are more available for
absorption when spinach is cooked.
 Tomatoes: Cooking greatly increases the antioxidant lycopene in tomatoes
 Carrots: Cooked carrots contain more beta-carotene than raw carrots Potatoes: The
starch in potatoes is nearly indigestible until a potato is cooked.
 Legumes: Raw or undercooked legumes contain dangerous toxins called lectins.
Lectins are eliminated with proper soaking and cooking.
 Meat, fish and poultry: Raw meat, fish and poultry may contain bacteria that can
cause food-borne illnesses. Cooking these foods kills harmful bacteria.
Precautions to take when preparing food
 always wash your hands before and after handling food
 wash all fruit and vegetables, including fruit or salad from pre-packed bags, before
eating
 always wash your hands (and any equipment used such as knives and cutting boards)
after handling raw meat or fish
 Store raw foods separately from prepared foods. For example, raw meat should be
kept in the lower part of the fridge
 use separate chopping boards for meat and vegetables

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 ensure that precooked chilled ready meals are thoroughly heated and piping hot
 Make sure food is cooked through. Meats that aren’t cooked can contain salmonella
bacteria – be particularly careful with barbecues
 Washing and drying hands regularly is important for both you and your baby's health.
It is one of the best ways to prevent the spread of bacteria.

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9. METHODS OF COOKING
Foods can be cooked in fat, water, air or steam. These are known as cooking media. There are
two general types of cooking methods: dry heat and moist heat. Dry-heat cooking methods
are those using air or fat. They are broiling, grilling, roasting and baking, sautéing, pan-frying
and deep-frying. Cooking with moist heat is the process of applying heat to food by
submerging it directly into a hot liquid or by exposing it to steam. Here in this article you will
find various cooking methods, their suitability to different foods and effect of these cooking
methods.

#ROASTING: SPIT ROASTING-The food to be cooked is brought in direct contact with

flame of clear, bright fire. The food is basted with fat and is also turned regularly to ensure
cooking and browning .This method is known as spit roasting.

OVEN ROASTING: Now this has taken the place of spit roasting, the joint is raised out of
the fat by means of bones or a trivet to prevent the meat from frying and becoming hard.
Frequent basting however is essential. The food is put into a fairly hot oven for 5 to 10 min.
and the temperature is lowered to allow the joint to be cooked through. Aluminum foil is now
used in oven roasting. The joint is browned in fat. A matignon (finely minced) of carrot,
onion, celery, ham, thyme may or may not be used. The joint is than wrapped tightly in
aluminum foil and cooked till done.
POT ROASTING: A thick heavy pan is used. Enough fat is melted to cover the bottom of
the pan. When the fat is hot the joint is browned. It is then lifted out and 2 or 3 skewers are
put into the pan, on which the joint is placed. This helps to prevent the joints from sticking.
The joint should just touch the fat. The pan is then covered tightly with well-fitting lid and
cooked over very low fire. Root aromatic vegetables can be cooked with the meat.
POELING: It is similar to pot roasting, difference is that it is entirely in butter. Usually
poultry and game are pooled. The poultry is wrapped with a thin slice of pork fat, covered
with or without butter paper, placed in a pot and basted with melted butter while cooking.
Covered with a tight fitting lid. Aromatics vegetables are added and later on moistened with
Madeira wine or red wine. After the liquor has absorbed the aroma of the vegetables then the
cooked food item is removed, it is then strained, grease removed and reduce a little seasoned
and served as accompanying sauce.

Special poeling are known as ‘Encasserole’ and ‘Encocotte’

Encasserole: Food items is poeled only in butter, without vegetables .When cooking is done
the food item is withdrawn and brown stock is poured. The piece is put into the earthenware
utensils and kept hot in bain marie and serve in same dish.
Encocotte: The procedure is same as encasserole, except that the food item is garnished with
vegetables cooked in butter such as mushrooms, artichoke bottoms, small onions, carrots,
turnips.

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BAKING: The food to be cooked is surrounded by hot air in a closed oven. The action of dry
heat is modified by the steam which arises from the food while cooking.
FRYING: This is a cooking methods where food to be cooked is brought into contact with
hot fat.
DEEP FAT FRYING – The food is completely immersed in hot fat. samosa,puri etc.
SHALLOW FAT FRYING – Only a little fat is used. Sometimes the food is turned over so
that both sides may be cooked. paratha, omelet etc.
SAUTEING- Comes under shallow frying, little fat is used in frying pan and the food items
are tossed or jumped.
BOILING-Food to be cooked is surrounded with boiling water (100*c). Sufficient liquid
should be used to cover the food. Quite number of bubbles should be seen on the surface.
STEAMING- The food to be cooked is surrounded by plenty of steam from fast boiling
water directly. Steamer is used .This is slow process of cooking so easily cook food can be
prepared by this cooking methods.
POACHING- Cooking slowly in a minimum amount of liquid which should never be
allowed to boil but should be off boil. Fruits, fish, eggs are poached.

STEWING- This is gentle simmering in a small quantity of liquid in a pan, the pan will be
covered by a lid. Both liquid and food are served together.

BRAISING- This is combined cooking methods of roasting and stewing. Braising is done to
prevent evaporation so that the food retains its own juices.

The meat is browned in hot fat to seals the pores and thus the juice are retained. It is then
placed on a bed of root vegetables. Stock or demi-glaze should come to two- third of the
meat. The flavorings and seasonings are also added. The lid is put on and it is allowed to
cook gently on the oven. When almost done the lid is removed the joint are frequently basted.
The above cooking methods is basic method of braising.

BROILING- This is cooking by direct heat, It could be done by source of heat (above or
below).It is dry cooking and can be done on a grid (iron bars).

GRILLING- The source of heat may be from charcoal, coke, gas, or electricity. In an
authentic grill the heat is located bellow the grill bars .Usually small items are grilled. The
meat is trimmed, slightly flattened with a bat or steak hammer seasoned with salt and pepper.
Frequently basting is required. Griddle can be greased with oil to prevent sticking.

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Types of cooking methods

Effect of heat on food

Heat and cooking methods
To cook food means to heat it in order to make certain changes in it. Skillful cooks know
exactly what changes they want to make and what they have to do to get them right. To learn
these cooking skills, it is important for you to know why foods behave as they do when
heated. For this you have to study a little theory to support your practice in the kitchen.
Perhaps not all the parts in this section will make sense to you at first. But they should
become clearer to you after you have thought about them in relation to specific techniques.

10. EFFECT OF HEAT ON FOODS

Foods are composed of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and water plus small amounts of other
compounds such as minerals (including salt), vitamins, pigments (colouring agents), and
flavour elements. It is important to understand how these components react when heated or

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mixed with other foods. You will then be better equipped to correct cooking faults when they
occur and to anticipate the effects of changing cooking methods, cooking temperatures, or
ingredient proportions. In other words, when you know why foods behave as they do, you can
then understand how to get them to behave, as you want them to.

Proteins
Protein is a major component of meats, poultry, fish, eggs, milk, and milk products. It is
present in smaller amounts in nuts, beans, and grains.
As proteins are heated, they become firm, or coagulate. As the temperature increases, they
shrink, become firmer, and lose more moisture. Exposure of proteins to excessive heat
toughens them and makes them dry. Most proteins complete coagulation or “worked” at
160oFto 185oF (71oC to 85oC).
Connective tissues are special proteins that are present in meats. Meats with a great deal of
connective tissues are tough, but some connective tissues are dissolved when cooked slowly
with moisture. By cooking tough meats properly, they can be made more tender.
Acids, such as lemon juice, vinegar, and tomato products, do two things to proteins:
They speed coagulation.
They help dissolve some connective tissues.

Carbohydrates
Starches and sugars are both carbohydrates. Both compounds are present in foods in many
different forms. They are found in fruits, vegetable, grains, beans, and nuts. Meats and fish
also contain small amounts of carbohydrate.
For the cook the two most important changes in carbohydrates caused by heat are
caramelization and gelatinization.
Caramelization is the browning of sugars. The browning of sautéed vegetables and the golden
colour of bread crust are forms of caramelization (dextrinization).
Gelatinization occurs when starches absorb water and swell. This is a major principle in the
thickening of sauces and in the production of breads and pastries. Acids inhibit gelatinization.
A sauce thickened with flour or starch will be thinner if it contains acid.
Fruits and Vegetable fiber
Fiber is the name for a group of complex substances that give structure and firmness to
plants. This fiber cannot be digested.
The softening of fruits and vegetables in cooking is in part, the breaking down of fiber.
Sugar makes fiber more firm. Fruit cooked with sugar keeps its shape better than fruit cooked
without sugar.

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Baking soda (and other alkalis) makes fiber softer. Vegetables should not be cooked with
baking soda because they become mushy and lose vitamins.
Fats
Fats are present in meats. Poultry, fish, eggs, milk products, nuts and whole grains, and, to a
lesser extent, in vegetables and fruits. Fats are also important as cooking mediums, as for
frying.
Fats can be either solid or liquid at room temperature. Liquid fats are called oils. Melting
points of solid fats vary.
When fats are heated, they begin to break down. When hot enough, they deteriorate rapidly
and begin to smoke. The temperature at which this happens is called the smoke point and it
varies for different fats. A stable fat – one with a high smoke point – is an important
consideration in deep fat frying.
Minerals, Vitamins, Pigments, and Flavour Components
Minerals and vitamins are important to the nutritional quality of the food. Pigments and
flavour components are important to a food’s appearance and taste and may determine
whether the food is appetizing enough to eat. So it is important to preserve all these elements.
All of these components may be leached out, or dissolved away from foods during cooking.
Vitamins and pigments may also be destroyed by heat, by long cooking, and by other
elements present during cooking.
It is important, then, to select cooking methods that preserve, as much as possible, a food’s
nutrients, and appearance. These will always be a consideration when cooking techniques are
explained.

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11. STOCKS
The importance of stock in the kitchen is indicated by the French word for stock: FOND,
meaning foundation or base. In classical cuisine, the ability to prepare good stocks is the most
basic of all skills, because so much of the work in the kitchen depends upon them. A good
stock is the base for soups, sauces, gravies and stews. In the modern kitchen however, stock
has lost some of its relevance and importance. Stock requires labor and moreover, the trend
towards lean food without sauces means that today, stocks are not that necessary. Also the
advent of the convenience stock cube, paste or powder has made the traditional stock making
a bit obsolete. Nevertheless, the finest cuisine still depends on high quality stock. So stock
making still remains an essential skill. Stocks are never served by themselves but are
components of other dishes.

DEFINITION:
Stock is a flavorful and nutritious extract/liquid made by the careful simmering of meat and
meat bones, or fish and fish bones plus aromatic vegetables, seasoning and flavoring.

The preparation of stock has been simplified in many ways since the days of Escoffier.
However its relevance and use in the modern day kitchen has not diminished. There are three
basic stocks used nowadays in the kitchen:

White Stock or Fond Blanc

Brown Stock or Fond Burn or Estouffade
Fish Stock or Court Bouillon or Fumet (reduced fish stock)

As per the definition, there is no such thing as a `vegetable stock’ but the cooking liquor
obtained from cooking vegetables could be used in the place of stock in some cases and
should be referred to as `pot liquor’.

THE INGREDIENTS
BONES:
Bones are the major ingredients in the making of stock. Most of the flavor and the body of
stock are obtained from the bones of beef, veal, chicken and other poultry and fish.
Occasionally, lamb, goat, pork and game bones are used for specific purposes. The kind of
bones used would of course indicate the type of stock.
Chicken stock is made from chicken bones
Veal stock is made from veal bones

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Fish Stock is made from fish bones and

Beef stock is made from beef bones
Chicken and veal stock is called White Stock whereas Beef Stock is referred to as Brown
Stock. The bones for brown stock are first browned in the oven so as to give the special color.
Lamb, turkey and have specialized uses.
There are two important factors to keep in mind here:

1. Meat and bones contain connective tissues called collagen. On heating, these break down
and form gelatin and it is this gelatin that gives `body’ to the stock. Body is an important
feature in stock making and is a quality indicator. A well-made stock will thicken and even
solidify when chilled.
2. Cartilage is the best source of gelatin in bones. Younger animals have more cartilage in
their skeletons. As they get older, these harden into solid bone which is harder to dissolve
into the stock. Knuckle bones, on the joints of major bones, have a lot of cartilage and are
valued in stock making. Neck bones and shank bones are also used a great deal.
Large bones are cut into smaller pieces, about 3” long. This exposes more surface area and
aids maximum extraction. These smaller pieces of bones are easier to handle and fit easily
into the stockpot.
MEAT:
Because of its cost, meat is rarely used nowadays in stock making. However, in the classical
methods, large pieces of tougher cuts of meat were used to add flavor, taste, and nutritive
value and to give body to the stock. Of course, suitable meats would be used. Beef for beef
stock, chicken for chicken stock etc.
MIREPOIX:
Aromatic vegetables are the second most important ingredients used to make stock. These
add to the flavor and will include onion, carrot, celery and leeks. When these vegetables and
roughly cut and mixed together, they are referred to as a mirepoix. (Pronounced: Meer pwah).
A mirepoix is used in all areas of cooking as a flavoring and not just in stock making. So you
will come across this term often. To make 400 GMS of mirepoix you will need:
200 GMS onion & leeks (without the green portion)
100 GMS of carrot &
100 GMS of celery.
To make mirepoix for a white stock, omit the carrot. This is done so as to obtain a colorless
stock. As I have mentioned earlier, the vegetables of a mirepoix are roughly cut. The size
depends on for how long you will cook the stock. Cooking times of the various stocks will
vary, as you will learn later in this chapter.

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ACID:
Acid products help to dissolve the connective tissue present in meat and bones. Tomato
products (paste and puree or juice) are used in brown stocks but would discolor white stock.
Lemon juice or white vinegar is a commonly used acid product. Wine is occasionally used
especially for fish stocks. However, its flavor contribution is more important than its acidity.
SCRAPS & LEFTOVERS:
These are constantly being added into the stockpot over a period of time. This may or may
not be a good idea. Scraps and leftovers may be added if they are clean and appropriate to the
stock being made. Remember that the stockpot is not a garbage disposal unit and the final
product is only as good as the ingredients that are used.
SEASONING AND SPICES:
1. Salt is used in minute quantities in stock making. They help to bring out the natural flavors
in the stock. However, stock is rarely served as it is but is part of some other dish, which will
have its own seasoning. Moreover, stock is always concentrated before use.
2. Herbs and spice should be used only lightly. They should never dominate a stock or have a
very pronounced flavor. Herbs and spices are normally tied in a muslin (cheese) cloth and
introduced into the stock. This is known as a sachet (which is French for a bag). A bouquet
garni is a kind of sachet, which uses parsley stalks, thyme, bayleaf and peppercorn. This is
the ideal combination for stock making.
Many chefs use ratios to help them remember the basic proportion of the ingredients used in
stock making.

Bones: 50%
Mirepoix: 10%
Water: 100%

However, given here is a more detailed ratio of the ingredients used.

INGREDIENT PROPORTIONS:
For 4 liters of stock
Ingredients White Brown Fish
Bones Stock Stock Stock
Bones 2.5kg 2.5kgs 2kgs
Mirepoix 500g 500g 250g
Water 5lit 5lit 4lit
Sachet 1no 1no 1no

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Tomato product -- 250g --

White Wine -- -- 250ml

PROCEDURES:
Making stock may seem to be a simple procedure. However, there are many steps involved.
You must understand not only what to do, but also why you are doing it.
Blanching of the Bones:
We know that proteins coagulate when heated. Many proteins dissolve in cold water, but
solidify into small particles or into froth and scum when heated. It is these particles that make
a stock cloudy. Much of the technique of stock making involves avoiding cloudiness to
produce a clear stock. The purpose of blanching the bones is to rid them of the impurities,
which cause cloudiness. The bones of young animals are highest in blood and other
impurities that cloud and discolor stocks. Chefs tend to disagree on the importance of
blanching. Some feel that the process causes flavor loss. Others feel it is necessary to produce
a clear stock. Fish bones are not blanched because of their short cooking time. Blanching
involves the following steps:
1. Cut bones into small pieces and rinse in cold water. This washes off the blood and some of
the other impurities. This step is especially important if the bones are not absolutely fresh.
2. Place the bones in a stockpot and cover with cold water. Remember, impurities dissolve
easily in cold water.
3. Bring the water to a boil. As the water heats, impurities solidify (coagulate) and rise to the
surface as scum.
4. Drain the bones and rinse them well. The bones are now ready for the stockpot.
5. To make brown stock, one more step is involved: Browning of the bones in the oven. This
will impart the required color to the stock.
Procedure for preparing stock:
1. Add the blanched bones to cold water.
2. Bring the water to a boil, then reduce to a simmer.
3. Skim the scum that rises to the surface, carefully.
4. Add the mirepoix and the sachet. (Add tomato products if used)
5. Do not let the stock boil rapidly. Keep it at a low simmer. Boiling makes the stock cloudy.
6. Skim the surface as often as required.
7. Keep the water level above the bones. Cooking bones exposed to air will turn them dark
and discolor the stock.
8. Simmer for the recommended time:

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9. Brown stock: 6 to 8 hours

White stock: 3 to 4 hours
10. Skim the surface and strain the stock through a clean muslin/Tammy cloth.
11. Cool the stock as quickly as possible. Cooling the stock quickly and properly is
important. Improperly cooled stock can spoil easily because it is a good breeding ground for
bacteria. Do not refrigerate hot stock. It will damage the refrigerator and cause other foods to
spoil as well.
Note: For Brown Stock, the mirepoix may be browned with the bones.
When the bones are half browned, add the mirepoix. However, some chefs prefer to add the
mirepoix directly to the stock.
FISH STOCK:
Fish stock is prepared from fish bones obtained after cleaning, cutting, trimming and filleting
fish. These are thoroughly washes and then allowed to sweat in a little oil or butter in a
covered pan over medium heat. Water is then poured into the pan and brought to a boil. The
scum formed is skimmed off regularly and the mirepoix added before allowing the stock to
simmer for 20 to 25 minutes. Because of the short cooking time involved, fish stock is often
referred to as Court Bouillon (court meaning short in French).
REDUCTION & GLAZES
Stocks can be concentrated by boiling or simmering them to reduce them and evaporate part
of the water. This is called reduction or reducing.

A glaze is a stock that is reduced till it coats the back of a spoon. It is so concentrated that is
solid and rubbery when refrigerated. Glazes are used as flavorings in sauce making and in
some meat, fish, poultry and even vegetable preparations. Only small amounts are needed, as
they are very concentrated. There are three types of glazes:
1. Meat glaze or glace de viande made from brown stock.
2. Chicken glaze or glace de volaille made from chicken stock.
3. Fish glaze or glace de poisson made from fish stock (sometimes called Fumet).

The cost, both in terms of money, material and time of making stocks in the kitchen has led to
the widespread use of concentrated convenience products known as bases. The may be
powders or pastes which are diluted with water to make a flavored liquid similar to stocks.
Nestle, Maggi and Knorr are the leading international manufacturers of these bases.
Glazes can be considered to be bases, and in fact they are the original bases, used long before
the modern versions.
Bases vary greatly in quality. The best ones are composed mainly of meat extracts. These are
perishable products and need to be refrigerated. However, a lot of bases are primarily salt (an

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expensive way of buying salt). Read the list of ingredients on the box or packet and avoid
those, which list salt first!
USING BASES:
Bases can be improved by simmering them with a little mirepoix, meat trimmings and bones.
This improves the taste and gives a `fresher’ and more natural flavor to the stock.
Bases can be added to stocks to supplement their flavor and taste and reduce the cooking
time.
Bases are added to stocks to supplement them when only a little is on hand.

There is no substitute for a well-made stock. But it is also true that a good base may be better
than a poorly made stock!!

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SAUCE
Sauce is a flavour cooked usually thickens liquid used to season other food. It adds to
richness, moisture, flavour, colour and brightness also. A sauce is a liquid which has thicken
with–

THICKENING AGENTS

A sauce must be thick enough to cling lightly to the foods; otherwise it will run off and lie in
a puddle at the bottom of the dish. This does not mean that it should be heavy and pasty
either. Starches are the most common thickening agents used in sauces but there are others as
well.
- Roux : Cooked mixture of butter and flour
- Beurre manie : uncooked mixture of butter and flour
- Whitewash: blend of milk and flour
- Slurry: blend of water and flour
- Corn starch: blend of corn flour and water. Used when a clear glossy texture is required.
- Arrowroot: used like corn-starch but gives an even clearer sauce.
- Waxy maize: Used when sauce is to be frozen. Flour and other starches break down and
lose their thickening power when they are frozen. Waxy Maize does not.
- Breadcrumbs: Both fresh and dry will thicken sauces very quickly as they have already
been cooked.
- Egg Yolks: used as thickening in emulsion sauces such as mayonnaise and Hollandaise.
- Egg Yolk and Cream Liaison: Thick cream also adds thickness and flavor to the sauce.
Egg yolks have the power to thicken because of the coagulation of the protein present in the
yolk, when heated. Besides thickening, the liaison also gives richness, flavor & smoothness
to the sauce.

 Enhance and flavour.

 Some sauces helps in digest e.g. Mint and apple sauce served with roast pork.
 It gives to nutritional value of the food, white sauce added to creaminess to the dry
food.
 Serve as accompaniment, sometime gives a contrast taste to another good (Real
mouth palatability). Example-
 Cranberry sauce with roast turkey.
 Sometime it gives the name of dish e.g. when the Madeira wine added in brown
sauce, the name of the dish is called ‘Sauce Madeira’.
 Enhance nutritional value of the food or dish.
 Gives and contrast or balance and bland food e.g. Devil sauce served with eggs gives
proper.

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PREPARATION OF SAUCES AND DERIVATIVES

BECHAMEL / WHITE SAUCE (1 LTR.)

Sl.
No. Ingredients Quantity

1 Flour 90grm.

2 Butter 90grm.

3 Milk 1 ltr.

4 Onion, clove, bay leaf As per requirement

METHOD
 Melt the butter in a thick bottom pan.
 Add flour and mixed it.
 Cooked for a few minutes over a gentle heat without colouring (white roux).
 Remove from the heat.
 Gradually add the warm milk and stair still smooth.
 Add the onion and clove, bay leaf.
 Allow the simmer for 30 min.
 Remove the onion and pass the since in conical strainer.

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DERIVATIVE OF WHITE/BECHAMEL SAUCE:

SL.
No. Name Ingredients Use

Serve with
different types of
veg. fish
preparation.
50gm cheese+1 egg yolk Mixed well
Exam.- Mixed
Morney in the boiling sau ce but unstaring. It
veg with morney
necessary but do not recoil.
sauc e, veg-at-
gratin fish
morney.
01

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Served with fried

fish preparation.
Add 1 tbs anchovy essence + 1 k lit Exam.- Fish cut
02 Anchovy sauce
white sau ce. late serve with
anchovy sauc e
(accompaniment).

Serve with roast

100gm fine chopped onion cooked
preparation.
03 Onion sauce without colour (saute) + Mixed with
Exam.- Roast
k white sauc e.
mutton and egg.

Same as well as onion sauc e but Served with roast

04 Soubise
passed through a conical strainer. mutton.

Serve with pork

preparation and
1 tabs fine chopped fresh parsley + k
05 Parsley sauce boiled fish.
lit of white sauce.
Exam.- Fish
parsley.

Diluted English mustard + white Served with

06 Mustard sauce
sauce. grilled herrings.

VELOUTE SAUCE:
Another name of veloute is basic blond sauce. It is one kinds of mother sau ce and prepared
from blond (light brown), roux and stock. Veloute gets its name from the types of stock used.
Exam.- Fish veloute – fish stock and veloute sau ce. Chicken veloute Chicken stock and
brown roux.
VELOUTE SAUCE (1 LTR.)

Sl.
Ingredients Quantity
No.

1 Flour 90-100grm.

2 Butter 90-100grm.

3 Stock (chicken, fish, veal) 1 ltr.

4 Mushroom (as per requirement) 25grm.

METHOD
 Melt the butter in a thin bottom pan,

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 Add the flour and mixed it.

 Cooked to a sandy texture over gentle heat without colour or little bit of colour (bland
roux).
 Allow to cool.
 Gradients add the boiling stock, stir until smooth and allow simmering approxe 1 hrs.
 Pass through a conical strainer.

DERIVATIVE OF VELOUTE SAUCE:

Sl.
No. Name Ingredients Use

Veloute sau ce + melt from Serve with

Caper Sauce moton stock with the addition of boiled leg of
01 1 tbs of caper. moton.

Half lit of chicken veloute + Served with

25gm mushroom + 60 ml cream boiled
Supreme
+ 1 egg yolk + Few drop of chicken and
02 lemon juice. fish.

Served with
Supreme sauc e + 1 tbs tomato boiled
Aurora
sauce or puree. chicken or
03 poach egg.

Supreme sau ce + 100gm well

Serve with
washed slice saute mushroom,
boiled
Mushroom after the strain supreme sauc e
chicken and
and finish with egg yolk and
sweet bread.
04 cream.

Supreme sauc e + Meat glide and Serve with boiled

05 Ivory ivory colour. chicken.

ESPANOLA SAUCE/ BROWN SAUCE:

Brown sauce is made from brown roux and brown stock or glaze of brown stock. It is one of
most widely used basic or mother sauce and demy-glaze is a derivative of brown stock and is
widely used for the preparation of other brown-sauce derivative.

ESPANOLA SAUCE/ BROWN SAUCE (1 LTR.)

Sl. No. Ingredients Quantity

1 Flour 70grm.

2 Butter 70grm.

3 Tomato Puree 30grm.

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4 Brown Stock 1 % ltr.

5 Carrot 70grm.

6 Onion 70grm.

7 Garlic 70grm.

8 Ginger 20grm.

Flavouring Agent

9 Pursley, Bay leaf, Celery (Fine chopped) 3grm.

METHOD
Put the butter in thick bottom pan.

1. Add the flour and cooked to a light brown colour and stair.
2. Cool and mixed it in the tomato puree.
3. Gradually mixed the boiling stock and bring in the boil.
4. Washed, peel and mirepoxing the vegetable.
5. Lightly brown in a little fat in a frying pan (Roast the vegetable).
6. Drain of the fat and add to the sauce.
7. Simmer gently for 3-4 hrs. And strain.

RECIPE OF DEMY-GLAZE (1 LIT):

Sl. No. Ingredients Quantity

01 Brown sauce 1 lit

02 1st class brown sauce 1 lit

This is refined sauce and it is made it is made by simmering of 1 lit of brown stock and 1 lit
of brown-sauce and reduced by a half, skim of all ingredients and they rise on the surface
during the cooking and pass through a strainer, recoil and collect the seasoning.

DERIVATIVE OF BROWN SAUCE:

Sl. No. Name Ingredients Use

50% of brown stock + Use for preparation of

50% of brown sauce other sauces and
01 Demy-glaze reduced Ya. stocks preparation.

Red wine + chopped Served with fried

chalets + colary + brown stock and paltry
02 Bordelaise paper + demy- glaze. preparation.

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Butter + onion + vinegar + Serve with fried

Robert demy-glaze + [Link] chopped pork (pork
03 + caster sugar. bauna).

Same as Robert sauce but

Grilled pork or grilled
Charcutiere adding 25gm. Slice or
pork chop.
04 Julian of gherkins.

Chop salads + paper + Serve with grilled or

Devil white wine + vinegar + fried fish and meat
05 demy-glaze. preparation.

Butter + chop mushroom +

Serve with stacks
chop salads + white wine
Chasseur preparation and
+ tomato sauce + demy-
poultry egg also.
06 glaze.

Small item or veal,

Demy-glaze + Madeira beef, poultry, game
Madeira
wine. and eggs. (starter
07 course)

TOMATO SAUCE/RED SAUCE:

It is a red kitchen sauce and some piquancy. It is served with lots with the pasta related dish.
Ravi-oil or Spaghetti, eggs, fish and meat preparation and it is also used for increasing the
colour of preparation.

Tomato /Red Sauce (1 ltr.)

Sl. No. Ingredients Quantity

1 Flour 10grm.

2 Butter 100grm.

3 Tomato Puree 50grm.

4 Brown Stock 350ml.

5 Carrot 50grm.

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6 Onion 50grm.

7 Garlic/ Clove Few no.

8 Bay Leaf 1- 2no.

9 Celery 25grm.

10 Spring thyme 1 branch

11 Small dice cut of bacon 10grm.

12 Salt and pepper To taste

METHOD
1. Melt the butter in a saute pan.
2. Add the mire proxy veg. and bacon cude and saute.
3. Mixed in the flour and cooked to a scanty texture and allow to lightly colouring (Blond
roux).
4. Mixed the tomato puree and cold it.
5. Gradually add the boiling stock and simmer for 1 hour.
6. Correct the seasoning and cold it.
7. Pass through a conical strainer.

DERIVATIVE OF TOMATO SAUCE:

SL. Name Ingredients Use

Tomato sauce + Tomato Serve with barbeque

01 Barbeque Ketchup + vinegar + sugar. meal.

Tomato sauce + white wine + Serve with shell fish

02 Portuguese Tomato concase + garlic. and meat preparation.

Tomato sauce + demy- glaze + Serve with roasted

chop shallots + herbs + ham + liver and lamp
03 Italian mushroom. preparation.

Tomato sauce + saute slice

mushroom + garlic + tomato Serve with egg fish
concase + sugar + fresh chop and various types of
04 Provencal parsley. Hors D’oeuvre.

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Tomato sauce + saute chop

onion + white wine + strain +
05 Bretonneau butter + fresh parsley chop. Serve with haricots.

HOLLANDAISE /HOT SAUCE:

It is warm, yellow and rich. It contains a high percentage of fat and egg yolk. The name of the
technique is called ‘emulsion’ (means mixture of butter, lemon juice and egg yolk). It is
served with grilled and baked related fish, veg. and eggs and it is also used as an
accompaniment of continental veg.

Hollandaise /Hot Sauce (1ltr.)

Sl.
Ingredients Quantity
No.

1 Egg yolk 2 no.

2 Butter 100grm.

3 Crush pepper corn 6 no.

4 Salt To taste

5 Vinegar/ lemon juice 1 tbs.

METHOD
 Melt butter in a pan and kept aside.
 Placed curse paper corn and vinegar in a pan and reduced completely.
 Add 1tbs cold water.
 Mixed the egg yolk and whisk properly.
 Placed to a gentle heat and whisk continuously till to a sabayon consistency (thick or
sauce like consistency).
 Then gradually add the melted butter until it is blended and forms a smooth sauce. Then
add few drop of lemon juice.
 Strain through a fine strainer and curette the seasoning.
 Store at 300-370

DERIVATIVE OF HOLLANDAISE SAUCE:

SL.
No. Name Ingredients Use

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Serve with grilled

Hollandaise sauce + fish or grilled meat.
chop shallots + chop Ex.- Steak
01 Bearnaise Tarragona + chervils. preparation.

Hollandaise sauce +
grated orange rind Serve with hot veg.
02 Maltaise (zest) + orange juice. (Asparagus hot).

Hollandaise sauce +
nut brown + cooked Serve with poached
03 Nosiest butter. salmon.

Bearnaise sauce + Grilled or saute

04 Choron tomato sauce. meat.

Bearnaise sauce + Serve with saute

05 Foyot Meat glaze. meat.

WHY THE SAUCE IS CURDEN?

The curden Hollandaise is caused by the rapidly adding of butter or become of access heat
which will cause the albumin in the egg yolk to harden shortly and separated from the liquid
part

HOW TO RECTIFY IT?:

If the sauce is cur den, placed 1 tbs of boiling water in a clean pan and gradually add in the
cur den of sauce. In this method is failure then take a clean pan and placed an egg yolk then
add 1 dessert spoon of water and whisk highly over a gentle heat until slightly thicken.

MAYONNAISE / COLD SAUCE:

It is basic called and used as a salad dressing and as a accompaniment. It has a wide variety
of use, particularly in horsed oeuvre and salad purpose. It is rich sauce as it is thicken with
egg yolk and has a high percentage of fat. Sometime it thickens with gelatin and it used as
shiny flavourful coating to decorate cold dish and buffets.

MAYONNAISE /COLD SAUCE (1LTR.)

Sl. No. Ingredients Quantity

1 Egg yolk 8 no.

2 Olive/ Salad oil 1ltr.

3 French mustard powder % tps.

4 Salt, pepper To taste

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5 Vinegar 25ml.
METHOD
 Placed vinegar, egg yolk and seasoning in a bowl and whisked properly.
 Gradually add oil very slowly and whisked continuously.
 Correct the seasoning and consistency.

NOTE:
Mayonnaise curden for several reason-

1. If the oil is added to quickly.

2. If the oil is to cold.
3. If the sauce is not sufficiently whisk.
The method of recitation of the cur den of Mayonnaise:-

1. Take a clean bowl and add 1 tbs of boiling water and gradually whisk in the cur den of
mayonnaise sauce.
2. Take another clean bowl with egg yolk, whisk properly, the added the cur den of
mayonnaise.

DERIVATIVE OF MAYONNAISE SAUCE:

SL.
No. Name Ingredients Use

Mayonnaise + grated hard

egg yolk + Fine chop onion +
Gherkins + Black olive + Serve with deep fried
01 Tar tare Parsley chop + chives fish.

Mayonnaise + tomato
ketchup + tobacco + lemon Serve with various
02 Cocktail juice. kinds of shell fish.

03 Remo lade Tar tare + anchovy essence Serve with fish dishes.

Mayonnaise + blanch or
04 Green puree of herbs. Serve with shell fish.

Thousand Mayonnaise + hard boil egg +

island tomato ketchup + chop
gherkins + chop onion + chop
Dressing parsley + chop pimentos + Serve with cold meat
05 olives + paprika powder. and salad preparation.

Mayonnaise + tomato puree +

06 Andalusia garnish with capsicum. Serve with cold meat

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VARIOUS KINDS OF BUTTER SAUCE:

BEURRE-MAITRE-D-HOTE (PARSLEY BUTTER) [M.D.H]:
Ing: Butter + chop parsley + lemon juice + seasoning.

Use: Serve with grilled meat, fish and fried dish.

ANCHOVY BUTTER:
Ing: Butter + Anchovy essence + Seasoning.

Use: Serve with grilled or fried fish.

SHRIMP BUTTER:
Ing: Butter + fine chopped cooked shrimp + lemon juice.

Use: Serve with shell fish.

BEURRE-NOIR (BLACK BUTTER):

Ing: Black the butter in the gentle heat and get even black colour. Use: Serve with fried fish.

PEUREE NOSIEST (BROWN BUTTER):

Ing: Brown the butter in gentle heat and get even to brown colour. Use: Serve with fried fish.

GARLIC BUTTER:
Ing: Butter + garlic paste with adding of lemon juice.

Use: Serve with grilled stacks.

MISCELLANEOUS:
A. BREAD SAUCE:-

SL
No. Ingredients Quantity

01 Fresh white bread chums 25gm

02 Milk 375ml.

03 Salt paper To taste

04 Onion with cloves Few no.

05 Butter 10gm
Method:
 Simmer milk with the onion for 15 minutes.
 Remove the onion, mix the bread crumes, and simmer for 2-3 minutes.
 Add the seasoning agent and make a correct consistency.
 Mixed well when serving.

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Use: Serve with roast chicken and game.

B. APPLE SAUCE:

SL No. Ingredients Quantity

01 Cooking apple 400gm

02 Sugar 25gm

03 Butter 25gm
Method
 Peel and wash the apple.
 Place with the sugar, butter and water in a saucepan with tight filling lid.
 Cooking and make a puree.
 Pass through a strainer.
Use: Serve with roast pork and duck.

CRANBERRY SAUCE:
SL
No. Ingredients Quantity

01 Cranberry 400gm

02 Water 100ml.

03 Sugar 50gm

Method

 Boiled together in a suitable pan until soft.

 Pass through a strainer.
Use: Serve with roast turkey.

HORSE-RADISH SAUCE:
SL
No. Ingredients Quantity

01 Grated horse-radish 50gm

02 Vinegar 1tbs

03 Salt, pepper To taste

04 Lightly whipped cream

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Method

1. Wash and peel the horse-radish.

2. Mixed all the ingredients together to make a right consistency. Use
Serve with roast beef.

SL
No. Ingredients Quantity

01 Mint juice 5-6 tbs

02 Easter sugar 2 dsp.

03 Vinegar 250 ml.

Method
Mixed the mint juice with sugar.

Place in a china bowl and add the vinegar.

Use: Serve with roast lamp and mutton.

CURRY SAUCE:
SL
No. Ingredients Quantity

01 Stock 375ml.

02 Chopped onion 50gm.

03 Oil/butter 10ml./gm.

04 Garlic 1 no.

05 Flour 10gm.

06 Curry powder 5gm.

07 Tomato puree 5gm.

08 Chopped apple 25gm.

09 Grated ginger 10gm.

10 Coconut 10gm.

11 Salt To Taste

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Method

 Gently cook the onion and garlic in a fat small saute pan without colouring. Mixed the
flour and the curry powder.
 Cook for few minutes and make a scanty texture.
 Mixed the tomato puree, Stair and cool it.
 Gradually add the boiling stock.
 Add the remaining ingredients.
 Simmer for 30 minutes.
 Skim and correct the seasoning.

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12. SOUPS

Soup is a liquid food consisting of meat, sea-food,

vegetable, cereals, poultry etc. They plan an important role
on the

Menu and are regarded as appetizer as they stimulated the

appetite for the heavier food to follow. On the menu they
are served as the first course, if hors d’oeuvres is not being
served. If hors d’oeuvres is served then the soup is served
as a second course.

Special point for the service and preparation of soup:

1. Special first class clean, strong flavourful stock should be used as it
2. would help in producing good first class soups.
3. If there is a heavy Entrée, the soup should be thin of light.
4. If a heavy soup served, the portion should be small.
5. Garnish should be small and dainty so that they can be picked up easily by a spoon.
6. Serve hot soup piping hot, and cold soup is very cold or chill.
7. Accompaniment should be of a crispy characteristic (Melba bread/toast, various
crackers, bread sticks, bread role etc.)

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Passed/
Sl. Classification Base Unpassed Finish Example

Usually Varieties of
garnish consommé
1 Clear Stock Passed

Chopped Minestrone
Stock and cuts of parsley and scotch
2 Broth vegetables unpassed broth.

Lentil and
Stock, fresh potato Related
3 Puree vegetable Passed Croutons soup.

Blond roux, Chicken

veg,and stock veloute
4 Valuate Passed cream

Stock and veg.

puree and white Cream and Cream
sauce Cream of mushroom
milk cream of
5 Cream passed chicken.

Finish
Fish stock and with cream
6 Bisque shell fish Passed Lobster

7 Chowder Milk, Passed Cream Oyster

National/International soups
International Soups – There are many varieties of cold or hot, thin or soup and they have been
placed in a special category and different origin. There are soups that originated in certain
location and are associated with the particular place.
SL. NAME ORIGIN SL. NAME ORIGIN

01 Minestrone Italy 06 Camano Brazil

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02 Green turtle England 07 Paprika Hungary

03 French onion French 08 Gazpacho Spain

New
04 Mulligatawny India 09 Clam chowder England

05 Manhattan-clam-chowder USA 10 Petitemarmete French

Preparation of soups

Consommé:
What is consommé?
The consommé comes from the word ‘consummate’ which means to bring to complete or
perfect. It is a clear soup which is prepared from beef, chicken stock, and garnish with verities
of ingredients. This can be served hot or chilled, consommé take it name generally from of the
garnish for example-

Consommé Julienne:- Julienne cuts of vegetable.

Basic consommé (1 lit):

SL. Ingredients Quantity SL. Ingredients Quantity

01 Minced meat 225gm. 06 Egg white 2 no.

02 Onion 70gm. 07 Celery 40gm.

03 Carrot 50gm. 08 Thyme ¼ tsp

04 Turnips 30gm. 09 Bay leaf 1 no.

05 Stock ½ lit 10 Pepper corns 3-6 no.

Method: Mix minced meat and chopped onions, carrots, turnips, celery and mix well with egg
whites. Add cold stock, thyme, bay leaf and pepper corns. Then put on fire and go on starring
so that the ingredients do not stick to the button of the pan and the articles are suspended. When
the mixture starts boiling then control the temperature. And let it simmer until the coagulated
mass come to the top. Simmer for ½ hour. When the consommé is clear and tasty then strain
through a double muslin cloth and adding the seasoning agent.

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Variation of consommé:
SL. Name Garnish

01 Consommé Royal Dice of savoury, egg custard.

02 Consommé Julienne Julienne cuts of vegetables.

03 Consommé Brunnoise Small dice cuts of veg. (2mm)

04 Consommé Celestine Julienne cuts of thin pan cake.

05 Consommé vermicelli Fine noodles.

06 Consommé entasse Lightly jelly with gelatin.

07 Consommé Breton Julienne cuts of celery, onions lack.

08 Consommé Daubery Floweret’s of caulis flower

09 Consommé Madrilène Dice cuts of tomato and green peas.

10 Consommé st. German Green peas.

11 Consommé cereals Rice and barley.

12 Consommé Paysanme Uniform size cuts of fresh vegetables.

13 Consommé Diabolism Diamond cuts of cheese bisque.

14 Consommé Aurora Tomato puree and tapioca.

15 Consommé Caroline Dry cook rice.

16 Consommé Hungarian Paprika powder and sauté tomato.

17 Consommé Leopold Semolina, Julienne of chervil.

18 Consommé Egg-drops Beaten egg.

Consommé
19 Thunderstone Slice mushroom.

20 Consommé Florentine Julienne cuts of spinach.

21 Consommé Washington Sweet corn.

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22 Consommé Permentiere Potato

23 Consommé A ‘I’ Agnon Golden brown onion.

Thick Soup:
Puree (Passed):- Thickens by its main ingredient and passed through a sieve. Milk or little bit
of flower blended with and is added to prevent the puree from separately but not as a thickening.
The consistency should be light creamiest. Generally served with croutons.

Example: – Puree-de-lentils, Puree-de-tomato.

Cream soup: – Cream consistency which generally made by vegetable, puree mixture with
béchamel sauce. It can be finished with cream and milk is used to dilute and achieve the correct
consistency.
Example: – Various cream soup like cream of tomato, cream of chicken, cream of asparagus.

Valuate soup:- A thick made from white stock and blond roux, finish with egg yolk and cream.
Example: – Chicken valuate, almond valuate.

Bisque soup:- This are thicken tight fish related soup. Basically made from shellfish and finish
stock and thicken with cream.

Example: – Lobster Bisque, Chowder Bisque.

(Note: – A small amount of wine is added to enhance the flavour for bisque soup preparation.)

Chowder soup: – Originated from America. They are thick heavy soup, welling their
consistency of potato and chowder consists of potato, onion, pieces of bacon and various
seasoning sea food. They can be milk or tomato base.
Example: – Clam chowder, sea-food chowder, oyster chowder.

Cold soup: – Chilled soup includes those soups that are gelatin by the natural gelatin powder
or those that are thicken with starch or puree. Cold consommé madrilène is popular and which
is served cold and garnish with chopped chives.
Exam: – Andalusia gazpacho is a refreshing tomato and cucumber soup with a garnish of thin
strips of pimentos, cumin seeds for flavour, accompanied with croutons.

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[Link], FABRICATION AND COOKING OF VEGETABLES

Introduction

From the earliest days as a species, man’s primary source of food has been plants. Indeed they
are the ultimate nourishment for all animals. Unlike animals plants can synthesize organic
materials from the minerals, air and sun light and so they are the true origin of proteins,
carbohydrates and other complex molecules to animal’s life.
As people are becoming more conscious of healthy eating, the serving of a variety of correctly
cooked, colourful, attractively presented vegetables becomes increasingly important. This can
be achieved in a variety of ways: a small selection of vegetables served on a separate plate to
the main course is popular when appropriate, as is the practice of placing dishes of vegetables
on the table for customers to help themselves. There are also people who would welcome a
small selection of vegetables served as a separate course.
The term vegetable refers to all parts of plants that can be eaten raw, cooked, or preserved in
Some form. As a foodstuff vegetable play an important role in the diet of human being. They
provide mineral, vitamin and flavors not available in the meats and fruits. We must keep 2
goals
in mind while dealing vegetable: Be aware of all the vegetables available and know about their
texture, nutrition, flavor, and their keeping quality. Learn the method of preparation so that we
can take care of the flavors, texture, color and nutrition.
As fast world-wide transport is now the norm, the more exotic vegetables, which were
previously unknown are now available and caterers, should learn how to prepare, cook and
serve them. However, these should not replace but, rather, supplement freshly picked and
cooked local produce, which will always be popular if correctly cooked, of good colour and
attractively presented.
When preparing vegetables they should be cooked as close to service time as possible, or
prepared and blanched without over cooking. Over cooked vegetables lose their colour and
vitamin and nutrient content.
On an average fruits and vegetables contribute 1% of our daily intake of fat, 7% proteins, 10%

calories, 20 % niacin, thiamine and iron, 25% of magnesium, 35 % vitamin B6, 50% vitamine

A and 90% of our vitamin C. In other words they are the prime source of our body requirements.

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[Link] OF VEGETABLES

The vegetables are classified in to different categories like vegetable grown bellow the ground
and vegetable grown above the ground. Again another way of classify it is as follows:
Types of Varieties:
1. Roots
2. Green vegetables
FOOD VALUE
Root vegetable is useful in the diet because they contain starch or sugar for energy, a small but
valuable amount of protein, and mineral salts and vitamins. They are also good sources of
cellulose and water.
The food value is not the same as for the root vegetables, because no food is stored in the
leaves, therefore little or no protein is present in green vegetables. They are rich in mineral
salts and vitamins, particularly vitamin C and carotene. The greener the leaf the more the
amount of vitamine present. The chief minerals are calcium and iron.
PURCHASING POINTS:
ROOTS:
1. Must be clean of all soil.
2. Must be firm, round and clear of any spade marks.
GREEN VEGETABLES:
1. They must be absolutely fresh.
2. The leaves must be bright in colour, crisp and not wilted.
3. Cabbage and Brussels sprouts should have tight growing leaves and must be compact.
4. Peas and beans should be crisp and of medium size. Peas pods should be full and beans
should not be stringy.
5. Blanched stems must be firm, white, crisp, and free from soil.
Composition and nutritional value
Most vegetables have a very high water content, a low calorific value and contain many of the
substances vital to man’s health; mineral salt, vitamins organic acids, carbohydrates, fiber and
very low quantity of [Link] proportion of these elements varies from one vegetable to another.
Potato is very rich in starch; marrow has very high water content, while carrot, corn and onions
contain a high degree of saccharose. Vegetable plants whose fruits we eat are rich in potassium
leaf and flower are rich in iron. With the exception of legumes, which have a high protein
content, vegetables have only traces of proteins, varying from 1% to 4%. Vegetarians must
ensure that they eat plenty of legumes, preferably at the same time as cereals, which maximize
the absorption of proteins. Not all vitamins are present in the vegetables. Vitamin A and C
predominate and together with mineral salt are found mainly in the larger, older and, and
external leaves which are too often discarded. A proportion of vitamin content is also liable to

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be lost if the vegetables are not used fairly soon after harvesting. Prolonged soaking in water
and certain cooking methods further deplete their nutritional value. All vegetables contain
organic acids, which are of crucial importance in maintaining the alkaline balance in our
bodies, and in
helping to eliminate toxic substances; they neutralize the acids, which we produce as a result
of physical and psychological stress and help to counteract the harmful side of the diet too high
in protein and animal fat.
Fiber, in form of cellulose and lignin, simply work its way down the digestive tract and is not
absorbed into the blood stream. This does not mean that we can do without these substances;
as by their mere presence these substances can help the body to eliminate potentially
carcinogenic substances present in certain food. They also help to lower the level of glucose
and fatty acids in the body. And prevent chronic constipation and its consequences.
Legumes have special properties unlike other vegetables they have a high-energy value being
rich in carbohydrates. THIS IS VEGETABLE PROTEIN often referred to as noble protein,
which is much suited to man’s digestive system than animal protein. Vegetables may be called
poor man’s meat because they are so cheap and plentiful but an increasing number of people
who can well afford to pay for the most expensive cut of meat are opting for this healthy
alternative for some, if not all, of their meals.
STORAGE
1. Roots should be emptied out and stored in bins and sacks.
2. Green vegetables should be stored in well-ventilated racks.
3. Salad vegetables must be stored in a cool place.

Classification:
Broadly the vegetables can be divided in the following categories family wise:
1. Roots and Tubers
2. Pods, Seeds And Corns
3. Fruit vegetables.
4. Gourds And Squashes
5. Greens and Salad Greens
6. Cabbage and Brassicas
7. Mushrooms and Truffles.
8. The Onion family
9. Stalks and Shoots
10. Pulses

ROOT AND TUBERS: It grows underground and include potatoes, sweet potatoes, yams,
carrots, turnips, parsnips, celeriac, beetroot, Jerusalem artichokes, kohlrabi ( technically a
cabbage), salsify, red and white radishes and mooli are also root vegetables. Root vegetables
need to be cleaned well to remove soil, which can be a source of contamination. The bacteria
Clostridium Perfingens and Bacillus Cereus are present in soil and are very harmful.
Most root vegetables are store well in a cool ,dark place. Most of them need to be cooked until
just tender and general rule is to start cooking in cold water, bring to boil and simmer until
tender to avoid breaking up. Roots and tubers are extremely versatile and can be cooked in

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many ways: steamed , boiled and mashed , sautéed, baked , fried or gratinated. Their higher
water content makes them ideal for microwave cooking. Most of them needed to be peeled
before cooking although young potatoes and carrots can be trimmed and scrunned.
Key points
 Do not refrigerate potatoes as low temperatures cause the flesh to blacken.
 Potato turns green and become toxic if exposed to bright light .This is called Solanin.
So store them in a cool dark place.
 Potatoes discolour when exposed to air, so if preparing ahead, peel and drop into a bowl
of cold water till the actual cooking begins. The discolouration is the work of an enzyme
known as Polyphenoloxidase, which oxidizes phenolic compounds in the tissue and
causes them to condense into brown or grey polymers.

Black Salsify Turnip Carrot Parsnip

Beetroot Kohlrabi Celeriac Swede

Jerusalem Artichoke Yam

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Icicle Black Mouli Scarlet Globe French Breakfast

Salad Potato Blue Potato Orange Sweet Yellow Sweet

All Purpose yellow All Purpose white new potato Baking potato

 PODS, SEEDS AND CORNS : This group of vegetables are the seeds of their plant;
sometimes only the seed is eaten like green peas, otherwise whole pods are eaten like
mange-tout. Although the corn is technically a grain, the kernels are the actual plant
seeds. These vegetables are generally high in protein and carbohydrates.
• Beans and pods are the vegetables with double seamed pods containing a single row of
seeds; this group contain a huge variety of green beans from round the world. In spite
of regional differences, most of them are prepared and cooked in similar ways. Shelled
peas and beans like garden peas and fresh broad beans are removed from the pods to
eat [Link] are left to [Link] best examples are
Broad Bean: Can be used as a salad item, mainly used as a hot vegetable dish.

 French Bean: Used as a hot vegetable dish.

 Runner Bean: Large ones can be stringy and tough.
 Mange tout: Crisp flat underdeveloped pea. Stir-fried or sautéed.
 Peas: Should be firm and crisp, sugar snap peas should be cooked like Mange
tout.
 Kenya Beans: Similar to French bean but grown in Kenya.

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Key points

 Green vetables , unlike root vegetables, are best cooked by dropping into boiling salted
water and boiling rapidly for 2 to 10 minutes until just tender. Remove and refresh them
in cold water which make them crisp, crunchy with a bright colour by arresting the
carry over cooking.
 To prepare okra, do not wash them until ready to cook. Use a small sharp knife , trim
off the stem evenly. Avoid piercing it. Always choose a non corrosive pan to avoid
discoloration.
 While boiling corn in boiling water., add 1 tablespoon of sugar and boil about 5 minutes
to make bright white in colour.
Dragon tongue beans Snap beans

Haricot verts / French Beans Italian Runner beans

Sator Wax beans

Chinese long beans Fresh peas

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Fresh Fava beans Fresh lima beans

 FRUIT VEGETABLES: Botanically speaking , tomatoes, aubergines, sweet peppers,

avocados, pumkin, squashes are fruits , but are usually treated as vegetables in the
kitchen. Each of them require different preparations and cooking techniques. Although
each of them can be used as principal ingredient and can also be used as background or
flavouring for other ingredients.
Vine ripened tomatoes have an intense perfume and superior flavor and texture but they
are extremely fragile and do not travel well.. They are only available during the summer
and in early autumn. Green house and hydroponic tomatoes ( grown in water without
any soil) often look good but lack of flavor, but they are available year round. There
are many varities of tomatoes available, renging from the giant beefsteak tomato to
thumb nail sized cherry tomatoes.
Other fruit vegetables types are
Tomato: Should be ripe and red, Cherry, Beefsteak, Plum.
Avocado: Must be ripe; soak in Lemon juice after preparing.
Aubergine: Egg plant, when prepared sprinkle with salt, removes excess water.
Cucumber: Used in salads, baby cucumbers are called Dills.
Capsicum: Peppers, green, yellow, red, black, white, orange.
Courgette: Also known as by their Italian name Zucchini.
Okra: Also known as Ladies fingers.

Baby Sweetcorn: Good source of Vitamin C & B1.(Marrow and Courgette are also
known as a fruit).

Key points

How to prepare tomatoes for Blanching?

 Remove the eye of the tomato by using a sharp small knife.
 Score the bottom of the tomato by making an X, just penetrating the skins.
 Drop the tomatoes into the rapidly boiling water for 10 to 20 seconds depending upon
the ripeness. Remove and refresh in iced water.
 Remove the tomatoes and peel off the skin.

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 Cut each tomato into halves and squeeze out the seeds. Use the knife to scrape out any
remaining seeds or quarter each tomato and with asharp knife remove the seeds. Slice
or chop as recipe directs.

Tomatillo Cherry tomato Grape tomato

Green tomato Teardrop tomato Plum tomato

Vine tomato Globe egg plant Apple eggplant

Indian eggplant English cucumber Japanesecucumber

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Yellow pepper Green pepper Redpepper

Pimento Okra Baby corn

Cayenne pepper Jalapeno pepper Poblano chilli

Avocado Yellow zucchini Grene zucchini

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 GOURDS AND SQUAHES: Squashes are the members of the gourd or

Cucurbitaceae family which contains hundreds of varieties round the world. Gourds
tend to be found in warm regions such as Africa and India, but most squashes are the
native to America. There are many varieties in ahuge range of colours, shapes and sizes
but for the cook they can be divided into summer squashes and winter squashes.

Key points
 Winter squash come in many sizes and shapes, but all have hard outer rinds that
surround sweet, often orange flesh. Winter squash arrive late in the growing season
and they have a long shelf life, so they've long been a staple in winter and spring, when
other vegetables are harder to come by. Unlike summer squash, winter squash must be
cooked. They're usually baked or steamed, and then sometimes puréed. Select squash
that are heavy for their size.
 Summer squash , characterized by courgette, is soft skinned with a mild tender flesh.
Unlike winter squash, summer squash can be eaten rind, seeds, and all. They can be
lightly cooked by boiling, steaming or stir frying. Larger varieties can be hollowed out
for stuffing. The different varieties vary in size, shape, and color, but they can be used
interchangeably in recipes. Select summer squash that’s small and firm.

Acorn squash Banana squash Butternut squash

Golden nugget squash Pumkin Spaghetti squash

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Turban squash Chayot Globe squash

Pattypan squash Scallopini squash Indian bitter menon

Chinese okra Fuzzy melon Winter melon

 GREEN AND SALADGREENS: Green refer to the white variety of green leafy
vegetables, some of which can be eaten raw, but which are often cooked. Greens are
eaten in most countries round the world. Some green like mustard greens, sorrel,
spinach, watercress and turnip greens have astrong peppery flavour. Other greens like
lettuce lettuces and salad greens are always eaten raw. Green can be roughly divided
into 2 categories; hearty greens( most oftely cooked) and salad greens ( most

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commonly eaten raw). All greens have a very high water content and shrink drastically
when cooked . Allow at least 225 grms / portion if the greens are cooked.
Hearty greens: Many of these sturdy leafy vegetables ( sometimes called pot herbs)
can be eaten raw in salads when they are young and tender, but they are rarely found at
this stage. Most of them are older and tougher and need cooking to tenderize them and
soften their robust flavour.

Salad greens: The major salad greens, lettuce can be divided into crisphead and
butterhead or soft leaf salads. Trim off the root and wash well. Always dress salads
gently at the last minute, so dressing does not wilt the leaves.

Key points

 Preparing greens: Wash all greens well to remove any sand and grit. Immerse in a
sink or bowl of cold water and soak for 3-4 minutes. Gently lift out of the water into a
colander to drain. Repeat several times until no sand or grit remains on the boyyom of
the sink or bowl, shake well and pile leaves in a colander.
 Remove any large ,tough stalks from spinach , kale or other greens by gripping the leaf
with one hand and pulling stalk up and away from the leaf
 Some greens like spinach only take seconds, while others benefit from longer cooking.
To cook spinach , put the leaves in a saucepan with just the water which clings to the
leaves from washing. Set over amedium heat and cook gently until just wilted for 2-3
minutes or stir fry in a little butter or oil until wilted for 1-2 minutes. To blanch, dip in
to boiling water for 30 seconds followed bt refreshing in ice chilled water. If using
spinach or other greens in another preparation such as creamed spinach or a braised
dish, turn into a sieve and pass out as much liquid as possible with a wooden spoon.
Use leaves whole or chop as recipe directs.
Types of leafy vegetables:

Rocket lettuce Belgian endive Bibb lettuce

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Boston lettuce Cress Curly endive

Dandilions Red endive Iceberg lettuce

Lollo rosso Radicchio Romaine lettuce

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Kale Kohlrabi greens Sorrel

Spinach Malaber spinach Mustard greens

 CABBAGE ABD BRASSICAS: Cabbage is a member of Brassica family , one of the

oldest vegetables cultivated by man. There are many kinds of cabbage, mostly
characterized by round heads pf compact leaves, though some are flattened, elongated
or more loosely packed. It is generally a cold weather vegetables, inexpensive , widely
available and easy to prepare and cook. It can be eaten raw as in coleslaw, pickled as
in sauerkraut or cooked in wide variety of ways. Do not over cook cabbage , as it
becomes soggy and has a very unpleasent smell. Look for a cabbage, heavy for their
size, discarding any tough outer leaves.
White cabbage sometimes called round or Dutch cabbage., is the most common.
Usually trimmed off its darken , tough outer leaves. It has a pale green head and solid
core with robust flavour. It can be shredded for crisp salads or coleslaw, stirfried,
braised , boiled , simmered in soups or stuffed. Savoy cabbage or curley cabbage has
slightly looser leaves and a purple tinge and is more delicate in flavour.

Red cabbage has a brilliant purple colour and and slightly sweeter taste. It needs longer
cooking time than white cabbage and is often braised with onion and apple to
accompany duck or games. An acid such as vinigar is usually added to set the colour.
A little sugar usually complements the acid, giving it a sweet and sour flavour.

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Chinese cabbage has pale greenish yellow elongated leaves. It is milder in flavour than
white cabbage, can be eaten raw or cooked and is an ingredient in many Chinese stir-
frier.

Key points

 Brussels sprouts are the miniature cabbages originated in Belgium where they are
grown on thick stalks. Rarely eaten raw. They have a strong nutty flavour, which goes
well with games, ducks and other rich meats. They are some times braised with
cashewnuts and are a traditional accompaniment to Christmas turkey. Boil or steam
until just tender for 7-10 minutes.
 Broccoli and cauliflower are the members of the cabbage family. Both of them have
tightly grouped flower buds coming from a single stalk. They can be eaten raw in salads
and crudité platters or cooked in a variety of ways, whole or separated into florets. Boil
or steam florets until tender for 5-10 minutes.

Bok choy Brussels sprouts Flowering kale

Green cabbage Kohlrabi Napa / Chinese cabbage

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Red cabbage Savoy cabbage Broccoli

Cauliflower Broccolini broccoli Romanesco

 MUSHROOM AND TRUFFLES: Mushrooms, the members of the fungi family are
one of the oldest food eaten bt man. There are many different varieties which vary in
size, colours and flavours but all have a central stalk with an umbrella shaped cap. There
are two types of mushroom; cultivated and wild. Most of them are prepared and cooked
in the similar ways. The cultivated mushroom or common white mushroom has been
successfully produced since the late 1800’s. Very young, closed cap mushrooms are
called button mushrooms. They are mild in flavor and widely available all round the
year. Flat mushrooms, sometimes called field mushrooms or Portabella are ideal for
grilling. A growing number of previously wild varieties are now being cultivated.
Mushrooms like Shitake, Enokitake, Cloud ears and Oyster are all now widely
available.
Wild mushrooms are found all over the world, most frequently in late summer and
autumn, in many woods and fields providing the perfect conditions. The flavor is
intensely earthy and should always be cooked before eating. Many mushrooms can be
dangerous, so do not pick or gather wild mushrooms unless you are accompanied by an
expert. Wild mushrooms such as Morels, Cepe or Porcini and Chanterelles are all
expensive, but so highly flavoured that a little goes a long way. Some of them are
available in dried form.

The most famous fungi are the truffle. This pungent, black treasure is really a tuber,
sniffed out of the oak forest of French Perigord (black) and Italian Piedmont (white)
by pigs or dogs.

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Truffles have fascinated people for thousands of years. Their attraction is a tantalizing
taste and aroma, which once experienced, can never be forgotten. The taste and aroma
of commercially collected truffles is so intense that they are used as a flavoring instead
of a separate dish. Magical powers and virtues have even been attributed to truffles.
They have been collected for at least 3600 years. Growing underground, they are
difficult to find and very expensive as a result.

Key points

 Cultivated mushrooms should not be washed before using. If they are very earthy or
sandy , plunge quickly in cold water, drain and dry immediately. Trim the stalks.
 Wild mushrooms are often very sandy and do need washing.
 Morels sometimes need soaking to draw out sand.
 Use a stainless steel knife for cutting mushroom to avoid discoloration .
 Sprinkle with little lemon juice to prevent darkening if preparing ahead or chopping a
large quantity.
 Wrap fresh mushrooms loosely in Kitchen paper and refrigerate for up to 3 days . Do
not store in plastic bags as the moisture will cause rapid deterioration.

Abalone cap mushroom Black trumpet mushroom Clamshell mushroom

Cloud ear mushroom Enoki mushroom Hedgehog mushroom

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Morels Porcino Portobello mushroom

Shiitake mushroom Truffles Button mushroom

Oyster mushroom Chanterelle Lobster mushroom

 THE ONION FAMILY: This strong flavoured , auromatic vegetables are the
members of the Lily family. Onions, Spring onions, Leeks, Shallots, Garlic are
sometimes used as vegetables but are most often used as flavourings in other dishes.
Chieces are only true herb in the onion family. Onions vary in colours, size, texture and
flavour and are used in every cuisines round the world. The characteristic flavour of the

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onion family is due to the presence of the volatile substance known as Allyl propyle
disulphide which is very strong and pungent and the eyes watery.
Green onion Leek Spring onion

Red onion Shallot Elephant garlic

Garlic Pearl onion Bermuda onion

 STALKS AND SHOOTS: These are vegetable plant stems which contain a high
percentage of cellulose fiber. The vegetables like asparagus, celery, cardoon and
artichokes tend to be crisp when raw and highly aromatic when cooked. Asparagus can
range from pencil thin to jumbo. Fresh green asparagus is most popular in Britain.
Cardoon is Mediterranean vegetable, is more closely related to artichoke. Although its
flavor is between artichoke and celery.

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You can buy fresh shoots at some Chinese markets, but you must boil them first to rid
them of hydrocyanic acid, a toxin that causes cyanide poisoning. Canned shoots are
safer and more widely available. Rinse them well before using. Submerge any unused
shoots in fresh water and store them in a sealed container in the refrigerator, changing
the water daily.

Examples are:
Celery: Used in Bouquet Garni, Soups or salads.
Chicory: Used as lettuce
Fennel: Bulb like with a strong flavour, used in salads.
Asparagus: 3 main types with white, green & purple heads.
Cardoon: A relation of the Globe Artichoke prepare like Celery.
Fiddlehead Fern: A mixed flavour of Asparagus & French Beans.
Asparagus Bamboo shoots Cardoon

Celery Fennel Fiddlehead

White asparagus Wild asparagus Rhubarb

 PULSES: Pulses which includes dried peas, beans and lentils are the edible seeds of
pod plants. Most commonly sold dried. They are very high in protein and

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carbohydrates. There is tremendous range of dried beans, peas and lentils which vary
in size, colour and shape. Most of them needed at least 4 hours of soaking but can be
left overnight to save time. Soaking is not must for lentils or split peas, although it will
shorten their cooking time.
Key points
 Most pulses must be boiled rapidly for the first 10 minutes to remove the toxin on the
skin. Reduce the heat and simmer gently till it become tender.
 Take 3 parts of water and 1 part of pulse for boiling.
 Lentil and split peas do not need the above mentioned treatment.
 Salt and other seasonings should not be added to pulses until they are cooked, as they
toughen the skin. Add them about 10 minutes before the end of cooking time to improve
the flavor.
 Test the beans for doneness: the interior should be soft but the skin firm.
Black-eyed pea Chickpea Yellow pea

Green pea Azuki bean Fava bean

Pinto bean Red kidney bean Butter / Lima beans

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Borlotti bean Calypso bean Cannellini bean

Pigments and colour changes and effect of heat

When we look at plant life in the moderate Oregon climate, we see many different natural plant
colorants. This can be seen in the mountains and forests as well as in the grocery display case.
The type of pigment is going to influence the plant colorant. Plant colors are not entirely
dependent upon the plant pigment alone. Many factors influence pigment color. In addition to
pigment interaction and the presence of acids, bases, and salts, the ripeness of the food is an
important contributing factor.

The color of fruits and vegetables are either fat-soluble and water-soluble pigments. However,
many of the other constituents in the plant impact the resulting color of the pigments.

PROCESSING OF PIGMENTS TO GET OPTIMUM RESULT

The following table summarizes the effect of heating, acid and alkali on colour during the
heating of a fruit and/or vegetable. It indicates the stability of each pigment.

Cuts of vegetables
Name of Colour Solubil Effect of Acid Effect of Prolonged
Pigment ity Alkali Heating

Chlorophylls green slightly changes to olive intensifies olive green

green(phaeophytin) green (pheophytin and
(chlorophyllin) pyropheophytin)

Carotenoids yellow and

orange;
some red slightly less intense color little effect color may be
or pink less intense

Brunoise

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Anthocyanins red, purple, very red purple or blue little effect

and blue soluble

Betalains Purplish very little effect little effect pale if pigment

red; some soluble bleeds from
yellow tissue

Anthoxanthins white or very white yellow Darkens if

colorless water excessive
soluble

This is a very small diced cube, sized between 1-3 mm square. Often used as a
Garnish for consommé. Typical vegetables used are carrot, onion, turnip and celery.

Macédoine
This is diced cube 5 mm square. Root Vegetables are suited to this cut, e.g. carrot, Turnip,
swede.

Baton

Sticks of vegetables approximately 5 cm long, 5 mm wide and 5 mm thick. Used as

An accompaniment.

Jardinière
A short thin baton or stick, about 2.5 cm long and approximately 3 mm wide and
3 mm thick. Size may be varied depending on end use.

Paysanne
Various thin shapes such as squares, triangles, circles or half rounds. In order to cut
economically, the shape of the vegetable will decide which shape to choose. All are cut thinly,
about 1-2 mm thick.

Julienne
Long thin match-stick shaped pieces about 4 cm in length. Vegetables cut julienne are Mostly
used as garnish.

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Chiffonade
Finely sliced or shredded green leafy vegetables, usually lettuce or spinach. Mostly used as a
base for serving food or as a garnish.

Mirepoix
A mixture of roughly chopped vegetables which are used as the flavour base for sauces or other
dishes. Usually includes onion, celery and carrot.

Matignon
Roughly cut vegetables cooked in butter, with ham, thyme and bay leaf, finished by
deglazing the pan with a little Madeira or wine. Usually includes onion, celery and
carrot. Used to add flavour, especially whenbraising large pieces of meat.

14. CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS

Fruit may broadly be classified under the following heads (non-botanically):

1. CITRUS FRIUTS: This group includes lemons, limes, citrons, oranges, grapefruit etc.
They are juicy fruits with a prominent sweet and sour taste and are high in Vitamin C
content. Such fruits are cultivated in the regions which have Mediterranean type of climate,
i.e. cold and dry winters and warm and sunny summers with scanty rainfall. Citrus species
originate from South-East Asia. They hybridise readily and there are numerous cultivated
forms. The main species grown in New Zealand – mandarins (Citrus reticulata and C.
unshiu), lemons (C. limon) and oranges (C. sinensis) – are evergreen trees.
Citrus fruits have a wide range of uses. Some of them are used for flavouring starters and
main courses. Because of their bright colours, they garnish many dishes and beverages.
The meat of the fruits are also eaten raw in fruit salads or by themselves, especially at
breakfast.

Key points

 They are rich in vitamin C and and potassium, have an acid flavour to varing degrees.
 citrus fruits are much used in cooking, they are at their best when served fresh, with the
exception of lemon and lime which are too acid
 Vitamin c is still essential to health because it prevents scurvy and eating citrus fruits
or drinking their juice is the most pleasant way of ensuring that the body has vitamin.
 Citrus fruits are used in soups, savoury stews and salads souffles and mousses. In
valuable as decoration, their vivid colours complement almost all foods.
 Oranges are widely used in desserts, patisserie,and confectionery, for fruit salads,
dessert creams,jams and marmalades.
 The candied peel is also used in numerous desserts and cakes ,either as an ingredient
or as a decoration.

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 The pigment of citrus fruits is carotenoids the colour of which commence to show
through during ripening when the chorophyll green begins to disappear out that the
reddish to purplish colourations found in blood oranges are due to presence of
anthocyanins.
EXAMPLES

 Oranges:There are different types of oranges, some with yellow flesh and blood
oranges with red flesh. Oranges are sometimes eaten fresh or made into juice. They
are also used in desserts and for garnishing different dishes. The peel can also be
grated for flavouring purposes.
 Navel oranges are characterized by a navel- like depression enclosing a
small internal embryonic fruit. They are seedless and appear from the end of
October.
 Thomson oranges have a very fine smooth shiny skin, have highly coloured
fibrous pulp, not very sour and moderately juicy but with a good flavour
 Washington oranges have a firm rough skin, are juicy and slightly sour.
Navel oranges are mainly grown in Italy and have a particularly rich flavour,
reminiscent of berries. Another variety, the aromatic pineapple orange, is
full of pips and is commercially used for juice.
 Blood Oranges have a dark red pulp and the skin may be veined with dark
red. They are available from December to April.
 Mandarins are small, slightly flat, loose skinned oranges with a sweet taste.
Perhaps the best known mandarin is the tangerine. The Japanese Satsuma is
a clementine(a bitter orange and tangerine cross) is bright orange red with a
pebbled skin and tangy sweet flavour
 Lemons: A ripe lemon has a bright yellow peel and is light yellow in color inside. It
has tart taste. It is mainly used for flavouring food, especially fish. It is also used in
drinks. The peel is grated and used to add flavour to different dishes. The fruits are
large or small with smooth thin or thick knobbly skin. Generally, plump lemons,
heavy for their size and with smooth oily skins, have less peel and more juice than
large, knobbly skinned lemons.
 Limes: Limes are used in the same way as lemons in cooking and different
beverages. The juice and the peel are what you use from it. As with lemons, limes
are not usually eaten raw like oranges.A small fruit, similar to lemon but rounder,
and with green-yellow thin skin and tart yellow [Link] may be substituted for
lemon in [Link] is much used in curry dishes but is more expensive than lemons.
 Grapefruits: Grapefruit are either white- fleshed with a yellow rind or pink fleshed
with a pinkish blush to the rind. The two differ little in taste, which depends more on
the presence of pips than on colour. Fruits with many pips have a pronounced flavour
and are grown for canning, while the milder, pipless varieties are usually eaten fresh
or in salads.
 Shaddock: The shaddock (also called pummelo or pomelo) is the largest citrus,
resembling a large grapefruit with coarse, bittersweet dry flesh with a greenish,

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yellow or pinkish skin. It was brought from Southeast Asia to the new world by a
Captain shaddock in 1696.
 Kumquat: The smallest citrus is the tiny, orange oval kumquat, which originated in
the east but is now grown mainly in Brazil. The fruit has distinctive sweet sour
flavour, the sweetness is especially evident in the rind and kumquats are usually eaten
unpeeled. They are deliciously fresh, but may also be candied.
 Tangelo: This specialty fruit is a cross between a tangerine and a grapefruit. (The
name comes from pomelo, the European term for grapefruit.) The fruit is fairly large,
with an easy-peeling rind and few seeds. The deep orange flesh is best when peeled
and eaten out of hand for lunch or snacks, but it also can be used for juicing

ORANGE LEMON LIME

GRAPEFRUITS SHADDOCK TANGELO

2. FLESHY FRUIT: This group includes apples, pears, bananas, melons, pineapple etc.
These fruits are fleshy in nature and may be with or without the fruits. The taste may vary
from fruit to fruit and the climate conditions required for the cultivation may also vary like
in India, apples are grown in the cold hilly tracks while melons are grown in the ‘Khaddar’
region of river Ganges in Uttar Pradesh.
 Pears are high in fiber and potassium. They have different texture and flavor. Pears are
mostly used as fresh fruit but can also be preserved. They can be used in pastry dishes
as well.
 Apples are high in vitamin C, potassium and fiber. Many of the apple nutrients are in
the peel. Apples are often used in cooking and in desserts. You can eat them raw,
dried and [Link] are also used to flavour drinks. There are over 1,000 different
apple varieties in the entire world. Apples are divided into categories based on which
season they mature or their graininess, sweetness or sourness.

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3. STONE FRUITS: Apricots, peaches, plums, mangos, cherries, custard apples, litchis etc.
come under this group of fruits. These are the fruits that have a stone in the center which is
then surrounded by fleshy part all over.
4. BERRY FRUITS: This group includes red, black and white currants, cranberries,
strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries, grapes etc. Most of the fruits falling under this
group are not cultivated in India with the exception of grapes and a little cultivation of
raspberries, gooseberries and strawberries.
5. NUTS: Coconuts, sweet chestnuts, almonds, walnuts, pistachio nuts, cashew nuts etc. all
fall under this group

SALAD

WHAT IS A SALAD?
The answer to this question is quite simple. Some of the definitions which best describe a
SALAD are:

1. A dish of raw leafy green vegetables often tossed with pieces of other raw or cooked
vegetables, fruit, cheese, or other ingredients and served with a dressing.
2. A cold dish of chopped vegetables, fruit, meat, fish, eggs, or other food, usually
prepared with a dressing, such as mayonnaise.
3. Food mixtures either arranged on a plate or tossed and served with a moist dressing;
usually consisting of or including greens.
4. A salad is a food served with dressing. The food can be cold dish, or green vegetables
or mixture of fruits, or hot mixture of hot piquant food, or frozen mixture of bland fruits,
or chopped food in hot aspic, coleslaw potato or meat. (Theory of cookery)

In general, salads are cold preparations made from raw, cooked or blanched vegetables, singly
or in combination, and can include other items such as fresh herbs, fruits, nuts and cooked eggs,
pasta, rice, fish, meat and poultry.

Salads in different countries are known by different name. Some of the common name’s it is
pronounced are:

Nederland: Salade, Sla, Mengsel

French: Salade

German: Salat

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Italian: Insalata

Portuguese: Salada

Spanish: Ensalada

Swedish: Sallad, Grönsallad

A SALAD CAN BE SERVED IN VARIOUS DIFFERENT COURSES, SUCH AS:

1. SALAD COURSE: In a very formal meal experience, salads are sometime served after
a main course. Such salads are light and refreshing in nature and provide a change from
the heavy main course. Well-dressed salad greens and savoury vegetables are a popular
choice.
2. MAIN COURSE: It is also substantial enough as a main dish. One of the body building
foods such as meat, fish, egg or cheese forms the base. The volume and richness of
these salads are adequate to satisfy a normal appetite.
3. ACCOMPANIMENTS: The salad is also served as accompaniment with the main
course.

A SALAD CAN BE OF TWO TYPES:

SALAD

SIMPLE COMPOUND

FRUIT BASED SALAD MEAT BASED SALAD VEGETABLE BASED SALAD FISH BASED SALAD
SIMPLE OR PLAIN SALAD

These salads can be further subdivided in green salad or salad in season, which is served raw
or cooked. Such salads normally use only a single kind of vegetable as a base and only one or
two ingredients in small quantity as decoration or garnish.

Some examples of such salads with appropriate dressing are:

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NAME INGREDIENTS DRESSINGS

CABBAGE CABBAGE JULIENNE VINAIGRETTE /
MUSTARD CREAM
CUCUMBER ROUNDELS OF VINAIGRETTE
CUCUMBER
LETTUCE SALAD LEAVES VINAIGRETTE
TOMATO SLICES OF TOMATO VINAIGRETTE
WITH CHOPPED
PARSLEY
BEETROOT ROUDLES OR DICED MUSTARD CREAM
COOKED BEETROOT

COMPOUND SALAD

Compound salads are more elaborate salads which consist of more than one ingredient. Such
salads can be further subdivided in four major groups:

1. FISH BASED
2. VEGETABLE BASED
3. POULTRY,GAME OR MEAT BASED
4. FRUIT BASED.

A SALAD CAN BE SUBDIVIDED IN FOUR MAJOR PARTS:

SALAD

BASE BODY DRESSING GARNISH

BASE:

The base may be made up of lettuce, cabbage or any other leafy vegetables. It must cover
the bottom part of the salad. The leaves must be clean and thoroughly washed because they
can contain a lot of soil and insects. Preferably all the salads leaves must be washed with
chlorine solution.

SOME OF THE SALAD LEAVES USED IN MAKING OF A SALAD ARE:

ARAGULA: With its peppery and slightly bitter flavour, arugula is a terrific green to be
used in a salad. It can be gently braised, too.

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BELGIAN ENDIVE: These crunchy, slightly bitter leaves are often used to make hors
d'oeuvres, but they can also be chopped and added to salads, or braised to make an exquisite
salad.

CRESS: This is a peppery green that's great in salads, sandwiches, and soups. It's attractive
enough to make a good garnish as well. There are several varieties, including watercress,
upland cress, curly cress, and land cress. Cress is highly perishable, so try to use it as
soon as possible after you buy it.

CURLY ENDIVE: This crisp, bitter green leave can

be used in salads or cook it as a side dish. The outer
leaves are green and somewhat bitter; the pale inner
leaves are more tender and mild.

ICEBERG: This is prized for its crispness and

longevity in the refrigerator, but it's a bit short flavour
and nutrients. It’s one of the most readily available lettuces in India and is mostly used by
a number of hotels to prepare salads.

LOLLO ROSSO: This mild, tender lettuce has ruffled red edges

RADICCHIO: With its beautiful colouring and slightly bitter flavour, radicchio is wonderful
when combined with other salad greens.

ROMAINE LETTUCE: Romaine combines good flavour and crunch, plus it has a decent
shelf life in the refrigerator. It's the preferred green for Caesar salad. Green romaine is the
most common variety, but you can sometimes find red romaine, which is tender.

RADICCHIO ROMAINE

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RED SANGRIA LETTUCE

Thick rose blushed leaves over a blanched pale yellow heart make for an attractive lettuce.
Very good eating quality

RED SANGRIA

BELGIAN ENDIVE: These crunchy, slightly bitter leaves are often used to make hors
d'oeuvres, but they can also be chopped and added to salads, or braised to make an exquisite
(and expensive) side dish. Select heads with yellow tips; those with green tips are more
bitter. Their peak season is the late fall and winter.

BIBB LETTUCE This butter head lettuce has delicate, loose leaves and lots of
flavour. The only downside is that it's usually expensive

BIBB LETTUCE

MIZUNA OR SPIDER MUSTARD Mizuna has tender leaves and a pleasant, peppery
flavour.

PIDER OR MIZUNA MUSTARD

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RED MUSTARD: This has a pungent, peppery flavour that adds zip to salads.

RED MUSTARD

DANDELIONS: Dandelions have a somewhat bitter flavour, which Europeans appreciate

more than Americans. Older dandelion greens should be cooked; younger ones can be
cooked or served raw as a salad green. They're available year-round, but they're best in the
spring.

DANDELION

BODY

The body comprises of the main ingredient of the salad. It must be proportional to the base.
The body must comprise of small bite size pieces of the ingredients. The ingredients used
should have a balance of flavours and taste.

GARNISH

The main purpose of a garnish is to add a eye appeal to the finished product. But a certain
number of times it can also be added to improve the taste of the salad. Can be either a part
of the body also. It should be kept simple. Some of the most widely used salad garnishes
are:

CORIANDER SPRIG BASIL

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PARSLEY CHERRY TOMATOES

DRESSINGS

A Dressing is served with all salads, it is used to flavour the salad provides food value and
improves palatability and appearance. Dressing may be in liquid or semi liquid form. It can be
made with a variety of ingredients ranging from oil-vinegar, cream, yogurt, egg, and cheese.

Various oil used for making a dressing are:

 OLIVE OIL
 WALNUT OIL
 SALAD OIL
 GROUNDNUT OIL
 SESAME OIL
 GRAPESEED OIL
 HAZELNUT OIL

Various vinegars used for making a dressing are:

 TERRAGON VINEGER
 BALSAMIC VINEGER
 RED WINE VINEGER
 WHITE WINE VINEGER
 MALT VINEGAR
 SHERRY VINEGAR
 RASPBERRY VINEGAR
 CIDER VINEGER

SOME COMMONLY USED DRESSINGS ARE:

Sauce Louis - Mayonnaise and heavy cream combined with chopped green pepper and green
onion seasoned with chilli sauce and Worcestershire sauce and lemon juice.
Blue cheese dressing - Creamy dressing containing crumbled blue cheese.
Roquefort dressing - Vinaigrette containing crumbled Roquefort or blue cheese.

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French dressing- Three parts Oil and one part vinegar with mustard and garlic.
English dressing- one part of oil and two part vinegar, English mustard and seasoning.
American vinaigrette- equal quantities of vinegar and oil, mustard and seasoning.
Lorenzo dressing - Vinaigrette with chilli sauce and chopped watercress.
Anchovy dressing - Vinaigrette and mashed anchovies.
Italian dressing - Vinaigrette with garlic and herbs: oregano and basil and dill.
Half-and-half dressing - Half mayonnaise and half vinaigrette seasoned with minced garlic and
mashed anchovies and grated Parmesan cheese; especially good for combination salads.

Mayonnaise - Egg yolks and oil and vinegar.

Russian dressing - Mayonnaise with horseradish grated onion and chilli sauce or catsup;
sometimes with caviar added.
Salad cream – A Creamy salad dressing resembling mayonnaise.

Thousand Island dressing - Mayonnaise with chilli sauce or tomato ketchup and minced olives
and peppers and hard-cooked egg.

Acidulated cream: Three part of thin cream to one part of lemon juice, salt and pepper.

FISH

Fish are vertebrates and have skin and scales, which cover the body and they move with the
help of fines. Fish is very much of a food of the nineties, the epitome of modern cooking and
eating styles – low in fat, high in protein, rich in minerals and vitamins, quick and easy to
prepare and cook, versatile enough to be adapted to suit any occasion.

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FIN FISH:
Fin fishes are cold-blooded vertebrates with gills. Fi sh can be divided into various sub-
categories according to habitat, shape and flesh type.

1. a) White: - They are mainly flat f ish and the oil presents only in the liver. Most of those
are deep sea fis h.
2. b) Oily: - They are mainly round fis h and contained fat all over the body.

SHELL FISH:
1. a) Molluses: – Bivalves: Which have two number of separate cell joint by a membrane.
The membrane controls the movement of the shell.
2. b) Crustaceans: – They have a segmented crust like shell, the sense of crustacean does
not growth with the fi sh but the cell is divided every year. Exam. – Crabs, prawn etc.
INVERTEBRATES:
Invertebrates are spineless marine animals with no outer shell. They include the squid and
octopus family.

How to select fish?

The following points must be looked at the time of selecting fis h-

1. Eyes should be bright.

2. Grills should be red.
3. The tail should be stick.
4. The flesh should be firm and not floppy.
5. The whole body should be covered by full scales.
Preparing fish for cooking:-
Scaling and cleaning:

1. To scale bland side of knife, holding the fi sh by tail, scraps finely from the tail towards
the head, wash well and removed any lose of scale.
2. Remove the fins and tail.
3. In case of flat fish cut away the grills and make a small opening in the belly.
Cooking of fish:
Boiling– Fi sh generally boiled in a courtbollion”. The method is suitable for the whole f ish;
thick cuts of f ish could also be boiled. Whole fis h clean would be put in courtboilion liquid
and boil. The fis h is put into a pen, fill with
courtboilion then boiled. If the fi sh is cooked, then a stewer will easily place in the flesh of
fish. Approximate time of boiling of fi sh is 10-15 min. /500gm. of fish.

Steaming:- Place the fi sh in a steamer and sprinkle with salt and pepper, then the water in the
steamer must be fast briling with the fire and the fi sh is cooked.
Grilling:- It is a suitable method for various cuts and types of fish is cooked on top of the grill
bar use of butter or oil. The grill should be greased so that the flesh does not sticky and the
garnish with lemon, fine fresh parsley chop,
accompaniment with suitable sauce and time of grilling of f ish is 5-7 minutes.

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Frying:- Small fish can be fried whole or out into steaks or fillet or pieces of fi sh in huge
amount of oil. The cooking time of frying is about 5 minutes.
Baking:- Round white fish is suitable for baking. The fis h should be cleaned and belly is staff
with force meat (bread crums, chop onion, nutmeg, lemon juice, egg yolk and high seasoning
and flavouring), butter is applied to the fish
and then it is baked in a baking tray. Baking time is 10min. /500gm. of fi sh.

Court-bouillon:
To preserve and enhance the delicate flavour of fish, the liquid in which they are poached, those
are prepared with care. The poaching liquid is called court- bouillon. Traditional uses include
poaching fi sh and seafood, but it is also used for poaching vegetables, eggs, sweetbreads,
cockscombs, and delicate meats.

Ingredients for court-bouillon:

SL. NO. Ingredients Quantity

01 Water 1 lit.

02 Salt 15gm.

03 Carrot 60gm.

04 Slice lemon 60gm.

05 Vinegar 75mil.

06 Parsley stalk 3 sprig

07 Pepper corns 6 No.

08 Bay leaf 1-2 No.

Simmering all the ingredients for 30-40 minutes and then strain and used as liquor.

Strain and used as liquor.

Different types of court-bouillon are-

1. White court-bouillon (slice onion, bay leaf, parsley, pepper corn, lemon juice, salt, milk
and water).
2. Ordinary court-bouillon (vinegar, water, pepper corn, slice onion, carrots, salt, parsley,
thyme and bay leaf).
3. White wine court-bouillon (white wine, water, mince onion, banquet gurney, salt,
pepper corn, few drop of vinegar, carrots).
4. Red wine court-bouillon (Red wine, vinegar, water, mince onion, bouquet gurney,
parsley, salt, pepper corn, carrots.
Popular fish dishes:

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1. Prom fret- Pagodas

2. Prom frets with M.D.H.
3. Prom frets with portigaise sauce.
4. Tandoori prom fret.
5. Amritsar- mach chi (Indian).
Storage of fish:
Fi sh should be stored for other food to prevent transfer of smell and flavour and ideally a fish
stored in a refrigerator, chiller and the temperature is 0c to 12c.

Cuts of fish:
1. Fillet or filla:- A cut fish free from the bone without skin. A round fish have two
number of fillet and the flat fish have four number of fillet.

2. Darne: – A piece or slice of cut across and through the bone of large whole round fishs.
Exam. – Salmon, cord.

3. Trancon:– A slice of flat fishs cut on the bone. It is a section of a large flat fish such
as Turbot or Brill after being split down the backbone, approximately 45 mm thick.
4. Goujon:- This term is applied to fillet of fishs cut into strips format. Approximate size
of gorgons is 3” X ¼”.

5. Goujonette: – As well as gorgons but smaller. Approximate size of gougonnettes is 2”

X ¼”.
6. Paupiette:- A rolled and stuffed fillet, usually of flat fishs. The stuffing would generally
be a fine fish farce.

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7. Supreme: A portioned piece – cut on the slant from the fillet of a large round or flat
fishs.

POULTRY

Poultry is the name even to domestic birds. It includes the different variety and sizes of
chicken, turkey, duck and goose.
Classification of poultry:

IDENTIFICATION OF POULTRY:

 Soft, floppy, feathers should be all over the body and concentrated under the wings.
 The quills of feather should be easy to pullout.
 The skin should be clean and smooth and no blasting spots.
 Combs and wattle should be small and well develop and the combs being bright red in
colour.
 Conformation or the shape of the bird is important and the birds should free from
deformity.
 The eyes should prominent and clear.
 It should not have market unpleasant smell.
 Food value:

 The flesh of poultry is more easily digested then that the other meat. It contents protein
and is therefore useful for building and repairing body tissue and providing also the
heat and energy.

Accompaniments and garnishes:

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1. Grilled chicken: – Fry straw potato, devil sauce (Deeping).

2. Tandoori chicken: – Laccha salad (onion ring, lemon, green chilly), mint sauce
(Deeping).
Garnish- Julian cuts of carrots.

3. Chicken korma: – Fresh corriendal leaf (chopped), fried kaju nut (crush),
Julian cuts of ginger and lemon.

4. Chicken pokora: – Sprinkle chat masala and mint sauce.

5. Chicken curry: – Fresh corriendalchop, jillion cuts of ginger and lemon.
Read more about poultry in India from [Link]
Cooking methods:
The methods used for poultry depends upon the size of the birds and the nature of the places.
Some birds are young tender and lacking of fat; others are through and require moist heat for
tenderizing. The characteristic of the flesh have leave to special method of preparation for the
special class of poultry.

Young birds are cooked by grill, tan door or roasted as there tender but the nature birds are
cooked by moist cooking. Spices are added when flavour as needed and are enreach with fat
such as fricassee curry, karma.

Link young birds are fried as it enhances palatability.

SL. NO. OF
NO. NAME WEIGHT USE
PORTION

Roasting and
Single body grilling.
01 chicken 300-350 gm 1

Double body Roasting, grilling and tandoori

02 chicken 450 gm 2 preparation.

Roasting, encasserole,
750 gm- 1 sauces and tandoori.
03 Medium chicken kg 4

1 ½ kg – 2 Boiling, grassing, galantine and

04 Large chicken kg 6- 8 stewing.

The versatility, the popularity, and the relatively low cost of poultry items make them ideal for
all kinds of food service operations, from elegant white-tablecloth restaurants to cafeterias and

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fast food restaurants. Also, chicken and turkey are becoming very popular among diet-
conscious people, because chicken and turkey are lower in fat and cholesterol than other meats.
Learning about poultry is, in some ways, easier than learning about meats like beef and lamb.
Because chickens, turkeys, and other poultry are much smaller, they are not cut up in such
detail. However, poultry has its unique cooking problems, so it is important that the student
observe both the similarities and the differences between meat and poultry.

COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE

The flesh of poultry is muscle tissue, as is the flesh of beef, lamb, veal, and pork. Its
composition and structure are essentially the same as those of meat. Remember that muscle
tissue is composed of

 Water (about 75%)

 Protein (about 20%)
 Fat (upto 5%)
 Other elements, including carbohydrate, in small quantities.
Remember that the muscle consists of muscle fibers, held together in bundles by connective
tissue.

Maturity and Tenderness

Tenderness of a piece of meat – or poultry – is related to connective tissue increases with

 Use or exercise of the muscle.

 Maturity or age of the animal or bird.
1. Use or exercise is of less concern in poultry. Most poultry are so young that it is
relatively tender throughout. However, there are some differences, discussed in the next
section, “light meat”, and “dark meat”.
2. Maturity is a major consideration when selecting poultry. Young, tender birds are
cooked by dry-heat methods, such as broiling, frying, and roasting, as well as by moist
heat to be made palatable.
Maturity is the major factor in categorizing each kind of poultry.

“Light Meat” and “Dark Meat”

A poultry is not divided up into many small cuts, as are meats. Chicken and turkey, however
are usually thought of as consisting of two kinds of parts, depending on the colour of the meat.
These colour differences reflect other differences:

“Light meat” – breast and wings

 Less fat
 Less connective tissue
 Cooks faster
“Dark meat” – legs (drumsticks and thighs)
 More fat
 More connective tissue
 Takes longer to cook

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Duck and game have all dark meat, but the same differences in connective tissue holds true.
The cook must observe these differences when preparing poultry.

1. Cooking whole birds. Everyone has tasted chicken or turkey breast so dry it was
difficult to swallow. In fact, light meat is overcooked more often than not, because it
cooks faster than the legs and is done first. In addition, the breast has less fat than the
legs, so it tastes much drier when cooked (or overcooked).
A major problem is roasting poultry is cooking the legs to doneness without overcooking the
breast. Chefs have devised many techniques to help solve this problem. Here are some of them.

 Roasting breast down for part of the roasting period. Gravity draws fat and moisture to
the breast rather than away from it.
 Roasting with fat only, not with water or stock. Fat protects from drying, but moisture
washes away protective fat.
 Barding, or covering the breast with a thin layer of pork fat. Usually done with lean
game birds.
 Separating breast from leg sections and roasting each for a different time. Often done
with large turkeys.
2. Cooking poultry parts. Many recipes have been devised especially for certain poultry
parts, such as wings, drumsticks, and boneless chicken breast. These recipes take into
account the different cooking characteristics of each part. For, example, flattened
boneless chicken breasts can be quickly sautéed and remain juicy and tender. Or turkey
wings, when braised, release enough gelatin to help make a rich sauce.
Many of these items have especially high customer appeal, especially boneless chicken breast,
and are served in the most elegant restaurants. Several of the chicken and turkey recipes are for
specific parts. Those that use cut-up whole chicken can easily be adapted for specific parts. For
example, you may want to buy whole chickens, braise the leg sections, and reserve the breast
for other preparations.

CLASSIFICATION AND MARKET FORMS

The following terms are used to classify poultry:

Kind – the species, such as chicken, turkey, or duck.

Class – the subdivision of kind, depending on age and sex. Table-1 describes kinds and classes
of poultry.

Style – the amount of cleaning and processing.

 Live: almost never purchased in food service.

 Dressed: killed, bled, and plucked. Also rarely seen in food service.
 Ready to cook: dressed and eviscerated, with head and feet removed.
 Cut up, or parts.
State of refrigeration –chilled or frozen.

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HANDLING AND STORAGE

Fresh poultry

1. Fresh poultry are extremely perishable. It should arrive packed in ice until used.
2. Ideally, use it within 24 hours of receiving, never more than 4 days.
3. Poultry often carry salmonella bacteria. Wash all equipment and cutting surface after
handling poultry to avoid contamination of other foods.
Frozen Poultry

1. Store frozen poultry at 0oF (-18oC) or lower until ready to thaw.

2. Thaw in original wrapper in refrigerator, allowing 1 to 2 days for chickens, 2 to 4 days
for larger birds. If pressed for time, thaw in cold, running water in original wrapper.
3. Do not refreeze poultry.
DONENESS

Poultry is almost always cooked well done. Chicken and turkey are low in fat, so they become
dry and unpalatable when overcooked. Even duck and goose, which are fatty, taste dry and
stringy if cooked too long. Many skilled chefs with years of experience can often tell the
doneness of a roast chicken or turkey just by looking at it. Until you have gained that much
experience, you should rely on other methods.

For Large Roasted Birds

Internal temperature of 180oF (82oC), tested with a thermometer should be inserted into the
thickest muscle of the inner part of the thigh, away from the bone. The thigh is tested rather
than the breast, because the thigh is the last part of the bird to become fully cooked.

For Smaller Birds, Cooked by Any Method

Doneness is determined in the following ways.

Weight
Kind/Class Description Age Range

Chicken

Rock Cornish ¾ – 2lb

Specially breed of young chicken, (0.34-0.9 kg)
game hen very tender and delicate. 5-6 weeks

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Broiler: 1½ -
Young chicken of either sex. Tender 2½lb
flesh and flexible cartilage. Smooth (0.7-1.1kg)
Broiler or fryer skin. 9-12 weeks

Young chicken of either sex. Tender 3½ – 5lb

flesh and smooth skin, but less (1.6-2.3 kg)
Roaster flexible cartilage. 3-5 months

Castrated male chicken. Flesh very 5-8lb

tender and well flavoured. Large Under 8 (2.3-3.6kg)
Capon breast. Expensive. months

Mature female. Tough flesh and 3 ½ – 6lb

coarse skin. Hardened breast bone Over 10 (1.6-2.7kg)
Hen or fowl cartilage. months

4-6lb
Mature male. Coarse skin. Tough, Over 10 (1.8-2.7kg)
Cock or rooster dark meat. months

Turkey

Young bird of either sex. Tender 4-9lb

flesh, smooth skin, and flexible Under 16 1.8-4 kg
Fryer-roaster cartilage. weeks

Young turkey 8-22lb

(hen or tom) Young turkeys with tender flesh but (3.6-10kg)
firmer cartilage. 5-7months

10-30lb
Fully matured turkey that is still Under (4.5-14kg)
Yearling turkey reasonably tender. 15months

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10-30lb
Mature turkey or old Old turkey with tough flesh and Over
turkey (hen or tom) (4.5-14kg)
coarse skin. 15months

2-4lb
Broiler or fryer Young tender duck with soft bill and Under 8
duckling (0.9lb-1.8kg)
windpipe. weeks

Young tender duck with bill and 4-6lb

windpipe that are just starting to Under 16 (1.8-2.7kg)
Roaster duckling harden. weeks

4-10lb
Old duck with tough flesh and hard Over (1.8-4.5kg)
Mature duck bill and windpipe. 6months

Goose

Under 6-10lb(2.7-
Young goose Young bird with tender flesh. 6months 4.5kg)

Over 10-16lb(4.5-
Mature goose Tough old bird. 6months 7.3kg)

Guineas

¾ -1½lb
About (0.34-0.7kg)
Young guinea Domestic relatives of the pheasant. 6months

1-2lb
Young birds are tender, old ones are Up to (0.45-0.9kg)
Mature guinea tough. 12months

Pigeons

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Very young pigeons with light, tender Under

Squab meat. 3-4 weeks 1lb(0.45kg)

Over 4 1-2lb(0.45-
Pigeon Older pigeons with tough, dark meat. weeks 0.9kg)

1. Looseness of joints. The leg will move freely in its socket.

2. Clear juices. Juices inside the cavity of a roasted bird will be clear yellow rather than
cloudy and red or pink.
3. Flesh separating from bone. Muscles will begin to pull away from bones, especially
breastbone and leg bones. Excessively shrunken flesh means it is overcooked and dry.
4. Firmness to touch. Test with finger pressure as you would a steak. Especially useful
method for sautéed boneless chicken breasts.
Not recommended: do not test by piercing deeply with fork and twisting the flesh. Too many
valuable juices will be lost.

TRUSSING METHOD

Trussing means trying the legs and wings against the body to make a compact, solid unit. It has
too main purposes:

1. Even cooking. Extended legs and wings cook too quickly.

2. More attractive appearance, especially when presented or served whole or carved in the
dinning room.

Mutton and Lamb

The terms #lamb, hogget or #mutton are names for the animals or meat of a domestic sheep.
The meat of a sheep a year old or ‘ younger is generally known as lamb, whereas the meat of
an older sheep is either hogget or mutton depending on its age and characteristics. All of these
are known generically as sheep meats.

Find out more at Wiki about Mutton and Lambs..

A sheep less than one year old is known for its tender meat. Baby lamb and spring lamb are
both milk fed. Baby lamb is customarily slaughtered at between 6 and 8 weeks old. Spring
lamb is usually 3 to 5 months old; regular lamb is slaughtered under a year of age. Lamb
between 12 and 24 months is called yearling; when over 2 years, it’s referred to as mutton and
has a much stronger flavor and less tender flesh.
Cuts of Lamb / Mutton
Breast: This cut is from the rib cage and is one of the cheapest cuts and whilst the price is
similar to scrag end, but

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is much more versatile. It can be roasted on the bone, boned, stuffed and rolled, or when well
trimmed, can be used for mince, burgers or skewers (kebabs). Some butchers also sell this cut
in strips which are ideal for barbecues.

Flank: Unlike other cuts from the loin area, the flank is much tougher and is usually sold as
mince meat.
Foreshank: Also known as Lamb shanks, this cut is suitable for slow roasting, stewing and
braising. It has become very popular in recent years especially when braised when a whole
shank with the bone is served per person. It is a very flavourful cut of meat.
Leg: This is a prime cut with little fat which is excellent for roasting as a joint. It is often cut
into lamb steaks suitable for frying or grilling or into cubes for lean kebabs.
Loin: The loin is the most tender part of the lamb. It is from this area that loin chops come
from as well as medallions, noisettes as well as roasting cuts. Suitable for roasting although the
joints tend to be small unless you have a whole saddle which is made up of a double loin roast,
from both sides of the backbone. Frying and grilling are excellent for the smaller cuts.
Neck: This is one of the tougher cuts and is generally sold as Stewing lamb or made into mince
(ground) meat. When sold in pieces it is only’ suitable for very long, slow, moist cooking.
Although tough the flavour is very good so well worth the extra cooking. Best End of neck is
traditionally used for Lancashire Hotpot.
Scrag: Also known as scrag end or neck end, this is one of the tougher cuts and is therefore
one of the cheaper ones. The meat from this area is often more fatty than other cuts and is
usually sold chopped or diced for use in stews and casseroles.
Rack: A “rack of lamb” is the name given to the whole rib section on either side of the
backbone between the shoulder and the loin. A tender and flavor some cut, it is also expensive
and it is suitable for dry heat cooking such as roasting or grilling.
Shoulder: Shoulder is often sold as two separate joints, blade and arm (knuckle). The whole
shoulder is also sometimes called “square cut” which consists of the arm, blade, and rib bones.
Shoulder meat is also often trimmed of fat and sold as cubes for curries, kebabs and casseroles.
Shoulder chops are suitable for panfrying, grilling or braising.

Beef and Veal

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Beef is the meat from bovines, especially domestic cattle. Fresh beef has cream-colored fat
and bright red meat. The best beef is marbled with fine strands of fat, which bastes the meat
as it cooks and makes it tender and juicy.

Veal comes from young calves, and so the meat is tender and lean and the flavor is delicate.
The best way to cook veal is with moist heat, either by braising it or cooking it in a liquid.
Since the meat is lean, it tends to dry out when cooked with dry heat. When selecting veal,
check to make sure that the meat is moist and light pink-gray in color, that the fat is white, and
that the bones are engorged with blood.

Terms Used in Beef Industry

Carcass: Whole animal after dressing from the slaughter house.
Side: A carcass that has been split down the center of the spinal column.
Quarter: A side that has been sub-divided into two sections as forequarters-hindquarters.
Crop: Fore quarters minus the plate, brisket and shin
Baron: A complete back (uncut) which is a pair of sirloins undivided.
Offals: Product derived from the process of slaughtering other than the carcass, the edible
internal organs e.g. liver, heart, sweet bread, head, tongue, tail, brains, kidneys.
Cuts of Beef
Neck: This is one of the tougher cuts and is generally sold as Stewing Steak or made into mince
(ground) meat. When sold in pieces, it is only suitable for very long, slow, moist cooking.

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Blade and Chuck: This cut is often sold as Braising Steak. A little more tender than stewing
steak. Use in casseroles, stews and to braise.
Fore Rib: Sometimes sold boned and rolled but is traditionally sold on the bone. Has a higher
fat content throughout the flesh and makes a superb roast. Can also be cut into steaks for grilling
or frying.
Thick Rib: This cut is often sold as Braising Steak. A little more tender than stewing steak.
Use in casseroles, stews and to braise.
Thin Rib: This is one of the tougher cuts and is generally sold as mince (ground) meat.

Brisket: Often sold boned and rolled and sometimes salted. Suitable for slow or pot roasting.
Traditionally used for aking corned beef.

Shin: This is one of the tougher cuts and is generally sold as Stewing Steak or made into mince
(ground) meat. When sold in pieces it is only suitable for very long, slow, moist cooking.
Sirloin: Often sold boned and rolled. A prime cut which is suitable for roasting.
Sirloin Steak: Comes from the same area as sirloin but cut into steaks such as “T”-bone,
Porterhouse and Entrecote. A prime cut which is suitable for grilling, frying, stir- fries and
barbecuing.
ThinFlank: Often used for minced or ground meat. Suitable for cottage pie, Bolognese sauce
and burgers. Thin flank is also known as Top Rump. Similar to topside and can be slow roasted
as a joint or slow fried or braised in pieces. Also sold as “flash fry” steaks.
Leg: This is one of the tougher cuts and is generally sold as Stewing Steak. Only suitable for
very long, slow, moist cooking.
Silverside: Although this was traditionally salted and sold as a boiling joint, this very lean
piece of meat is now most often sold unsalted as a joint for roasting. Requires frequent basting
through the cooking time.
Topside:Very lean and when sold as a joint for roasting, often has a layer of fat tied around it
to help baste and keep it moist. Also suitable cut into steaks for frying or grilling and in stir-
fries.
Rump: Although a prime cut, it is usually cheaper than fillet or sirloin because it’s not quite
as tender. Suitable for quick cooking e.g. frying, stir-fries, grilling or barbecuing.
Shank: This is one of the tougher cuts and is generally soldas mince (ground) meat
Steaks

A steak is a slice from a larger piece of meat typically from beef. Most steaks are cut
perpendicular to the muscle fibres, improving the perceived tenderness of the meat. A
restaurant that specializes in beef steaks is known as a steakhouse. A typical steak dinner
consists of a steak, with a starchy side dish, usually baked potatoes, but occasionally another
potato dish, rice, pasta, or beans. In France, beef steak is usually served with French fried

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potatoes also known as “pommes frites”, and the combination is known as steak-fries”. The
different types of beef steaks are given below:

1. Chateaubriand steak – Usually served for two, cut from the large head of the tenderloin.
2. Chuck steak – A cut from neck to the ribs.
3. Cube steak – A cut of meat, usually top round, tenderized by a fierce pounding of a
mallet.
4. Filet mignon – A small choice tenderloin, the most tender cut, less flavorful.
5. Flank steak – From the underside. Not as tender as steaks cut from the rib or loin.
6. Flat iron steak – A cut from the shoulder blade.
7. Hanger steak or (French) onglet – A steak from near the center of the diaphragm.
Flavorful, and very tender towards the edges; but sinewy in the middle. Often called
the “butcher’s tenderloin.”
Popular seak cuts of North Americans are Proster house steak, New York steak, Sirloin steak,
T-bone steak, round steak, rump steak, etc. Depending on the extent of cooking, finished
product is called rare, medium or well done.

BEEF/VEAL:

Beef and veal are classified by their ages.

Veal: – Flesh of calf (less than 3 months of age) which lives on milk stage.
Calves: – The animal reach 3-8 months old.

Beef: – If the animal is above 8 months, the fleshes are called beef flesh.

Beef is the most popular of all the edible meat in the western countries. In India beef is not
very popular but the buffaloes presents in the menu. The age and sex has been an influence on
the taste and the quality of the beef meat.

Sl. No. Name of cuts Weight

01 Scrag-end 1 Ya kg.

02 Neck-end 4 kg.

03 Best-end 6 kg.

04 Loin 5 kg.

05 Leg 18 kg.

06 Knuckle Y kg

07 Breast 2 Y kg

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08 Shoulder 5 kg.
PORK –Recipes & Cooking

Pork is the meat from the domestic pig (Sus scrofa). It is one of the most commonly
consumed meats worldwide. Pork is eaten in various forms, including cooked (as roast pork),
cured or smoked (ham, including the Italian Prosciutto) or a combination of these methods
(gammon, bacon or Pancetta). It is also a common ingredient of sausages.
Cuts of Pork

Head: This can be used to make brawn, stocks and soups. After boiling the ears can be fried
or baked and eaten separately, which are crunchy due to corliage bones. It is considered a
delicacy.
Spare Rib: This is the shoulder and contains the shoulder blade. It can be boned out
and rolled up as a roasting joint, or cured as “collar bacon”. Not to be confused with the rack
of spare ribs from the front belly. Boston Butt, or Boston-Style Shoulder, cut comes from this
area, and may contain the shoulder blade.
Hand/Arm: This can be cured on the bone to make a ham, or used in sausages.
Loin: This can be cured to give back bacon or Canadian-style bacon. The loin and belly can
be cured together to give a side of bacon. The loin can also be divided up into roasts (blade
loin roasts, center loin roasts, and sirloin roasts come from the front, center, or rear of the
loin), back ribs (also called baby back ribs, or riblets), pork cutlets, and pork chops. A pork
loin crown roast is arranged into a circle, either boneless or with rib bones protruding upward
as points in a crown.
Belly: The belly, although a fattier meat, can be used forsteaks or diced stir-fry meat. Belly
pork may be rolled for roasting or cut for streaky bacon.
Legs/Hams: Although any cut of pork can be cured, technically speaking only the back leg is
entitled to be called a ham. Legs and shoulders, when used fresh, are usually cut bone-in for
roasting, or leg steaks can be cut from the bone. Three common cuts of the leg include the
rump (upper portion), center, and shank (lower portion).
Trotters: Both the front and hind trotters can be cooked and eaten, as can the tail.
Spare rib: These are taken from the pig’s ribs and the meat surrounding the bones.
 BACON, HAM AND GAMMON
 Bacon: Bacon is made by preserving the meat of carefully bred pics. The preservative
used is salt (curing) and/or smoked. Salt can be applied in two ways .

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 Covering the meat by dry salt allowing at least 4 weeks penetration .

 By using a salt solution ( brine )
This is injected into the flesh and then the meat is immersed in a salt solution for 5 days.
Some times a combined method is used .Brine is injected into the meat and then it is stacked
and covered by dry salt for 2 to 3 weeks .It is then matured for about 3 weeks under
controlled temperature .Desirable bacteria act on meat juices. This bacon is now ready to sale
as GREEN or PALE bacon.

In certain parts of the world the bacon is preferred smoked .

So it is then hung over smouldering wood dust for 2 days. This extracts excessive moisture
and gives the bacon a distinctive flavour , preserving the qualities and act as antiseptic.

Ham: Ham and Gammon comes from the hind legs of a pig. Gammon is cut off the cured
porker . Ham on other hand , is cut off at fresh pork stage and includes a substantial part of
the loin . It is cured after cutting , usually by the long process of dry salting

EGGS
Eggs are one of the most nutritious and versatile foods in the kitchen are served on
their own, used as an ingredient in many dishes starting from soup to desserts. It
provides texture, structure, flavour and moisture as well as the nutrition. Eggs can be
brown or white; colour has no effect on quality or flavour but depends on the breed of
the hen.
NUTRITIONAL VALUE
The nutritional value of eggs varies with their size; it is not an important factor in
judging their quality. Larger the eggs, of course have more food value than small ones.
A single large egg provides
6.5grm of protein or about 13% of the recommended daily intake for adults, as well as
80 calories and good amount of iron, phosphorus, thiamine and vitamins like A, D,E
and K. The disadvantage of egg as a staple diet is their high cholesterol content. The
yolk of an egg which is about 50% water,34%lipids,fats and related substances and
16% protein with traces of glucose and minerals. Egg is made up of approximately
11% shell and 89% interior. The composition of the shell is important from the
viewpoint of food safety, sanitation, and aesthetics. It contains calcium, carbonate
(94%), magnesium carbonate (1%), calcium phosphate (1%), and 4% organic matter. It
is important to recognize that there has been considerable information that the hen's
diet can impact the composition of the egg.

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COMPOSITION
Structure of an Egg
The egg is composed of shell, white and yolk. The egg white forms 2/3rd of the whole egg
and the yolk forms 1/3rd.
[Link]
It is the outer hard covering of the egg and is made up of Calcium, Magnesium carbonate and
Calcium phosphate. The shell gives shape to the egg and holds the inner contents. The shell
contains thousands of pores that allow CO2 and moisture to escape, as well as air to enter.
The shell is covered by a cuticle membrane or Bloom and should not be washed. The bloom
acts as protective covering blocking the pores, and prevents moisture loss and bacterial
contamination. When eggs are washed before going to the market, the cuticle is removed. To
protect the egg, the washed eggs are coated with a thin film of edible oil.
[Link]
Beneath the shell, there are two semi permeable membranes - the outer and the inner. These
membranes act as a protective layer in case the shell cracks.
[Link]
On one side of the egg (broader), both these membranes separate to form an air cell. This is
formed by contraction of the contents as soon as the egg is laid, due to the difference in the
outside temperature.
4. Egg white
It has 1/8th part of the protein, which is called albumin; the remaining being water. The egg
white consists of three parts – the outer thin albumen, the middle thick albumin and the inner
thin albumin.
5. Egg yolk
The yolk is separated from the white by a membrane called vitelline membrane. This
membrane prevents the mix of both yolk and white. 1/6th parts of the egg yolk contains
proteins, 1/3rd fat and the rest water, Vitamins and minerals like Calcium, Phosphorus, Iron
etc.
6. Chalaza

Parts of Total Water (%) Protein Fat(

Egg weight(%) (%) %)

Whole 100 65 13 11
egg
White 58 88 13 ----
Yolk 31 48 18 33

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The egg is kept in position at the centre of the egg with the help of the chalaza. It has a thick-
cord like appearance and is composed of proteins. This chord-like structure may have to be
strained while making custards.

COMPOSITION OF HEN’S EGG.

EGG GRADES
The grading of quality, which is not mandatory by law, is independent of the different
sizes available.
GRADE DESCRIPTION
AA Shell: clean; unbroken, practically normal
Air cell: 1/8 inch or less in depth; practically regular
White: clear, firm, "upright"
Yolk: well centered; outline slightly defined; free from defects
A Shell: clean; unbroken, practically normal
Air cell: 2/8 inch or less in depth; practically regular
White: clear, may be reasonably firm
Yolk: may be fairly well centered; outline fairly well defined; practically free
from defects
B Shell: clean to slightly stained; unbroken, may be slightly abnormal
Air cell: 3/8 inch or less in depth, may be free but not bubbly
White: clear, may be slightly weak
Yolk: may be off center, outline well defined, may be slightly enlarged and
fattened, and may show definite but not serious defects
C Shell:clean to moderately stained, unbroken, may be abnormal.

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Air cell: may be over 3/8 inch in depth, may be free or bubbly
White: may be weak and watery, small blood clots or spots may be present
Yolk: may be off center, enlarged and flattened, may show clearly visible
germdevelopment but no blood; may show other serious defects; outline may be
plainly visible.
In any case ,slow deterioration in quality goes as long as eggs are stored, SO PROMT
USE IS THE BEST USE.
The best grade (AA) has a firm yolk and white that stand up high when broken onto a
flat surface and do not spread over a large area. In the shell, the yolk is well centered,
and the air sac is small. As eggs age,they lose density. The thin part of the white
becomes larger, and the egg spreads over a larger area when broken. Also, the air sac
becomes larger as the egg loses moisture through the shell.

EGG SIZES
MIN
CLASSIFICATION Wt./EGG

JUMBO 70 gm
EXTRA LARGE 63 gm
LARGE 56 gm
MEDIUM 49 gm
SMALL 42 gm
PEE WEE 35 gm
Most commonly used eggs in commercial and home cookery are Large Eggs.
Jumbo and Extra Large eggs are sometimes used as B’Fast eggs for
poaching and frying
Medium, Small and Pee Wee eggs are rarely used.
STORAGE OF EGGS
Egg should be stored in the refrigerator in their cartoon to maintain maximum
freshness and to avoid absorbing other food odours through their porous shells with the
pointed end down.
Cool place 0-5 C (32-41 F)
Away from possible contaminants such as raw meat.
First in first out

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Hands should be washed before and after handling

Types of Eggs used
Hen, Turkey, Guinea fowls, Ducks, Geese
Market forms Of Eggs
Fresh eggs: - Often used for B’fast cookery
Frozen Eggs: - Includes whole egg, whites, yolks, whole egg with extra yolk etc. It
should be pasteurized before freezing. It is used for scrambled eggs, omelets, French
toasts and in baking.
Dried eggs: - Should be pasteurized before drying. Includes whole egg whites &
yolks. Moisture is removed through evaporation. They are primarily used for baking.
GENERAL COOKING PRINCIPLES
The most important rule of egg cookery is simple: Avoid high temperatures and long
cooking times. In other words, do not overcook. This should be a familiar rule by now.
Overcooking produces tough eggs, causes discoloration, and affects flavour.
Coagulation
Eggs are largely protein, so the principle of coagulation is important to consider.

Eggs coagulate at the following temperatures:

Whole eggs,beaten about 156°F (69°C)
Whites 140° to 149°F (60° to 65°C)
Yolks 144° to 158°F (62° to 70°C)
Custard (whole eggs plus liquid) 175° to 185°F (79° to 85°C)
Note that whites coagulate or cook before yolks do. This is why it is possible to cook
eggs with firm whites but soft yolks. Note also that when eggs are mixed with a liquid,
they become firm at a higher temperature. However, 185°F (85°C) is still much lower
than the temperature of a sauté pan or skillet over high heat. As the temperature of
coagulation is reached, the eggs change from semi liquid to solid, and they become
opaque. If their temperature continues to rise, they become even firmer. An
overcooked egg is tough and rubbery. Low temperatures produce the best-cooked eggs.
If egg-liquid mixtures such as custards and scrambled eggs are overcooked, the egg
solids separate from the liquids, or curdle (Synerisis).This is often seen as tough,
watery scrambled eggs.
Sulphur
The familiar green ring you often see in hard-cooked eggs is caused by cooking at high
temperatures or cooking too long. The same green colour appears in scrambled eggs

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that are overcooked or held too long in the steam table. This ring results when the
sulphur in the egg whites reacts with the iron in the yolk to form iron sulphide, a
compound that has a green colour and a strong odour and flavour. The best way to
avoid green eggs is to use low temperatures and short cooking and holding times.
Foams
Beaten egg whites are used to give lightness and rising power to soufflés, puffy
omelettes, cakes, some pancakes and waffles, and other products. The following
guidelines will help you handle beaten egg whites properly.
1. Fat inhibits foaming.
When separating eggs, be careful not to get any yolk in the whites. Yolks contain fats.
Use very clean equipment when beating whites.
2. Mild acids help foaming.
A small amount of lemon juice or cream of tartar gives more volume and stability to
beaten egg whites. Use about 2 teaspoons cream of tartar per pound of egg whites (20
ml per kg).
3. Egg whites foam better at room temperature.
Remove them from the cooler 1 hour before beating.
4. Do not overbeat.
Beaten egg whites should look moist and shiny. Overbeaten eggs look dry and curdled
and have lost much of their ability to raise soufflés and cakes.
5. Sugar makes foams more stable.
When making sweet puffed omelettes and dessert soufflés add some of the sugar to the
partially beaten whites and continue to beat to proper stiffness. (This will take longer
than when no sugar is added.) The soufflé will be more stable before and after baking.
USES OF EGG IN COOKERY
BINDING AND COATING
Egg used in such food mixtures as meat loaf or croquettes is distributed through the
mixture. Upon heating, the proteins coagulate, binding the food into a cohesive mass
of a desired form. This is why croquettes, for example, retain their shape during the
cooking process. Frequently an outer coating of flour, breadcrumbs, cereal, or butter is
added to a food to enhance its appearance, texture or flavour. An egg batter provides a
binder for added coatings.

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LEAVENINGS
Foam is created when egg white is beaten. The foam is made of bubbles surrounded by
a thin , elastic film of egg white . When the foam is incorporated into a mixture, it
provides leavening for such products as omelettes, soufflés, sponge cakes and
meringues. When these products are heated the air bubbles expand and the egg white
film hardens. The volume of egg yolks makes its foaming power considerably lower
than that of the egg white.
EGG WHITE FOAM
Egg white foams are used in many foods to make them light and porous. Egg white
foam is colloid of bubbles of air surrounded by part of the albumen that has been
denatured by the beating of egg white. The denatured albumen is stiff and gives
stability of foam. An egg white is beaten, it loses its elasticity but some elasticity is
necessary in an egg white foam used in such dishes as soufflés and cakes , so that the
air cells can expand without breaking down the cell walls . This expansion occurs in
the heated oven before the albumen becomes rigid.
MERINGUES: Soft meringues are made with 2 tbsp of sugar for each egg white.
Topping the fillings while they are still hot and baking the pie at 375 F (190 C) until
the meringues reach a light colour yield a stable meringue and reduce the amount of
liquid (called leakage) collecting under the meringue and the tendency to the meringue
to slip from the surface of the pie. Hard meringues have a much higher proportion of
sugar to the egg white. As much as 1/4 cup of sugar per egg white may be used. Since
sugar retards the denaturisation of the egg proteins, a longer whipping time is
necessary. Hard meringue can be shaped into such subjects such as baskets, hearts, pie,
shells or animal figures. The baking temperature is very long (1 1/2 hrs) and very low
(275 F or 135 C)
EMULSIFYING AGENTS
Eggs are used to form stable emulsions, mayonnaise for example Oil and Vinegar
separate out unless the oil droplets are coated with the substance that keeps them from
running together. Egg yolk is often effective in accomplishing this. Eggs are used as
emulsifiers (Lecithin) in ice cream, cakes and cream puffs.
INTERFERING SUBSTANCES
Beaten egg whites will act as an interfering substance inmixtures to be frozen, such as
"sherbet " . Tiny bubbles of air trapped in air prevent ice crystals from coming together
and creating large masses of icy material. Egg whites and at times, egg yolk perform a
similar service in the making of candy, an egg white added to certain candies interferes
with the formation of large sugar crystals .

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CLARIFYING AGENTS
Raw eggs may be added to hot broths and coffee. When the proteins in the egg
coagulate, they trap the loose particles in the liquid and clarify it. Custard, Puddings
and Pie Fillings: custard may be cooked over hot water and stirred as it is cooked (soft
custard) or may be cooked without stirring (baked custard). The coagulation of soft
custard takes place at about 160 F (70 C) . If in making a soft custard the mixture is
held at the coagulation point for too long or if the temperature exceeds this level the
protein is over-cooked, the mixture thickens unevenly and the finished product will be
curdled .A baked custard is cooked without stirring in an oven at 350 F(176 C).
How to separate eggs?
The best way to separate the white and yolk is by using the egg shell. Avoid breaking
the egg in to one hand and allow the white to run through the finger. The white can
absorb grease and odours which will inhibit its beating qualities.
• Have two bowls ready. Crack the egg as close its centre as possible by hitting the
shell firmly against the edge of a bowl or the sharp edge of a counter. Using your
thumbs, pull shells apart , allowing some of the white to fall into
the bowl.
• Pour yolk from the shell to shell , allowing white to dribble into the bowl. Use one
side of the shell to detach remaining white from the yolk .Use a shell half to remove
.Any bits of yolk which might slip into the bowl.
• Place yolk gently into the second bowl.
Whisking egg white.
Whisking egg whites are the basis of making meringues and are used to lighten the
soufflés and mousses.
• Utensils should be large enough to allow for full increase in volume of foam.
However it should not be to large that the beater has no contact with egg whites.
• A rotary beater or wire whip should be used. Thinner the blade or finer the whip, the
smaller are the air cells and finer is the foam.
• Egg white whips rapidly at room temperature.
• The whites must be free from any traces of yolks, oil from hands or bowl and even
water.
• Use a copper or stainless steel bowl as glass and ceramic bowl seems to repel the
whites and separate them.
• Rinse the bowl with vinegar or lemon juice to remove any impurities.

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• Salt and cream of tartar are used in egg white .Salt is used for flavour .Lemon juice or
cream of tartar makes foam more stable.
• Sugar stabilizes the foam and prevents them from becoming grainy, but must be
added after the whites are stiff.
• Addition of water up to 40% of the volume of egg increases volume of foam. It is
incorporated towards the end of beating.
Whisking egg yolk
Egg yolks are often whisked separately with or without sugar, some times over the
heat. The whisking increases the volume and lightens sauces as Hollandaise or adds air
for cakes and batter.
Folding egg whites
It is a method of combining a light mixture and a heavier one without deflating the
lighter one. To lighten the heavier or base mixture, add about a quarter of the beaten
whites and stir them in thoroughly through cut and fold method. Then spoon in the
remaining whites and gently folds in by using a rubber spatula.
METHODS OF COOKING EGGS
Boiling and shelling hard and medium boiled egg (Oeufs Bouillis)
To make boiled egg there are only two things to be kept in mind---one is the cooking
time, which will be determined by the consistency of the white and yolk. The second is
the water temperature. Egg should be plunged into the simmering liquid, reboil and
simmer for required time. Commence timing once water has reboiled.
The stages of boiling are :
• Soft Boiled (in shell) : Oeuf a la Coque – boiling time 3 to 4 minutes.
• Soft Boiled (without shell) : Oeuf Mollet – boiling time 5 minutes.
• Hard Boiled : Oeuf Dur – boiling time 8 to 10 minutes served with or without shell.
Key points
• Occasional difficulty encountered when peeling the egg , which is because of PH of
egg white and so by the egg’s freshness. If the PH is below 8.9 – in a fresh egg it is
closer to 8.0- then the inner membrane tends to adhere to the albumen, whereas when
the PH is 9.2 after three days of refrigeration, the problem no longer exists.
• The other odd things about the hardboiled egg are the occasional appearance of a
greenish-gray discoloration on the surface of the yolk. The colour is caused by a
harmless compound of iron and sulphur called ferrous sulphide, which is formed only
when it is heated.

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• For shelling, crack the egg around its centre, as for separation of egg. Gently roll egg
on a work surface until the egg shell is cracked all around the centre. Remove the
shells away from the white.
• Store peeled egg in salted water.
SCRAMBLED EGGS (Ouefs Broilles)
In France, good scrambled eggs are considered an art; gently stirred over low heat to a
thick creamy puree which is elegantly garnished with truffles, smoked salmon or
chopped chives. These are prepared by thoroughly mixing the eggs, seasoning with salt
and pepper, adding tem to a little butter melted in a thick bottomed pan, then cooking
slowly stirring with a wooden spoon until set. They may be finished with butter or
cream. To hold scrambled eggs on a buffet add one table spoon of water,
milk or cream to one egg( one cup 16 eggs).They are then cooked to a soft stage and
then hold between 54 and 60 C ( 130- 140 F). 54 C (130 f) is the lowest temperature
one can use without encouraging bacteria growth. Slightly over heating will cause the
liquid to squeeze out and forms a separate puddle. It can be recognized when the liquid
collects around the edge of; for example custard or a mould of gelatine products and is
termed as SYNERISIS (weeping).

POACHED EGGS (Oeufs Poches)

To poach eggs, fill a deep pan with about two and a half inches of water. Add one
tablespoon of salt and one tablespoon of vinegar per gallon of water. The vinegar, an
acid, helps to set the egg white and prevents it from spreading. Acid also makes the
eggs more tender, whites whiter. Poached egg must be fresh or it will spread even
though vinegar is used. Both salt and vinegar help to coagulate the egg as soon as it
enters the poaching liquid so that it retains a better shape.
POACHING EGG IN BAIN-MARIE ( OEUFS MOULES )
A cooking vessel with lid is half filled with water to form a bain-marie. Bring the
water to boiling point. Prepare the egg moulds with seasonings and knob of butter to
flavour and to prevent eggs from sticking to moulds. Break egg in individual moulds
and place in the bain-marie with the lid on for a gentle cooking. Cook for 3-5 minutes
so that white sets and the yolk remain soft. Turn out and serve hot.
CODDLED EGGS
Eggs are coddled in the shell. They are cooked by pouring boiling water over the edges
, one pint of boiling water over an egg. The eggs are then covered and held in a warm
place until cooked (six to ten minutes) for firm yokes and pleasantly soft whites.
EN COCOTTE (Oeufs en Cocotte) : Similar to poaching except that eggs are
poached in porcelain dishes(cocotte). The dishes are buttered, the eggs placed in them
and both placed in bain marie for about 2 to 3 min..This dish is served for lunch or
dinner and is presented in and eaten from cocotte dish in which it is cooked.

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FRIED EGG (Oeufs Frits):

Indicates eggs gently cooked with oil/bacon fat/lard in a shallow frying vessel until
white is firm while yolk remains soft. Fried eggs are often served with crispy fried
bacon or sausages. The fried egg is the centrepiece of the great British breakfast,
surrounded by bacon, sausage, tomatoes, mushrooms, baked beans, black pudding and
toasted bread. The ideal temperature range for fried egg is 255 0c to 2800f. Eggs done
or cooked only on one side is known as SUNNY SIDE UP. For EASY OVER use a
palate knife to flip each egg carefully.
OMELETTES(Les Omelette):Making omelettes is a very simple operation but to
achieve a great success a high degree of skill is required. Usually 2-3 eggs are used per
portion with proper garnishes or flavourings, which may be added in the following
ways:
• Combined with egg before cooking.
• Placed into centre of omelette before it is folded.
• Placed on top of the omelette, in a cavity after folding is complete.
Types of Omelettes
1. Plain Omelette: is prepared plain only with seasonings.
2. Flat Omelette: Add garnish to egg before making the omelette, turn out without
folding, coloured side upper most. Spanish TORTILLAS and Italian FRITTATAS are
examples of this open faced pancake style omelette.
3. Stuffed and folded Omelette: Place fillings in the centre of omelette before folding.
4. Folded and stuffed: Slit the turned out omelette along the centre of top surface, place
in the fillings.
5. Folded Omelette: Add garnish to egg before cooking and then folded after making
it.
KEY POINTS
• A well-seasoned heavy bottom iron or a steel pan is required. For seasoning pan to
get a non-stick effect, add plenty of salt and heating it over a moderate heat. Remove
salt and wipe it with a dry cloth. Pour oil into the pan and heat steadily over a period
until the pan is smooth. Remove excess of oil and use for making omelettes.
• Never wash the pan, always wipe it with dry kitchen cloth. Apply a flim of oil and
store.
• The texture of the omelette should be soft, with a firm exterior and a moist centre.
This is termed as BAVEUSE. Omelettes are generally cooked to order. Making an
Omelettes are similar to scrambled eggs except that they form a solid sheet or
coagulated eggs, which are moulded and often filled with herbs, jams, mushrooms,
ham, cheese and many other ingredients. French omelettes with sweet filling may be

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dusted with icing sugar and burnt lightly with a hot metal rod. Marks are left similar to
grid marks on broiled steak. When new, omelette pans, like new pans and griddles, are
seasoned in the manner described for pans , then never washed again ( see fried eggs ) .
Beating the yolks and the whites separately to stiff foam makes a puffy or soufflé
omelette. It is started as a regular, but finished in the oven at 163 C (325 F).
SOUFFLES: Soufflés are similar to puffy or foamy omelettes except that they have
been thickened with flour, butter and milk. The proportion of an egg is lower than in
an omelette. To make a soufflé the eggs are separated and added to the white sauce or
starch thickened mixture. The whites are beaten to soft foam before being folded into
the rest of the materials. Soufflés are baked at 149 C (300 F) and they should be
Served soon after they are cooked.
CUSTARDS: True custards contain only milk, eggs, sugar and flavouring. No starch
agent is added. Baked custards must contain enough eggs to produce a firm mass.
Custards should be cooked in a container of water to prevent overheating. For firm
Custard heats the milk to about 66 C (150 F) then adds this to the mixture of sugar,
eggs, and flavouring. An oven temperature of about 177 C (350 F) is used for baking
custards, but if the temperature of the custard itself exceeds 85 C (185 F) the custard is
likely to contain holes, be watery and have a concave top. Once custard is cooked it
should be placed in a cool spot for setting in a pan of cold water. At a very high
temperature synergetic occurs this is a separation of liquid from the gel, caused by
contraction of the proteins.
PUDDINGS AND CREAMS: A thickened mixture of corn flour, milk, sugar and
flavouring is called a blancmange or corn flour pudding. If eggs are added to this
mixture, the pudding is called a cream pudding. Bavarian Creams (Bavarois):Are corn
flour or cream puddings made by light gelatine, whipped cream, beaten eggs and other
ingredients for Bavarian creams.1/4 tspn cream of tartar is added for each 5 egg
whites. Zabaglione or Sabayon: is a dessert of Italian origin made with egg yolks,
sugar and wine (Marsala).Quiches: are custards baked in a pastry case. It contains
eggs, milk, cheese, bacon, and onions.

OTHER EGG ITEMS:

Crepes are thin pancakes made from flour, sugar, milk and eggs. No baking powder is
added to them as in American style pancakes. Crepes are popular as desserts or as
entrees. After mixing the pancake batter, it must be allowed to rest in the refrigerator
for half an hour. Fondues contain eggs especially that of Geneva, which is made up of
egg yolks and cheese. Some fondues are baked custards containing parts of bread,
loosely resembling a soufflé. Cheese fondues probably originated in Switzerland.
Swiss cheese is melted in white wine. The wooden or earthenware bowl in which it is
served is rubbed with garlic and kirsch or cherry brandy just before the fondue is
served. It is then picked up on chunks of bread for eating. Dry white wine is an
accompaniment. Eggs are also basic to many baked desserts, including all those using
sweet dough, puff paste, sponge or genoise. They are also used in mousses. Angel

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Food Cake: is beaten egg whites, sugar and cake flour. Pastry Cream (Crème
Patisserie) is nothing but egg yolks, milk, sugar, flour and corn flour.
IMITATION EGGS: Concern over the high cholesterol of eggs (275mg of
cholesterol/egg yolk) has increased the popularity of imitation eggs made from milk
solids or Soya proteins. There are two types of egg substitutes in the market. The first
is a complete egg substitute made from soymilk or milk proteins, this is gradually
being replaced by the second type. The second type is a partial egg substitute, in which
only the yolks have been replaced, the egg whites remain. Egg substitutes have about
half the fat and calories of natural eggs. There is a distinct flavour difference between
imitation eggs and real eggs, which may be masked if they are incorporated into multi-
ingredient cooked dishes. Dried egg : 99% water is removed by evaporation.

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CHEESE

Cheese are distinguished by flavour and categorized according to their texture. They differ
from each other for a

number of reasons, mainly arising through variations in the making process. Differences occur
in the rind and how it is formed, in the paste and in the cooking process, relating here to both
time and temperature. Also cheeses vary because the milk used comes from such different
animals as cows, sheep and goats.

Cheese should be stored in a cool, dark place with good air circulation or in a refrigerator. If it
is not covered in its original wrapping, it should be wrapped in either cling film or aluminium
foil to prevent any drying out taking place. It should also be stored away from food items that
absorb flavours/odours, such as dairy produce.

Cheese – Types
Dependent upon use, cheeses may be purchased either whole or preportioned. Depending upon
the type of establishment, the latter is more often the case as there is less wastage and no loss
in quality, flavour or aroma.

 The texture of a cheese depends largely on the period of maturation. The

recognized categories are:
 Fresh
 Soft
 Semi-hard
 Hard
 Blue
Fresh Cheese:-
 Cottage: unripened low-fat, skimmed milk cheese with a granular curd. Originated in
the USA and now has many variations

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 Cream: similar to cottage cheese but is made with full milk. There are a number of
different varieties available, some made from non-cow milks
 Mozzarella: Italian cheese made now from cow’s milk but originally from buffalo milk
 Quark: continental version of cottage cheese, sharper and more acidic than the
American versions. Mainly German and Austrian varieties available
 Ricotta: Italian cheese made from the whey of cow’s milk. A number of other Italian
varieties are available made from sheep’s milk
Soft Cheese:-
 Bel Paese: this light and creamy Italian made has a name which means ‘beautiful 1
country’ and was first produced in 1929
 Brie: famous French made made since the eighth century. Other countries now make
this style of cheese, distinguishing it by the country’s name, eg German brie
 Camembert: famous French made which is stronger and can be more pungent than
 Feta:- Greek cheeses made from both goat’s and sheep’s milk
 Munster: French Vosges cheeses similar to Camembert in shape but with an orange red
rind. American, German and Swiss versions are also available
Semi-Hard Cheeses:-
 Cheddar: classic British cheeses now made all over the world and referred to as, for
example, Scottish cheddar, Canadian cheddar
 Cheshire: crumbly, slightly salty cheese, available as either white or red. It was
originally made during the twelfth century in Cheshire but is now made all over Britain
 Derby: English Derbyshire cheese now more often known by the sage-
flavoured variety, Sage Derby
 Edam: similar to, but harder than, Gouda, this Dutch made has a fairly bland, buttery
taste and a yellow or red wax coated rind. It is sometimes flavoured with cumin
 Emmenthal:- the name of this Swiss cheese refers to the Emme Valley. It is similar
to Gruyere, although it is softer and slightly less tasty
 Gloucester/Double Gloucester: full-cream, classic English, originally made only from
the milk of Gloucestershire cows
 Gouda: buttery textured, soft and mild flavoured well-known Dutch cheese with a
yellow or red rind
 Gruyere:- mainly known as a Swiss cheese but both the French and Swiss varieties can
legally be called by this name. It has small pea-size holes and a smooth relatively hard
texture. The French varieties may have larger holes
 Leicester :- mild flavoured and orange coloured made in England
Hard Chese:-
 Parmesan: classic Italian hard cheese, more correctly called Parmigiano Reggiano, and
predominantly known as the grated cheeses used in and for sprinkling over Italian
dishes
 SPecorino: hard, sheep’s milk, grating or table cheeses from southern Italy. Also
available with added peppercorns as Pecorino Pepato from Sicily
 Provolone: smoked cheese made in America, Australia and Italy. Now made from
cow’s milk but originally from buffalo milk. Younger versions are softer
and milder than the longer kept varieties
 Sapago: green coloured with an aroma of dried clover. It is a hard, grating-type cheeses
from Switzerland
 Grana Padano:- It is a grainy texured from Italy made with cow milk.
Blue Cheese:-
 Bavarian Blue: rich, high-fat and sourish made in Germany

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 Blue Shropshire: similar to Blue Cheshire but made in Scotland

 Danish Blue: one of the most well-known of the blue cheeses. Softish and mild
flavoured, it was one of the first European blue cheeses to gain popularity in Britain
 Gorgonzola: softish, sharp flavoured, classic Italian cheeses with greenish veining,
which is developed with the addition of mould culture
 Roquefort: classic, sheep’s milk cheeses from the southern Massif Central in France.
The maturing takes place in caves which provide a unique humid environment which
contributes to the development of the veining
 Stilton: famous and classic English cheeses made from cow’s milk; so called because
it was noted as being sold in the Bell Inn at Stilton by travellers stopping there.
According to legend it was first made by a Mrs Paulet of Melton Mowbray.
Traditionally served by the spoonful but nowadays usually (and perhaps preferably)
portioned. The pouring of port on to the top of a whole Stilton, once the top rind had
been removed, was also popular but this practice is also on the decline. The White
Stilton has also become popular and is slightly less flavoursome than the blue variety

Cover, Accompaniments, Service:-
The course is normally offered towards the
end of a meal as an alternative to the sweet
course. The cover to be laid is as follows:

 Side plate
 Side knife
 Sometimes a small fork (sweet)
In the service of this course the cover should
be laid first and then the * accompaniments
set on the table as follows:

 Cruet (salt, pepper, and mustard)

 Butter in butter dish placed on doily on underplate with butter knife
 Celery served in celery glass part filled with crushed ice, on an under plate
 Radishes, when in season, placed in glass bowl on underplate with teaspoon
 Castor sugar from cream cheeses
 Assorted cheese biscuits (cream crackers, Ryvita, sweet digestive, water biscuits, etc)
The cheeseboard or trolley will be presented to the customer containing a varied selection of
cheeses in ripe condition together with sufficient cheese knives for cutting and portioning the
different cheeses. Recognition by waiter of all cheeses on the cheeseboard is of utmost
importance.

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PASTA

There are many forms of pasta, most of which can categorized as Italian-style or Oriental.
Italian-style pasta is primarily wheat-based. Oriental pasta made from variety of flours and
starch and they often take the forms of long strip.

Italian-style Pasta:
This type of pastas made from ‘Durum-wheat’ flour, water and eggs, herbs, vegetable puree,
flavoring; is shaped in various types and can be flavored. It sold in dried and fresh form. The
Durum wheat is grown in Italy and the Mediterranean, the Middle East, Russia, North and
South America. It is hard wheat, high in gluten, which is ground into ‘semolina’. British
semolina is coarse not suitable for pastas. Pasta-flour is milled in fine degree. The term
‘semolina’ is often used to describe pasta-flour, it refers to the type of wheat is used.
The term ‘Italian-style’ used, because it is made in other countries. For example noodles are
similar tagliatelle are prepared throughout the Europe, and filled pastas resembling

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Italian raviolior tortellini are popular in Eastern European countries. Polish uska are little filled
pears pastas traditionally serves with beetroot soup and varenyaki semi-circular dumplings

From Russia.
It is a popular belief that the 14th-century explorer Marco Polo introduced pastas into Italy
from China, but the first known pastas was made in Sicily in the middle age. It had been a basic
food in Italy for many years. Although become very popular in throughout France. Until the
early 20th century, macaroni and vermicelli ware the pastas most commonly used in France,
mainly to prepare timbale, gratins and sweet desserts and garnish of soups. After 1840 pastas
ware manufactured in industrial scale.
DIFFERENT SHAPES OF PASTA:
There are hundreds of different shapes of dried pastas, but they can group in two types: (I) flat
pastas are made industrially by rolling the dough between roller into thin sheets, which can cut
into different shape with suitable machine. The shape includes rectangle, square with straight
or wavy edges and flat ribbons of various widths. (II) Cylindrical forms of pastas made by
extruding the dough or forcing it through pierced plate. The hole through which the dough is
forced may be straight, curved, notched or fluted to produce solid or hollow tubes of various
size and shape. Drying is an important part and care must be taken to ensure that the pastas will
mature and keep well.

Fresh pastas are also a same type of product that has not been dried. It must, however, be
consume within few days.

DIFFERENT TYPE OF PASTA:

 Baking Pastas: Traditional dried and fresh pastas must be boiled before it can be used
in baking dishes. Modern lasagne and cannelloni are manufactured to be staffed or
layered dry and cooked in general proportion of sauce. Pastas for baking


 includes lasagne, tortiglioni, bucatini, conchigli etc.
 Filled Pastas: A wide variety of filled pastas produced, including ravioli, tortellini,
tortelloni (fairly large), agnolotti (small slipper),cappelleti (little hats). Pastas can
stuffed by traditional meet, innovative fish, poultry, cheese, mushroom mixture or
vegetable blends. Dried fresh pastas shaped can be boiled, stuffed, sauced and baked,
it includecannelloni (tubes), manicotti (large-ribbed tubes) etc.
 Flavored Pasta: A wide variety of ingredients are used to prepare flavored pastas, both
fresh and dried,
Herbs, spice, vegetables are popular individually or combination. Spinach and tomato
are traditional, beetroot use for strong color with mild flavor, and ceps and porcini give
a full flavor. Squid ink is a traditional ingredient, which turn the dough black.

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 Non-wheat Pasta: There are good range of Italian dried

pastas made from corn (maize) and non-wheat flour. These are mainly produced for
health food market for those who are allergic to wheat.
 Soup Pasta: Vary small in size and made in various shape, soup pastas are added to
soup towards the end of cooking. These tiny shapes are also useful for filling vegetables
or adding to starters or salads. They include vermicelli, linguine (small
grains), pennette(small quills), stelline (little star), risoni (rice
grains), conchigleitte (little shells) etc.
 Whole-wheat and Buckwheat Pasta: Both this are well established to produce pastas.
They are usually dried.

COOKING AND SERVING OF PASTA:

Even when cooking of small quantity of pasta, a large pan must be used because plenty of
boiling water is needed for pasta to swell and move freely. Otherwise the released starch makes
it sticky. Teaspoon full oil added to the water can help prevent this. Sprinkle small pasta to the
briskly boiling water. Long pasta is gradually pushed into boiling water (without breaking the
strands), until it soft and bends. It is by ‘sealing’ the pasta in fast-boiling water in this way that
one obtains the degree of cooking known as “al dente”.

The cooking time depends on the quantity of pasta, its size and hardness of water. The cooking
time also indicated on the packet, it is advisable to test the pasta early to avoid overcooking.
Dried vermicelli takes 4-5 min, flat pasta like spaghetti take 10-12min, large macaroni take
15min. Fresh pasta cook quickly and may need 2-3 min.
If the pastas serves as salad, drained, rinse in cold water and mix-up with some oil to prevent
sticking. When serve hot, the chosen sauce should be poured boiling hot on the hot pasta; stir
quickly and serve with grated cheese. If necessary, rest of the sauce served separately.

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Oriental-style Pastas:
Noodles are the predominant type, but
similar types of dough filled to make bite-
sized dumplings served dim sum. Chinese
dumpling may be filled with meat, prawn or
combination of both. Stemming is the usual
cooking method, which are often served
with a dipping sauce. Pot strikers are slightly
larger dumplings cooked first by pan frying
then stemming.

Wontons are small filled squares of wheat -flour dough made with egg. A tiny portion of full-
flavored filling is pinched into the middle of the dough, and then the corners are free, making
tiny bundles.

Variety shapes of Italian pastas:

 SOUP PASTAS
 LONG PASTAS
 EGG PASTAS
 SHORT PASTAS
 BAKED PASTAS
 FRESH PASTAS

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GRAINS

Introduction to Grains
Grains are small dry seeds consumed worldwide. They are popular as one of the important
ingredients of vegetarian cookery due to their nutrient value and ease of availability. The
grains are of two types −
Cereals
They are the seeds obtained from various grass plants such as Wheat, Rice, Barley, Ragi
(Malt), Jowar, Bajra, Maize, and Millet. In most of the countries, they are consumed as a part
of staple food.
Pulses
They are the seeds obtained from vain and shrub plants such as peas, Bengal Gram, Horse
Peas, Chick Peas, and Indian Beans. They have an important place in vegetarian staple food
consumed around the world.
Difference between Cereals and Pulses
We have listed here some of the basic differences between cereals and pulses −

Cereals Pulses

They contain carbohydrates. They contain protein.

They are found as spikelets. They are found inside pods.

They are grown in larger They are grown in smaller quantities as compared to
quantities. cereals.

They provide energy. They provide muscle strength.

Introduction to Cereals
Cereals are either roasted or made to flour. There are numerous ways in which cereals are
used in cookery. Take a look at the following table.

Cereal How it Looks Culinary Uses

Bajra (Olive/Gray
colored small oval
grains) Its flour is used to make bajra rotis.

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Jowar (Cream colored

round grains like chick It is ground to make fine flour, which is
heads.) used to make Jowar rotis.

Maize (Bright yellow Maize or dried corn nibbles are used to

colored round and flat make popcorn and maize flour. The flour
grains) is used to make bread and porridge.

Oats (Light brown

colored thin and long Oats are used as low calorie breakfast
grains) food all over the world.

Ragi (Also called Malt, It is red millet rich in calcium and iron.
maroon/red colored tiny Its flour is used in soups and gravies.
round grains)

Rice(White/Cream/Light It is cooked and used in rice based dishes.

brown colored long Rice flour is used for pancakes and
grains) dumplings.

Wheat (Light brown Wheat flour is used in making various

colored long grains) types of breads, broken wheat is used for
making porridge, and finely broken wheat
(semolina) is used to make snacks and
desserts.
Introduction to Pulses or Beans
The beans need to be cooked before consuming. Beans can be soaked in water to bring out
sprouts, which are very healthy food. Beans can be used in direct/husked/split forms too. There
are numerous ways in which the beans are used in cookery.

Pulse How it Looks Culinary Uses

Black Eyed Peas (light

brown capsule shaped The cooked beans are mostly used in
medium beans with black curries, gravies, and salads all over the
eye in the middle. Also world. Brazil and West Africa − Mashed
called Lobia.) to prepare Akara, a fried bean cake.

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Black Grams(black with It is native to and consumed in India.

husk, white without husk,
North India − It is consumed as cooked
small cylindrical beans,
beans curry.
also
called Urad or Maah.) South India − the split and husked
version of Urad is used in preparing
Vada, Idli, and rice pancakes.

Chick Peas(green/deep They are used in the following cuisines

brown colored with husk, around the world in stews, gravies,
bright yellow without curries, tofu, and salads. Cooked chick
husk, round heart shaped peas are used as snacks. Chick pea flour
peas. Also called Chana. is also used in desserts and snacks.
The larger version of
India − used in spicy curries and snacks.
cream color is also
called Kabuli Chana.) Arabic − Pasted to make a spread,
Hummus.
Portugal − used in Rancho.
Italy − chickpea flour is used in
Faranita, a pancake.
Israel − used in falafel.

Field Beans(Brownish – It is mostly cultivated and used in coastal

yellow oval shaped region of Maharashtra state in India. Its
beans. Also called Vaal.) gravy with coconut and spices is
consumed with rice.

Green Grams(green
colored cover, small
It is native to the Indian subcontinent,
cylindrical shaped, light
and mainly cultivated and used in India,
yellow without cover.
China, and Southeast Asia.
Also called Moong.)

Green Peas(lush green They are consumed around the world as

spherical peas of 5 to a part of breakfast, snacks, and main
8mm diameter. Also meals.
called Mutter.)
India − used in spicy mixed vegetable
stew named PaoBhaji, and spicy rice
called Mutter Pulao.
Phillipines & Malaysia − roasted and
used as snacks.

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Horse Grams(light
brown/red/ black with
glossy husk, circular, flat They are spiced with chilies and coconut
beans. Also milk. They are consumed in stews and
called Kuleeth.) curries in India.

Kidney The cooked beans are used in salads,

Beans(white/red/black gravies, and curries.
long, large, and thick
India − Spicy beans curry paired with
beans. Also
rice in northern region.
called Raajmaah.)

Lima Beans(white/green
flat large beans, more
than 1 ½ inches when They are mainly consumed in India.
cooked. Also They provide creamy texture and
called Indian Beans) dramatic presentation to the dish.

Moth Beans /Turkish

Gram(Brown glossy It is native to South Asian subcontinents.
husked, 2 to 4mm long, It is consumed in Rajasthan, Gujrat, and
cylindrical grams. Also Maharashtra states of India. It is
called Matki or Moath.) sprouted before consumption.

Pigeon Peas(Bright
yellow when husked and It is a staple food component in south
split, round around 3mm Asia, mainly India. It is used in typically
diameter. Also husked and split form, seasoned with
called Toor Daal.) spices, and eaten with flatbreads or rice.

Pinto Beans(beige
colored beans with They are used in America, Europe, and
reddish splashes.) Asia. They are cooked and paired with
rice/pasta/salads.

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Red Grams(light brown

with husk, red without
husk, round flat beans. They are very fast to cook. They are
Also called Massoor.) used directly or in split form in Indian
cuisines.

Culinary Seeds
Seeds are used for making gravies and an important ingredient in cakes, desserts, and candies.
Seeds provide variety of uses such as seasoning, baking, and pastes. Seeds are also used for
preparing various sauces.
Introduction to Seeds
The following seeds are generally used for culinary purpose −

Seed How it Looks Culinary Uses

They are often used for

seasoning.
Serbia − Used to sprinkle on
Caraway (Dark brown 3- breads.
4mm long ridged grains. Also
India − Used in rice dishes.
called Shah Jeera.)
Europe − Used in cake.
Middle East − Used in Caraway
pudding.

Carom/Royal Mostly used in India in seasoning

Cumin (Greyish brown to bring flavors to the food.
colored, 2mm long, pointed Because of hot taste, cannot be
oval shaped, ridged, and spicy consumed raw. It is often paired
seeds. Also called Ajwain.) with lentils and beans to reduce
gaseous effects.

Coriander(Yellowish green
colored, Oval round 3-4mm
long, 2-3mm diameter seeds. Used roasted and powdered as a
Also called Dhaniya Beej.) flavorful condiment in Indian,
Pakistani, Sri Lankan, and
Bangladeshi Cuisines.

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Cumin (Light brown colored, In India, they are roasted and

2-4mm long, ridged seeds. powdered, and used in tangy
Also called Jeera.) foods to enhance flavor. It is also
one of the five ingredients
of Chhonk.
It is also used in curd based salad
and other Indian cuisines.

Fennel(Green/Olive green Mostly used for flavoring all

colored 3-4mm long, 1-2 mm over the world. Used in Italian
wide, ridged, sweet and spicy sausages, risotto, and Indian
seeds. Also called Saunf) gravies from Gujrat and
Kashmir. Eastern Indian states
use it in five spices mix
called Panch Poran.
It is consumed as after meal
digestive and mouth freshener.

Sprouted seeds and Microgreens

are used in Indian Salads
named Pachhadi. Also used on
Chhonk. Powdered fenugreek
Fenugreek (Dark yellow
seeds are used in crispy tea time
colored, twisted cylinder
Indian snack called Mathhri.
shaped matt finished 2-3mm
long seeds. Also called Methi Turkey − Paste is used in
Danaa.) preparing Pastirma, a dish of air-
dried and cured beef.
Egypt & Persia − Used in Pita
bread.

Flax (Dark brown or yellow

In India, they are roasted and
glossy, oval shaped pointed at
powdered with paprika and salt
an end, 3-4mm long flat seeds.
to be eaten with boiled rice.
Also called Alsi.)
Contain high amount of Omega-
3 fatty acids. Often sprinkled on
wheat breads.

Mustard(Black/Brown/White Used as a main ingredient

with husk and dark yellow in Chhonk. Mustard leaves are
without it, round seeds of used in vegetable preparation or
2mm diameter. Also stews in North India. Its oil is
called Sarson.) used in cooking and pickles.

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Europe − Used in Mustard

sauce.

Nigella (Black seeds of 1- Used in cooking flatbread in

North Indian cuisine. Also used
2mm length. Also as a part of gravies, pulses, and
called Kalaunji.) curries in India and Middle East.
Used in preparing Armenian
string cheese.

Pomegranate(Pale red/brown Dried seeds are used as an acidic

agent for chutney and curry
colored dried seeds with juicy preparation in Indian and
coat that brings tangy taste. Pakistani cuisines. Used fresh in
Also called Anardana.) salads and food garnishing. Used
dried or powdered in preparing
syrups and spreads.

Poppy (Small creamy white Used as pastry filling when

powdered and pasted with milk.
or black colored kidney Sprinkled on breads and cakes. It
shaped seeds of 1mm size. is used in preparing gravies and
Also called Khaskhas.) sweet breads in Indian cuisines.

Pumpkin (Creamy White

with husk and Light Green
Used extensively in US, Mexico,
meat inside, flat oval shaped Europe, and Africa as a roasted
6-8mm long pointed seeds.) snack or in cooking.

They are used as toppings on

buns and breads.
Sesame (Light brown colored Japan − Unhusked seeds are
2-3 mm long, 2mm wide, oval used in Gomashio, a seasoning
shaped pointed flat grains. for rice.
Also called Til.)
India − Roasted seeds are mixed
with jiggery, rolled into balls or
stuffed in flatbread, mixed with

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paprika to make Malagai Podi.

Sesame oil is used in cooking
and pickles.

Middle East Cuisine − Ground

into paste named Tahini.

Mexico − Used as a food

additive.

Water Melon(Black or
Brown colored oval shaped They are used for garnishing
flat seeds when unhusked, cakes and breads, in salads, and
creamy white when husked.) preparing white gravies.

Culinary Nuts
Nuts are the edible seeds covered with hard kernel. They are used in preparing gravies, salads,
and sauces. They are an important ingredient in cakes, desserts, chocolates, ice creams, and
confectionery. Nuts have high amount of oils and high fat contents.

Introduction to Nuts
In the following table, we have discussed some commonly used culinary nuts –

Nut How it Looks Culinary Uses

Can be consumed roasted, salted, or spicy

Almond (Cream
as a snack. They are blanched to remove the
colored with shell
coat and are used in Indian royal gravies and
and deep brown
biryanis. Also used on Falooda, a dessert
without shell oval
made of vermicelli cooked in milk
shaped flattish nut.
and Shreekhand, a dessert made of hung
Also
curds. Used as an additive to cereal, cakes,
called Badam.)
ice creams, and pastries.

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Greece − Used in wedding sweet

called Amygdalota.

Iran − Sea salt dipped and dried almonds

are consumed as snacks.

India − Used extensively in Mughlai

cuisine.

Italy − Almond macaroons.

Consumed roasted, plain, salted, or spiced

as snack. Also used in preparing Kaju Katli,
Cashew (Light a dessert made of cooking cashew powder
Brown with coat in milk and sugar.
and Creamy white
colored without India − Cashew powder is used as a base of
coat, kidney shaped various sweets and desserts named Suji
nut. Also Halua, and Modak. Used in gravies and
called Kaju.) curries such as Khoya Kaju and Kaju Usal.
Also used in preparing Cashew vinegar
and Feni, an alcohol.

Dried and milled into flour to add into

breads, pancakes, pasta, and polenta. Used
as a thickening agent in soups and sauces.
Chestnut(Green Can be eaten candied, boiled, steamed,
hairy shell outside deep-fried, grilled, or roasted.
and a dark brown Croatia − Used in fritters.
glossy, half onion
shaped nut inside.) Hungary − Used in dessert
named Gesztenyepüré.

Swiss − Along with Kirsch, used to make a

dessert called Vermecelle.

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Coconut (Green Coconut is grated, dried, and powdered to

when tender, brown use as ingredient in cakes, swiss rolls, and
when ripe, two biscuits. Also used for presentation of food.
shells-outer with
India − Used in preparing sweets
coir, inner very
called Coconut Burfi and Modak. Also used
tough kernel.
in gravies and chutneys, the dip made of
Bigger than tennis
grated fresh coconut with herbs and chilli
ball without outer
ground to paste.
shell. Filled with
sweet water. White
fruit meat is seen
when broken. (Also
called Nariyal.)

Hazelnut(Onion
shaped, reddish Used in pralines and chocolates. Also used
brown, hard outer in chocolate truffles, Nutella chocolate
spread, and Frangelico liqueur. Hazelnut oil
shell. Light brown is used as a cooking oil.
fruit meat inside.)

Macademia(Milk
chocolate colored Used ground as a filler and flavor enhancer
shell of around 3 in minced meat, poultry, and seafood
cm diameter with a preparations. Used powdered nuts in pastry
or as a topping of pies. Roasted nuts yield a
white spherical strong flavor. Its oil is used as salad
seed of ½ to 1 dressing.
inches.)

Peanut (Light Used in peanut butter spread. They can be

brown ridged thin consumed raw, roasted, spiced, or salted as
shell contains 1-4 snack. First press oil is used in cooking.
peanuts. Light pink
India − Used as an important ingredient
or deep crimson
in Sabudana Khichri, a snack made of
pink nuts inside
soaking Sago, and Chikki, a sweet toffee.
arranged in a row.
They are added to snacks
named Poha and Chiwra, the wet and dry

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Also called Ground snacks made of beaten rice. Powdered or

Nuts.) pasted peanuts are used in thickening
gravies and chutneys.

Pistachio(Creamy
white smooth and
hard shell
Used for presenting Mughal sweets such
containing light as Halwa, Firni, Faluda, and Sheerkurma.
olive green and Also used ground in Indian popsicle made
violet colored seed of thick milk and sugar called Kulfi.
meat inside. Also
called Pista.)

Walnut(Spherical Used chopped in cakes, cookies, pralines,

hard and rough pie toppings, and brownies. Halves are used
shell of around 3cm for salads, dressings, and food presentation.
diameter. Dark
Middle East cuisine − Used in preparation
brown brain shaped
of chicken.
nut meat inside.)
Italy − Pesto sauce.

Herbs
Herbs infuse unparalleled aroma and flavors that enhance the taste of the food preparation. A
hint of herbs is just enough to arouse the sense of hunger. They also bring medicinal value to
the food. Knowledge and use of herbs brings glamour to the cookery and the dish itself.

Introduction to Herbs
Here are some popular herbs with culinary use −

Herb How it Looks Culinary Uses

Cilantro (Fresh Leaves are used mainly for food garnishing.

They are also used to prepare Kothimbir
Lush green colored Vadi, a steamed snack made of wet mixture
glossy leaves of of gram flour and chopped cilantro, and
frilled round shape Kothimbir Bhaat (Coriander rice) in
Maharashtra state of India. Dried or fresh
on greenish white or
leaves are used in preparation of curries and
purple soft stem pickles.

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plant. Also
called Dhaniya.)

Parsley (Leaves are

similar to Cilantro Parsley is used all over the world as a food
except they are additive in various cuisines. It is used in
soups, sauces, and salads. It also lessens the
pointed instead of need for salt in soups.
round.)

Basil (Lush green

colored oval shaped
and roundly Basil is mainly used in Italian cuisine such
as Pizzas and Pastas. It is also used in Thai
pointed, thin glossy
cuisine. It can be used dry or fresh.
leaves. Also
called Tulsi.)

Water
Cress(Leaves are
Used in salads, soups, and sauces.
round, lush green
and glossy.)

Lemon
Grass(Long dull
green matte finish
leaves originating It is used in Thai cuisine for flavoring spicy
Thai curry. In India, it is used to prepare
from portion of
aromatic tea.
stem near ground.
Also called Gavati
Chaha.)

Mint (Dark green It is used in salads, salad dressings, yodurt

dips, and soups that need sharp taste and
colored leaves of aroma. In India, it is used in street food
little rough surface called Pani Puri. It is an important
are connected to ingredient in Mint Chutney. It is also used in
a chicken dish named Mint Chicken. It is
deep purple colored
also used in jellies, candies, and mint- based
stem. Strong herb. drinks.

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Also
called Pudina.)

Oregano/Pizza Dried leaves are more flavorful than fresh

ones. It is used in authentic Italian and
Herb (Spade- Mexican cuisine. In turkey, it is used to
shaped, olive-green flavor lamb and mutton. It is used with
leaves on purple paprika and salt as a condiment
in Barbecues and Kebabs
brown stalk.)

Sage (Grayish- Used as an additive in soups, sauces, and

various dishes. Best used when fresh. Being
green colored, long highly aromatic, it is used sparingly. Stems
oval shaped leaves are tossed to add aroma to barbeque or
with a silvery grilled dishes.
covering. Strong
herb.)

Used in mainly in Béarnaise Sauce for

steaks or eggs Benedict. It goes well with
mayonnaise to dress various veg and non-
Tarragon(Long,
veg dishes. Used in preparing tarragon
narrow pointed,
vinegar.
flat, green leaves
with licorice Slovenia − Used as a cake condiment.
flavor.) Iran − Used to flavor in Sabzi Khoran, a
side dish.

Persia − Used in pickles.

Thyme (Small lush

green paired leaves
Mainly used in Southern Italian cuisine in
on the pinkish- pasta sauce. While cooking with Thyme, it
purple stem. is used at early stage to bring out the aroma.
Medium flavored Also used in French cuisine for preparing
various sauces.
herb with 300
types.)

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Rosemary(Dark
green needle shaped
Used in stuffing of duck, chicken, lamb,
leaves) meat steaks, etc. Also used in sauces and
dressings.

Spices
Spices are used in cuisines mainly in South Asian cuisines such as Indian, Sri Lankan,
Pakistani, Indonesian, Malaysian, and Bangladeshi. They are also used in Mediterranean,
European, and American cuisines. A spice can be any part of the plant from a seed, fruit, root,
bark, bud or vegetable substance, which is especially used to flavor and color the foods. Spices
bring in exotic aroma to the cooked food and also promise health benefits.

Introduction to Spices
Let us now know about the commonly used spices −

Spice How it Looks Culinary Uses

Asafoetida/Stinking
Used largely as a condiment
Gum (Dried gum acquired
in Chhonk in Indian cuisine and in
from a tap root of the herb preparing pickles. It is highly
found in Iran and aromatic and can contaminate the
mountains of Afghanistan. taste of food hence it is used
sparingly.
Also called Hing.)

Bay leaves (Aromatic The fragrance of leaves is more

noticeable than their taste. They are
leaves of Bay tree with used in soups, stews, meat, seafood,
bitter, sharp taste. Also veg and non-veg dishes, and sauces.
called Tez Patta.)

Cardamom (Seeds of a Mostly used in Asia. Widely used

plant named Amomum, in both sweet and savory dishes.
comes in light green/ brown Black and Green, both cardamom
colored ridged pods with seeds are important components in
dark brown or black seeds spice mixes, such as masalas and
with intense aroma and curry pastes.

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sharp taste. Two types: Green cardamom is used in sweets

Green and Black. Also and spiced tea. Seeds are also used
called Ilaichee.) in mouth fresheners and in
confectionery.

Cinnamon (It is a light

brown colored bark of a It is used in both; sweet and savory
plant cooking. Cinnamon powder is used
named Cinnamomum Casia in baking. It is one of the main
ingredients of Garam Masala, an
with sweet and hot sharp Indian spice mix. It is used for veg
taste and aroma. Also as well as non veg dishes.
called Daalchini.)

Cloves (Dark brown

colored aromatic buds of Used grated in Asian, African,
the flowers of a plant Mexican, and Middle East cuisines.
It lends hot flavor to the meat and
named Syzygium
vegetable stews, fruits, and hot
Aromaticum. Also beverages.
called Laung.)

Dry Mango Powder(Pale

yellowish green colored Used in Indian and Middle Eastern
fine powder made of sun cooking. Also used to bring
sourness to the stews and to
dried raw mangoes. Also tenderize meat.
called Aamchur.)

Mace (Yellow/orange
colored covering of the
Nutmeg seed having Used to impart light orange color to
the stew.
delicate flavor as Nutmeg.
Also called Javitri.)

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Nutmeg (Egg-shaped seed Mainly used in Indian (Mughlai)

cuisine. It is also a main ingredient
around 20-30 mm long and in Garam Masala and Pooran Poli,
15 to 18 mm wide. Also a sweet flatbread made of mashed
called Jaiphal.) cooked grams and jiggery.) Used
sugar coated shreds in Malaysian
cuisine as a topping and in the ice
cream like dessert named Ise
Kechang.

Chili/Paprika (A long,
thin, pointed fruit of the Often used after having an idea
about its hotness on the Scoville
plant. Often comes in
Heat Unit (SHU) when green, fresh
various colors and red, or dried red. Dried chilies are
contains Capsaicinthat ground into fine powder. Used in
produces intense burning savory dishes in the cuisines of
Mexico, Turkey, Hungary, Europe,
sensation. Also South Asia, Pakistan, and Australia.
called Mirch.)

Saffron (Crimson red One of the costliest spices available

in the world. Used in Indian sweet
colored fragrant stigmas of and savory dishes and in Thick milk
the saffron flower from a ice cream of south Asia
plant named Saffron named Kulfi. Used in Indian sweets
for garnishing and bringing deep
Crocus. Also called Kesar.)
orange color to the food.

Star Anise (Flower like Used in spiced tea in Indian

subcontinent. Also used as an
looking dry brown colored important ingredient in Biryani
fruit with cluster of 8 Masala and Garam Masala, the
sections each containing a Indian spice mixes. It is also used to
bring flavor to meat dishes.
seed. Also called Chakra
Vietnamese use it in soup, Chinese
Phool.) and Malaysians use it in their
cuisines and French use it in
preparing wine.

Turmeric (Tuber of
Often used fresh for pickles. Dried
turmeric plant that induces and powdered for storing. It is one
deep yellow color and of the main ingredients in Chhonk.
sharp hot taste and aroma. Used in margination of meat and
seafood before cooking.
Also called Haldi.)

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Vanilla (Long dark brown

The aroma extracted from the plant
drumstick-like ridged pods is available as a liquid essence.
derived from an orchid Used in confectionary, ice creams,
named Vanilla. It has sweet flavored yogurts, cakes, and
cookies.
mild aroma.)

Indian Masalas
The dry masalas (powdered spice mixes or curry powders) are used to flavor lentils,
vegetables, seafood, and meat. The ingredients are roasted over low heat until they release a
faint aroma. A fine powder is made and they are stored in an airtight container.

Some of the popular spice mixes used in Indian cuisines are given here −

Biryani Masala
It is used for savory spiced colorful and flavorful rice.

Fennel Seeds 50 gm Black Cardamoms 10 gm

White Poppy Seeds 40 gm Star Anise 10 gm

Cumin Seeds 30 gm Caraway Seeds 10 gm

Cinnamon Powder 30 gm Bay Leaves 10 gm

Whole Cloves 20 gm Mace 10 gm

Green Cardamoms 20 gm Nutmeg Powder of 2/4 piece

Chhole Masala
It is used for chick pea curry.

Coriander Seeds 2 tbsp Cloves 4-5

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Cinnamon 1” piece Cumin Seeds 2 tbsp

Black Cardamom 3-4 pods Anardana (optional) 1 tbsp

Bay Leaf 1 Whole Dry Chilies (optional) 1 or 2

Black Peppercorns 1 tbsp

Coastal Fish Masala

It is used for fish curry and fish fry.

Dry Coconut Grated 3 tbsp White Pepper Corns ¼ cup

Sesame Seeds 1 tbsp Green Cardamom Pods ½ cup

Mustard Seeds 2 tblsp Cumin Seeds ¾ cup

Saffron Strands ¼ tbsp Nutmeg Powder ¼ cup

Black Pepper Corns ¼ cup

Garam Masala
It is a usual spice mix used in stews.

Coriander seeds 4 tbsp Black Cardamom 3-4 large pods

Cumin seeds 1 tbsp Cloves 2-3 pieces

Black Peppercorns 1 tbsp Cinnamon 2 × 1” pieces

Black Cumin seeds 1 ½ tbsp Bay Leaves 2 Crushed

Dry Ginger Powder 1 ½ tbsp

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Kala (Goda) Masala

It is used to flavor lentils and Masala Rice.

Coriander Seeds 500 gm Mace Flower 50 gm

Dry Red Chilies 250 gm Cinnamon Bark 50 gm

Dry Coconut shredded 250 gm White Poppy Seeds 50 gm

Dry Turmeric Roots 50 gm Caraway Seeds 50 gm

Asafoetida Chunks 50 gm Sesame Seeds 50 gm

Cloves 50 gm Sesame Seeds 50 gm

Black Pepper Corns 50 gm Bay Leaves 50 gm

Flower Stone 50 gm Green Cardamom 25 gm

Whole Nutmegs 5 pieces Black Cardamom 25 gm

Meat Masala
It is used to flavor chicken and lamb dishes.

Cumin Seeds 20 gm Ginger Powder 5 gm

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Coriander Seeds 8 gm Garlic Powder 5 gm

Cloves 5 gm Red Chili Powder 5 gm

Cinnamon 2” Stick Turmeric Powder 5 gm

Orange food coloring 1 gm Mace Powder 5 gm

Salt 5 gm

Pao-Bhaji Masala
It is used in a tangy stew paired with pao (bun-shaped bread).

Red Chili 50 gm Black Cardamom 4-5 pieces

Coriander Seeds 50 gm Dry Mango Powder 25 gm

Cumin Seeds 25 gm Fennel Seeds 10 gm

Black Pepper 25 gm Turmeric Powder 1 tbsp

Cinnamon 25 gm Star Anise 2 pieces

Clove 25 gm

Rajmah Masala
It is used to spice kidney beans curry.

Cloves 4 pieces Black Peppercorns 4 pieces

Cardamom 2 pieces Cumin Seeds 1 tbsp

Cinnamon Stick 1” stick Cumin Powder 1 tbsp

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Bay leaf 1 piece Ginger Garlic Paste 1 tbsp

Coriander Powder 1 ½ tbsp Garam Masala Powder ½ tbsp

Red Chili Powder 1 tbsp Dry Mango Powder ½ tbsp

Sambar Masala
It is used to flavor a curry named Sambar; prepared with cooked pigeon peas, drumsticks,
tomatoes, pumpkin pieces, and cubes of other vegetables. Sambar is paired with Idli, Urad
wada, Uthapam, or various types of Dosai.

Chana Daal ¼ cup Black Peppercorns ¼ cup

Urad Daal (black gram) ¼ cup Dry Red Broken Chili ¼ cup

Coriander Seeds ½ cup Dry Grated Coconut ¼ cup

Cumin Seeds ¼ cup Mustard Seeds ¼ cup

Fenugreek Seeds ¼ cup Turmeric Powder 2 tbsp

Dried Curry Leaves 20 pieces Asafetida Powder 2 tbsp

Tea Masala
It is used to prepare flavored tea.

Black Cardamom 1 pod Black Peppercorns ¼ tbsp

Cardamom Seeds From 25 pods Dry, Ground Ginger Powder 1 tbsp

Cloves 4 pieces Ground Cinnamon Powder 1 tbsp

Fennel seeds ½ tbsp Carom Seeds (optional) ¼ tbsp

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There is a very large variety of spice mixes for side dishes such as curd based salad
named Raita, appetizers such as Jal-Jeera and Chhach, sweet flavored milk named Thandai,
and Indian street food named Chaat.

There are also some other spices such as pickle masala, a combination of five spices
named panch-poran used in eastern states of India. The list goes on according to the taste
preferences and diversity in cultures.

Basic Indian Gravies

Gravy is the soul of Indian cuisine. Gravy is a thick liquid of saucy consistency that provides
body and flavor to the curries and other food preparation. It provides the basic five tastes −
bitter, hot, sweet, sour, and salty. In this section, we will discuss some popular gravies

White Gravy
A basic gravy that adds body to the curries.

Ingredients −

Chopped Onions 300 gm Green Cardamom 2 pieces

Cashew nuts 200 gm Bay leaves 2 pieces

Water 200 ml Chopped Green Chilies 2

Ginger-Garlic Paste 25 gm Oil 5 tbsp

Sweet Yogurt 200 gm

Preparation −

 Put cashew nuts in boiling water for five minutes.

 Drain the water and put fresh water and chopped onions into it.
 Cook till onions turn soft.
 Drain the water and grind to fine paste.
 Heat oil in a wok.
 Add cardamoms, bay leaves, and chopped green chili.

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 Add yogurt into it and cook for a while.

 Add cashew nut-onion paste and cook further till oil separates.
 Cut the heat and let it cool for storing.
A variation named Yellow Gravy is prepared by adding turmeric and saffron and replacing
green chili with yellow chili.

Red Gravy
It is tomato based gravy that introduces sour taste.

Ingredients −

Tomatoes 1kg Ginger Garlic Paste 20 gm

Onions 500 gm Garam Masala 10 gm

Tomato Puree 250 ml

Chili Powder 30 gm

Preparation −

 Boil tomatoes by adding onions and whole Garam Masala till they turn soft.

 Blend them together till smooth.

 Add ginger-garlic paste, salt, red chili powder, and tomato puree in this mixture.

 Boil the mixture for 20 to 25 minutes.

 Yet another version of this gravy called Makhani Gravy is prepared with addition of
butter 100 gm, 200 ml cream, and 2 tbsp fenugreek powder.

Brown Gravy
It is used as a base for preparation of meat curries.

Ingredients −

Chopped Onions 1 kg Red Chili Powder 30 gm

Tomatoes 500 gm Tomato Puree 200 ml

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Garam Masala 5 gm Oil 5 tbsp

Preparation −

 Heat oil in a pan.

 Add Garam Masala, chopped onion into it and cook till the onion turns brown and
translucent.

 Add red chili powder, tomatoes, and tomato puree.

 Cook on medium heat till the tomatoes leave water.

 Grind this mixture into fine paste.

Shahi Gravy
This gravy is used in gourmet Indian cuisine.

Ingredients −

Cashew nut 200 gm Onions 50 gm

Almonds 75 gm Green Cardamom Powder 5 gm

Poppy Seeds 25gm Bay Leaves 2

Ginger-Garlic paste 10gm Garam Masala 1 tbsp

Oil 4 tbsp

Preparation −

 Boil cashew and poppy seeds together.

 Boil onion and almonds separately.

 Grind them to fine pastes.

 Take oil in a frypan.

 Add Garam Masala, bay leaves, and cardamom powder.

 Add all pastes except cashew-poppy seeds paste.

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 Cook for a while on low heat by stirring occasionally.

 Add cashew-poppy seeds paste.

 Cook further for a couple of minutes and cut the heat.

 Yet another version of Shahi Gravy called Korma Gravy is prepared using 1 cup dried
solid milk (Khoya) and 1 cup yogurt.

Green Gravy
This gravy is used in gourmet Indian veg and non-veg cuisine. Its main ingredient is coconut.

Ingredients −

Fresh grated coconut 2 cups Fresh Chopped Cilantro with stems 1 cup

Green Chilies 4 pieces Mint (Optional) ¼ cup

Salt ½ tbsp. Ginger 1 ½” piece

Preparation −

 Put all the ingredients in a blender.

 Grind to fine paste of thick consistency by adding a little water.

MENU PLANNING

Menu planning means to compose a series of dishes for a meal. Composing a menu is an art
and needs careful selection of dishes for the different course, so that each dishes harmonies
with others. The planning meals in commercial catering establishments are based on
economic considerations and reputation then on the desire to provide nutritionally ‘balance
diets’. The dishes must be palatable as well as please the eye. The Menu planning for school
feeding, industrial canteen, hotel etc. has a different aspect, where nutritious and balance diet
compiled.

There are some rules in gastronomic laws which must be observed if one is to obtain success
in menu planning, as a badly compiled menu will spoil the complete meal. Menu should
provide nutritious food, tempt the appetite and satisfy the guest. It is essential to have
knowledge about the sequence of courses. The modern trend is to give about 4 to 5 courses in
a sequence.

SEQUENCE OF COURSE FOR BETTER MENU PLANNING MAY CONTAIN:

1. Hors d’oeuvres

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2. Soup
3. Fish
4. Entrée
5. Releves
6. Sorbet
7. Roast/Grill
8. Vegetables/ Salad
9. Sweet
10. Dessert
11. Coffee
DIFFERENT TYPES OF MENU PLANNING:
There are different types of menus: Table d’hôte, Catre de jour, A la carte and special party
menu for Banquet, Buffet, and Cocktail parties— formal and informal.

 Table d’hôte: A fixed menu planned for complete meal at a fixed price. It is a meal of
three to four courses with a limited choice of dishes, and it is cooked in advance. It is
change daily or change in rotation. Leftovers food could be used in this type of menu as it
helps to economize.
 A la carte: It means the presentation of a long sequence of course and dish in menu. Each
dish is individually priced. Dishes are cooked to order and the portion are large then Table
d’hôte menu. The guest has a wide choice and should be prepared to wait for this.
 Catre de jour: these are some time insert in A la carte menu, which comprises a few
special dishes of the day to vary a la carte menu regular customer. Some establishments
have a set pattern for this menu, example- Roast Chicken: – Monday, Fish & chips: –
Tuesday, Curry & Rice: – Wednesday etc.
 Banquet: Usually the menu composed for a number of people and necessary to know the
reason for the banquet. It is usually a formal affair and dishes should be compiled to suit
the occasion. The menu is elaborate and high-class quality. It is a fixed menu with no
choice.
 Buffet: There are two type of buffet, one is Light buffet another is Fork buffet (lunch &
dinner). The buffet tables are attractively decorated. The foods are served also colorful
and Eye appealing. Light buffet are give for various reasons to augment along function.
That is late in the evening, also given for tea dance and supper dance. Fork buffet provide
a variety of dishes and food can easily eaten by spoon or fork, while standing. And the
dishes are cold or hot canapés sandwich, tarrines salads, cheese, game chips, smoked
salmon, chicken moose, egg, ham, sausages, jellies, fruit salad, gateaux pastry, ice-cream
etc.
 Cocktail: The main ingredients are actually beverage. Very tiny savory snacks are served
such as stuffed olives, gherkins, walnuts, game chips, salted almonds, bacon rolls cheese
fritter canapés etc.
PRINCIPAL OF MENU PLANNING:
TYPE OF MEAL: THE DIFFERENT TYPES ARE BREAKFAST, LUNCHEON, DINNER,
SUPPER ETC.
Breakfast: There are three types Continental, English, American
Continental breakfast- It is a light breakfast comprises of brioche, bread, croissant, jam, jelly,
marmalade and tea or coffee.

English breakfast- It is on large scale of menu, consist of two to eight courses and usually
includes a cooked main course.

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American breakfast- here is a wide choice of menu served on buffet. The menu complied with
different types of breads, cold items, hot cooked items, variety of juice and cold and hot
beverages, guest can choose there own.

Luncheon Menu: Menus are usually shorter then dinner, with less courses and simpler dishes,
but more choice within each course. It is a quick affair and dinner is taken more leisurely.
Dinner Menu: This menu comprises highly garnished, classical dishes. Here one has a scope
of showing one’s skill of compiling menus with a choice of most esteemed and rarest and exotic
dishes. For example large joints could be carved in the restaurant in front of the guest or flambé
dish could serve. Balance must be perfected throughout the long complicated number of dishes.
Supper Menu: A full buffet is given for supper. All the dishes are very well decorated, giving
a good display.
2. Types of establishment: Menu planning will vary according to the type of establishment-
hotel, restaurant, hostel, hospital, Industrial canteen etc. The menu for hotel or restaurant
will be A la carte, buffet, banquet table d’hôte. The dishes will please the eye and palate
and will be determined by the customers’ appetite and pocket. On other hand hostels,
hospitals, and canteens will have asset pattern and will offer meals to provide nutritionally
balance diets with a limited budget. As there is no choice a variety given will minimize
the monotony and food preference must be seen.
3. Types of customer: Customers can affect the type of food served because of the following
factors: age, sex, occupation. The young boys will need substantial meal, whereas young
girls prefer dainty and small portions of dishes.
4. Season of the year and Seasonal availability of ingredients: Season is important in the
choice of food. Cool, crisp and fresh foods are ideal for summer. And in winter heavier,
richer and high in calorific value require. Although in these days cold storage food are
available through out the year. But fresh from the season must be available in the menu,
as they are fresh, colorful and flavorful. They are available in reasonable price and should
obtain locally.
5. Occasion: Special dishes for certain days or time of the year should be considered during
Menu planning. For example: roast turkey at Christmas, special egg for Easter, sheer
karma for Id, sweet rice for basalt etc. are the seasonal and occasional expectations.
6. Capability of kitchen staff: The kitchen staff capabilities have to seen, whether they are
able to cope with high-class cookery, whether they are experienced and have a good skill
and knowledge. If the staffs are not capable, it will difficult to produce quality meals.
Equally the service-staffs are also plays a important role, they must be efficient, highly
skilled, well dressed and well mannered.
7. Equipment of the kitchen: During Menu planning, it is important to see that the kitchen
is well equipped as to be able to cope up with the presentation of various dishes. Care
should be taken to see that the method of cooking is not repeated: otherwise certain
equipment’s would be overloaded.
8. Price menu: Always give a value for money. The food cost should not be exceed 40% of
the selling price at an average.
9. The balance in menu: For menu planning this is very important, when compiling menus
and special menus, the following points should be considered.
10. Reception of ingredients & words: The basic ingredient of the menu should never be
repeated as it become monotonous. For example if tomato soup is appearing in the menu
then tomato never reappears. Same as when classical dishes are appear with the garnish,
the same garnish should not reappear.

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11. Repetition of colour: when compiling the menu it should have a colourful variety. If the
menu consist of celery soup, chicken in white sauce, turnip and creamed potato, and
vanilla ice-cream, which all are white, it is bound to look very dull.
12. Avoid overbalance of a menu: If many courses are served, then care must be taken to
ensure that they are neither too light nor too heavy.
13. Texture of the course: Some food should be soft, when other food requires chewing to
consume. Avoid menus with same texture, offer food with various texture, example:
Cream of tomato, Roast chicken, Buttered peas, Game chips, Baked apple pie
14. Seasoning: Do not over season the food. If strong herbs are used in one dish, then never
repeat in another dish in same meal.
15. Garnishes: this must be appropriate, attractive and simple.
16. Food value: Special attention should be paid to different requirement of different groups
of people. Meal served to children, adolescent, adult, old age people, expected mother
should be nutritionally balanced.
17. Colour: Sensible use of colour in dishes will give them an ‘eye appeal’. Deep vivid colour
should be avoided. Dark looking dishes can be improved by an attractive and colourful
garnish.
18. Wording of menu: During Menu planning , the following points must be considered-
19. Select language which guest can understand
20. If the menu is in French, give an English Translation.
 Never use mixture of language for the courses of a menu
1. Spelling of the word should be correct.
2. Merchandising menu: Menu are planned and designed should reflect the policy and
thinking of the management and should ensure profit. The menu should be organized,
similar item should be written under attractive headlines and if possible effective
description should be given.

FOOD COST AND FOOD COST CONTROL

Food cost may be defined as the cost of material used in producing the food sold. In other
words, it is the cost of food consumed less the cost of staff meals. The main objects of food
cost or material costing are:

1. To ascertain the food cost of particular item on the menu

2. To ascertain the total expenditure on food over a period of time.
3. To control cost, price, profit margins and provide information for formulating an effective
pricing policy.
4. To disclose faulty purchasing and inefficient storing.
5. To prevent pilferage and wastage.
6. To ensure customer satisfactions.
7. To bring cost- consciousness among the employees.
8. To reduce cost and improve quality.
9. To provide cost estimates to manager for developing budgets.
10. To assist manager in making control decision.
11. To evaluate pricing and establish future pricing.
THE USUAL METHOD OF FOOD COSTING IS SUMMARIZED AS FOLLOWS:

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1. Calculate the food cost of each item on the menu

2. Control labour and overhead without attempting to apportion them to various item
produced.
3. The selling price of each dish is usually fixed by adding to its prime cost (food cost) a
certain percentage to cover wages, overheads and net profit.
Labour cost and overheads are not usually apportioned to the individual cost of dish produced.
It should be ensured that individual selling price of the dish will produce sufficient income to
cover the labour and overhead costs and achieve the required net profit.
FORMULA OF FOOD COST:
FC= COST OF FOOD CONSUMED – STAFF MEALS

OR,

FC= OS + (P – PR) – CS

FC= FOOD COST;

OS = OPENING STOCK;

P= PURCHASE;

PR= PURCHASE RETURN;

CS= COST OF STAFF MEAL

Total Cost: the total cost of food items is composed of three basic elements known as element
of cost. The difference of sales price and total cost of a product is known as net profit. The
opening cost may be classified as:

1. Food Cost or Material Cost (MC)

2. Labour cost (LC)
 Overhead Cost (OH)
TOTAL COST= MC +LC+OH
Material Cost: material cost refers to the basic cost in food and beverage business. The cost
of material which enters into and become a part of product is known as direct material. For
example, use of ingredients in catering and flour in bread making each of these materials, are

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classified as direct if the costs can be identified with the product. In the food and beverage
business material refers to four basic costs:
1. Food Costs
2. Beverage Costs
3. Cost of Tobacco and Cigarettes
4. Cost of Sunday sales.
COST SHEET OR STATEMENT OF FOOD COST:
Cost sheet is a statement which provides for the assembly of detailed cost in respect of a cost
of unit. It is prepared to indicate detail cost of the total output or products. It gives the cost per
unit. The main advantages of cost sheet are:

1. It discloses the food cost of a dish and cost per unit.

2. It enable the management to keep a close watch and control over the production
 It provides a comparative study of the various ingredients.
1. It helps in formulating a usual production policy.
2. It helps in fixing up the selling price of the items produced.
Each establishment requires the calculation of food cost of dishes produced. A list of prepared
of all ingredients along with the quality of each ingredient required for preparation of a dish
for four covers. It is prepared in food cost sheet. The value of each ingredient is calculated by
checking the price from invoice or price list. There may be two types of ingredients used.
Firstly, those item purchased, the price of which is obtained from supplier’ invoice or price list.
Secondly, items which are made up in kitchen such as stock, sauces, pastry etc. It is necessary
to prepare a costing of all the particular ingredients for dish costing purpose.

Once the cost of all the ingredients is calculated, the total will be the food cost for say four
covers. Dividing the total food cost by four, we ascertain the cost per cover. These costing
sheets are prepared in advance and afterward filed for reference purpose in future. Costing may
be done for the particular dish which indicates the quality as so many portions or it may be
done for a particular item such as potato chips, which may be expressed in term of its weight.
In the later case, if you want to calculate cost per portion, it will be necessary to specify the
size of the portions to be costed.

There are some items in the costing sheet which are too small in quantity and cost to value
individually. These items are costed at estimation for the whole; such items include parsley,
bay leaves etc.

On bottom portion of the cost sheet following information is included:

1. Total food cost.

2. Cost per portion.
3. Gross profit percentage.
4. Selling price or charge per portion.
COST OF FOOD & BEVERAGE AND COST OF SALES:
The total cost of food and beverage in a restaurant is calculated by using the stock take and
purchase received. Purchases refer to all credit and cash purchases purchase returns/return
outwards refer to any returns that have already been included under the heading of purchases.

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When calculating the value of stock the normal practice followed in any establishment is to
take the cost or market price whichever is less.

Costing sheet is a very useful record of food cost covering the entire range of dishes. These
could be referred to for rechecking where there is any material change in the price of the
ingredients. Let us assume that the price of an ingredient has increased, the cost of other
ingredients being the same. In such situation both the total cost per portion and the food per
portion will increase and gross profit percentage will decrease. To obtain the same amount of
gross profit percentage it will be necessary to review the cost sheet and revise the selling price.
Once again the food cost will be 40% of the selling price.

THUS, A COST SHEET IS A STATEMENT INCLUDING THE FOLLOWING:

1. Date
2. Name of the dishes
3. Number of portions
4. Quantity of each ingredient
5. Name of each ingredient
6. Cost of each unit
7. Total food cost
8. Cost per portion
THE METHOD OF PREPARATION OF FOOD COST SHEET GIVEN BELOW:
 Calculate the cost of each menu. A list of all ingredients required to prepare each dish mist
be drawn up.
 Obtain the prices of all ingredients from invoice.
 Prepare the cost sheet.
 To determine the overall gross profit required, the individual selling price of all dishes be
calculated.
 A certain percentage of gross profit / kitchen profit is added to the food cost of each dish
in order determine the selling price. Overall percentage that is the lower kitchen
percentage; while sweet, soup, teas, may have lower food cost percentage Constant
surveillance must be kept on the food cost. If the food cost percentage shows unusual
variance, this could be investigated and immediate corrective action should be taken.
FACTOR RESPONSIBLE FOR UNUSUAL VARIANCE ARE:
1. External Factors:
2. a) Increase the purchase price of the commodities.
3. b) Charges in sales-mix, Example- increase in salad, fall in sale of hot meals due to
changing seasons.
2. Internal Factors:
3. a) Excessive wastage in the kitchen.
4. b) Pilferage
5. c) Carelessness in portion
6. d) Bad purchasing
7. e) Suppliers not keeping to specifications.
8. f) Overheating of invoice books
9. g) Clerical errors invoices

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FOOD COST CONTROL

Whatever the size of the establishment that is opened, the basic management essential from the
view point of cost control first, how much money has been received and second, how much it
has take that money. The management must learn how to understand this and be able to
interpret the results so that adjustments can be made where and when necessary.

The cost of meals fall naturally into three distinct section, the first being the cost of the food,
second cost of the overheads which include fuel, light, heat, water, staff uniforms, laundry,
social security payments, printing and stationery, cleaning material, advertising, telephone and
postage, decorations, license, maintenance, linen, cutlery and crockery, replacement cost,
insurance and finally rent, rates and interests on capital outlay. Third section is the salaries and
wages. The relation between these classes of costs which are always a matter of interest and
vary considerably from one type of catering establishment to another, the overheads, usually
being greater then the bare cost of food.

The problem of any management-control system is to make sure that a pre-determined food
and wage –cost percentage has been decided. The figure will take in all aspects of expenses.
The final trading results will show that a correct return has been made. To obtain this the
following information should be studied:

2. All purchase must be controlled.

3. Details of all merchandise received must be reordered, as and when issued.
4. Any overproduction of food must be checked and of course reused in the best and most
economical way
5. Production-ingredient amount must be checked before preparation.
6. Check the sales with direct number catered for.
7. An efficient system of cash control must maintain.
8. Sales of any kind checked with cash receipts.
9. A record of costs for each section (wine, cigars, flowers, meals, rooms) must be made and
recorded.
10. Total daily wage cost must be recorded.
11. A weekly summary of all the relevant details must be prepared.
12. The trading profit and loss account should be prepared.
COST PRICE:
This system is the most practical and best to understand. It allows for certain elasticity and
provides the chief with a margin for artistic development. The kitchen percentage entails the
application of the following formula:
GROSS PROFIT*100/TAKINGS= RATE PER CENT OF GROSS PROFIT OR KITCHEN
PERCENTAGE
For example: Taking-167.75/-, Purchase-78.60/-, then Gross profit (167.75-78.60) = 89.15/-.

Therefore, Kitchen percentage is 89.15*100/167.75 = 53.15%.

When stock taking is done, there may be minor discrepancies in the percentage, but this has to
be taken into account. Sometimes there are variations in percentage of profit over a short
period. Such variations could be due to seasonal influences on price. The menu price is not
normally altered for each variation in cost; because some items are more profitable then others
and the sales may vary.

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When kitchen percentage drops below the normal figure, it should be presumed that something
is wrong. The decline could have been caused by different factors:

1. Incorrect billing( that is customers not paying correct price)

2. Portion too large.
3. Inefficiency and waste in the kitchen.
4. Faulty purchasing
5. Dishonest practice.
Each dish is coasted and priced to show the desired percentage. At the close of the day’s
business, the overall percentage is worked out and it should be tally with the figures budgeted
for pricing. Some fixed priced menus (Table d’hote) may more profitable then others.

NET PROFIT:
All expenditure can be classified as material costs, labour cost and overheads. It follows that
the difference between total revenue and the total of these costs in the net profit before tax.

FOOD ORDERING PROCEDURES FOR FOOD AND BEVERAGE SERVICE

ESTABLISHMENTS
Hotels and Restaurants follow established food ordering procedures as outlined in there policy
to ensure and secure the right combination of best price and specified quality while maintaining
adequate and proper inventory levels. Also to establish effective ordering procedures with
timely scheduling of goods for arrival with sufficient lead time to allow advance preparation,
retain freshness and prevent needless re-handling.

FOOD ORDERING PROCEDURES [STEP BY STEP]:

BID SYSTEM
1. Routine and comprehensive bids are essential to establish a fair and
competitive business environment. This will also allow the hotel the opportunity to
purchase the best suited product at the best price.

2. Purveyors: The Director of Food and Beverage, Executive Chef, and Food Purchaser are
to review all possible purveyors to determine which will be asked to participate in the bid
process. This decision should be based on the following criteria:
> Quality of product
> Consistency of product
> Product meets specifications
> Price
> Delivery schedule
> Availability of product
3. Bid Process: All approved product (available from more than one supplier) should be bid
on a regular basis in accordance with the following minimum requirements:
Item Frequency # of Bids Required
Meat Weekly 3
Seafood Weekly 3
Poultry Weekly 3

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Produce Weekly 3
Dry Goods Monthly 3
Dairy Monthly 2
Paper Supplies Monthly 3
In times of extreme market volatility and/or excessive demand for certain product, it may be
necessary to require more frequent bidding and it is very important during Food Ordering
Procedures .

> All approved purveyors must submit written bids by Monday morning for weekly bids
and by the first of each month for monthly bids.
> The Food Purchaser is responsible for providing each vendor with a list of products for
which we wish to entertain and accept bids.
> To expedite the bid process, each purveyor should also provide a list of all applicable
product available, including prices.
> It is recommended that the Purchaser routinely seek out new suppliers for competitive
pricing to evaluate the pricing of current approved purveyors.
> Upon receipt of these written bids, they must be recorded in the MIS system (or on the
approved Trust Bid Sheet for Non-Marriott Properties). See Exhibit 1 “Food and Beverage
Bid Sheet”. These bids must be evaluated and a determination made as to which purveyor
will supply each product based on price and quality. This decision should be made by the
Food Purchaser and the Executive Chef.
> Non-Competitive Items: This is a classification of product that can be purchased
from only one source. Therefore, the bid process will not apply to these products. Every
effort must be made to determine that the product is in fact available from only one vendor.
> Inspection of bids: The Director of Food and Beverage must review all bids at least once
per period.

ORDERING
Accurate detailed inventories and orders are critical to management planning. They must be
recorded in an approved format so the valuable time isn’t lost in retracing steps and in the
duplication of effort. Again, consistency and accountability are the key controls.

MIS PROGRAM FOR FOOD ORDERING PROCEDURES

All food purchases are to be recorded on the Management Information System Purchase Log.
Detailed instructions for the use of the MIS Purchase Logs are included in the MIS Procedure
Manual, but these specific requirements are to be met and regularly audited by management:

1. MIS Purchase Logs should be completed for all food purchases made in each operation.
2. Food items are to be stored in the same sequence as the items appear on the Purchase Log
with shelf labels that bear the same description as the Purchase Log.
3. Purchases should be entered by the same unit as purchased. Also enter the current price
paid, the purveyor purchased from and par stock changes on this log form.
4. Enter daily inventory in categories where applicable, i.e., produce, meats, seafood, etc.
5. Hand enter items where unit descriptions don’t agree with printed
descriptions, supplying price, purveyor and complete description.
6. Invoice numbers are to be logged at the top of the page for corresponding purchases.

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7. Delete items from your purchase log that aren’t currently being purchased.
8. Revise par stocks as necessary.

PLANNING ORDERS
Usually one day per week is set aside to plan the following week’s food needs (estimates) and
orders/delivery schedules. Sundays are often the best time to
take a thorough refrigerated and dry goods inventory, accumulate and
organize BEO’s, establish basic menu estimates, etc. Food is generally inventoried
one day and ordered for the next day or following day, allowing one extra day for banquet
needs.

When planning and calling orders, every effort should be made to avoid emergency
situations, not only for the benefit of the Hotel, but for the benefit of our purveyors as well. It
is costly for them to do business and we are obligated to honor their business procedures by
not making unreasonable demands for frequent deliveries and/or other additional services.

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FOOD AND BEVERAGE BID SHEET

food and beverage bid sheet format for food ordering procedures by BNG Hotel Management
Kolkata

PURCHASE LOG

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FOOD PRODUCTION CONTROL AND VOLUME FORECASTING

Production control means the controlling of the preparation of food which together should
reduce over-production (and possible waste), loss from inefficient purchasing and processing,
and loss from excessive portion sizes. The proper operation of the food control system should
aid management in controlling food costs efficiently and maximizing the profitability of the
operation. There are four major stages in production control:—

1. Volume Forecasting
2. Standard Yield
3. Standard Recipes
4. Standard Portion Sizes.
VOLUME FORECASTING:
Volume forecasting is often referred to as production planning. It is a method of predicting the
volume of sales for an establishment for a specified future period. The objectives of volume
forecasting are:

1. to predict the total number of meals to be sold in each selling outlet of an establishment at
each meal period (e.g. the number of break-fasts to be served in the dining hall and the
coffee shop and by floor service;
2. to predict the choice of menu items by customers,
3. to facilitate purchasing,
4. to ensure availability of all necessary ingredients,
5. to ensure that appropriate stock levels are held,
6. to control food costs in relation to sales.
7. to enable the food controller to compare the actual volume of business done by each of the
selling outlet with the potential volume of business as forecast and for management to take
action where necessary.
Volume forecasting is generally done in two stages—an initial forecast and final forecast.

THE INITIAL FORECAST

It is generally prepared a week in advance, and shows (a) the estimated total number of meals
to be taken in each selling outlet; (b) the estimated total of each menu item; for each day of the
following menu week. The initial forecast itself would be based on the following factors:

1. Past Records (Sales Histories): In particular one would look at the figures recorded for the
same period last year, examine the graph showing sales for last year to check if there is
likelihood of a particular trend at this period on the year as well as looking the sales result
for the last year. Also note the demand of different items of the menu and identify the
items for which there has been no proportionate sale.
2. Advance Bookings: A reference to the advance booking of the rooms and for the banquets
would be valuable guide for the planning.
 Current Events: Annual trade fairs, sports meet, cricket match, the boat show, motor race
etc. all such functions have an influence on the business done.
1. Current Trends: What are the items on the menu which has increased or decreased
demand? What are the items which you are not able to sell?

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2. The predicted sale of each menu item is converted into quantities of foodstuffs. The totals
of each food item required for each meal period are itemized and listed and are used for
writing out the requisition notes to the stores and purchasing department. Frequently, to
convert the predicted sales of menu items in to quantities of food stuffs, standard recipe
and portion conversion charts are used.
3. The purchasing manager will use copy of the list together with the requisition order when
placing the purchase order, taking into account at the same time, the economic ordering
quantity for the item as well as the storage facilities for the establishment.
THE FINAL FORECAST
The final and more accurate forecast usually takes place the day before the preparation and
service of the particular meal. This takes in to account the following:

 The previous day’s food production and food sales figures. If the actual food sales figures
are in line with the potential food sales figure. At times food will be left over from previous
day’s business which is perfectly edible and suitable for sale. Any left-over should be sold
as soon as possible before they become a complete write-off.
 The weather conditions must be taken into account for the next day. As this forecast will
be more accurate. A sudden change in the weather can effect the volume of business
done g. rain, snow, very hot. A change in weather will affect customers choice.
(iii)The staffing requirement may be worked out very accurately when fairly precise production
requirements are known. This assists not only in the preparation of staff rosters of duty, days-
off, holidays etc. but may result in the total number of staff being reduced, thus saving in the
kitchen and restaurant wages.
(iii)Waste is by far the leakage responsible for more financial failure of food operation than all
other combined. To prevent waste avoid over-buying, over preparation, improper use of
materials, careless preparation of material. Leakages can be reduced by keeping close watch
on kitchen pantry, dining room and back-door. Food waste may be due to the poor quality of
food purchased and due to short weight or measures, improper handling and storage of food
after delivery.

(iv}Bad handling and bad storage of food promotes loss through dissipation of the value of a
purchase; delay in using fresh vegetable leads to partial or complete deterioration; and even if
utilized, such food assumes second hand value. Excessive stock held on storage deteriorates
and affects the food cost adversely.

Faulty and incomplete preparation in preliminary and final stages causes waste.

Failure to standardize recipes, improper utilization of left-over foods, serving too large or too
small portions and lack of adequate records on food cost or improper interpretation of such
records all result in waste.

STANDARD RECIPE:
Standard recipe is the method of standardizing recipes in such a way so that there is tight control
on cost and quantity. Standardization should not be allowed to stifle the individual chef’s flair.
A hotel can control quantities, quality and cost more easily. It is most useful to use standard
recipe in a hotel where there are a number of chefs cooking the food. The standard recipe lays
down all the ingredients, method of production and quantities used. It indicates the number of

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portions to be served. This will determine the size of portion or production control. A section
giving variation can be added to reduce the total number of recipes required.

The main advantages in using a standard recipe are:—

 A well tried recipe ensures a consistently good finished product.

 It controls portion size which is very important in costing a dish.
 It is easy to determine the food cost of a particular dish.
 It simplifies the pricing of a particular dish.
 It reduces the possibility of error.
PRODUCTION CONTROL:
A customer will continue to patronize a restaurant provided he gets correct ‘eight of the product
he has paid for. On the other hand, the hotel’s return must e right and the price charged must
be correct for the quantities of goods sold. The quantity is the portion size which the hotel has
used in its costing in calculating \e selling price. The quantity sold for a given price must be
consistently the same; he hotel should control this size to ensure that his costing is not
invalidated.

production control means, the control of portion size to ensure those portions served are
consistently of the same size as the portions costed. The main objectives of production controls
are:—

 To ensure guest satisfaction

 To serve fair portion of food/beverages for a fair price
 To maintain profitability on all portions sold.
 In the food and beverage units the controlling the size of each unit of sale requires the use
of suitable equipment such as :—
(v) In addition to use of proper equipment, production control requires three important things
:—

1. Standard Recipes
The articles being prepared must consist of the same ingredients every time. This is possible
by use of standard recipes. A portion cannot be consistent even if it is of the same weight. This
is particular so in case of a garnish. An expensive garnish on impulse can ruin the cost of a
dish.

2. Portion Charts
The service staff must be thoroughly conversant with the proper production control. For their
convenience and ready reference, suitable portion size charts be prepared and displayed at
convenient points in the kitchen. The portion for costing purpose may be expressed in weight
but from server’s use it may be expressed in scoop.

3. Regular Checking
Continuous and automatic supervision will develop habits and need no special efforts. Food
and beverage controller should do regular spot checks on the food leaving the kitchen for
quality, portion size and presentation. The number of portions should be cross-checked against
the number of portions expected to be produced from the commodities used by the kitchen.

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4. Staff Instructions and Display of Charts

Portion charts should be displayed at convenient points in the producing centre as a constant
reminder. Regular demonstration and visual training will encourage staff to be alert for
variation in portion sizes.

6. Pre-packed Food
Reproduced portion is yet another method of Production control in which food

is already made up into portion is served to customers. The individual production control
concept is now very popular on almost all the food and beverage establishments. The main
advantage of pre-packed and individual portions are:—

(i) Convenience

(ii) Exact portion

(iii) Accurate costing

(iv) No preparation required

(V) Saving of time

(Vi) Saving of labour cost

(vii) No wastage

(viii) Hygienic preparation

(ix) Food prepared in advance of use

(x) Consistent and attractive preparation of individual portions.

Fish, meat, vegetables and other products such as jams, marmalades, honey, sauces and
dressings, dairy products (butter, cheese, milk, cream/condiments, salt, pepper, mustard, sugar
etc.) are now being pre-packed in individual portions.

PRODUCTION CONTROL AND STANDARD PORTION SIZE:

The menu price of food items is based on the cost of the standard portion of food required to
prepare them. A standard portion size is the quantity of a particular food item that could be
served to the guest. This quantity may be expressed in terms of weight (ounces) or in numerical
figures. The standard size of food item may be determined by the management in conjunction
with the executive chef and restaurant manager.

The chefs and supervisors should be responsible to instruct their staff on the correct use of
equipment and explain why it is necessary to adhered to the correct portion sizes.

Large hotels and food and beverage units employ highly developed production control methods
and ensure that portions served are consistent to the same size as the portion costed. The actual
size of the portion is a matter of policy decided by the management. The main objective of the
production control is to ensure that the decisions made by the management are adhered to
consistently.

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DETERMINANTS OF PORTION SIZES FOR PRODUCTION CONTROL:

Size of portions is to be decided according to the nature of establishment, the type of customers,
and type of food and beverage items handled by the establishments. In brief following points
should be considered:—

1. The type of customers

2. The type of food and beverage operations
3. Spending power of the consumers.

DETERMINATION OF MENU PRICE FOR BETTER PRODUCTION CONTROL:

The menu price could be determined by using portion divider. For this purpose following
information are required:-

1. Purchase Price
2. Portion Size
3. Yield Percentage
4. Food Cost Percentage Desired or menu Price

PORTION SIZES AND PRODUCTION CONTROL:

Restaurants may find that a large portion of their business is accounted for by customers who
prefer to change their meals. Obviously, with profit margins in the neighbourhood of 5%, an
additional 6% charge would wipe out any profit. In order to cover this additional expense it is
necessary for menu prices to be increased by an additional amount. The increase need not be
the full 6% charge, since some customers will still pay in cash and an extra profit will be
realized on these sales.

The per cent of the increase should reflect the proportion of the business that is done in credit
sales. If 50% of the sales are on credit, then a 3% increase would be justified. If 75% of the
sales are on credit, many operators choose to absorb the difference. Although this may be
possible, the net profits will change, and the true value of extending credit should be closely
examined to determine if an adjustment should be made. With the wide range of portion sizes
for any given item, it is possible for the food cost of any operation to be controlled in such a
manner that the operating food cost percentage can be adjusted or changed by adjusting portion
sizes.

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BAKERY
Should you’ve ever dreamed of opening a bakery, your possibilities of success is also high:
baked goods and bakeries are among the fastest-developing industries for small firms

You can want some planning and entrepreneurial savvy, but if you’re willing to work hard,
which you could make a name for yourself – or at least in your cupcakes and baguettes.

To get your piece of the pie, combine these recommendations with your impressive baking
competencies and also you’ll be for your option to success.

FUNDAMENTALS OF BAKERY
Find Qualities of a bakery professional …

 Formation and expansion of gases in bakery: Some gases are already present in the
dough as in the case of fermented bread dough and in sponge cake batter. As they are
heated, the gases expand and leaven the product. Some gases are not formed until heat is
applied. Yeast and baking powder form gases rapidly when first placed in the oven.
Steam is also formed as moisture in the dough is heated.
 Trapping of gases in air cells: As the gases are formed and expand, they are trapped in a
stretchular network formed by the proteins in the dough. These proteins are primarily
gluten and egg proteins. Without gluten and egg protein, the gases would escape and the
product would not be leavened.

 Coagulation of protein: Like all proteins, gluten and egg proteins coagulate when they
reach high temperature. It is this process that gives structure to baked goods. Correct
baking temperature is very important. If it is too high coagulation will start too soon before
the expansion of gases and hence the product will have poor volume.
 Gelatinization of starches: Starches absorb moisture, expand and become firmer.
 Evaporation of some of the water: This takes place throughout the baking process.

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 Melting of shortening or fat: Different shortenings melt and release trapped gases at
different temperatures, so the proper shortening should be selected for each product. As
the fat melts they surround the air cells and make the product tender.
Complete Bread Making | …
 Browning of the surface and crust formation: Browning occurs when sugar caramelises
and starches and proteins undergo certain changes. This contributes to flavour and crust is
formed as water evaporates from the surface and leaves it dry.
 Staling: Staling is change in texture and aroma of baked goods due to the change in
structure and loss of moisture by starch granules. Stale baked goods loose their fresh,
baked aroma and are firmer, drier and more crumbly than fresh products. Prevention of
staling is the major concern of the baker because most baked goods begin to lose quality
as soon as they are taken out of the oven. There are two factors involved:
 Loss of moisture or drying: When a slice of fresh bread is left exposed to air it soon
becomes dry to touch.
 Chemical change in the structure of starch: This means that even a well-wrapped loaf of
bread will eventually stale. Chemical staling is very rapid at refrigerator temperature, but
it nearly stops at freezing temperature. Thus, bread should not be stored in the refrigerator.
It should be left at room temperature for short-term storage or frozen for long term storage.
Chemical staling, if it is not too great, can be practically reversed by heating breads.
Bakery Equipment

BAKERY EQUIPMENT AND USES

Listing of various essential pieces of bakery equipment for small or hotel kitchen is the most
important task to do during bakery setup. Without proper bakery equipment and tools the
bakery will not be able to produce good product. Hence a knowledge of bakery equipment is
very important during any kind of bakery set up.

Baking pans: These are very important bakery equipment mostly aluminium or non-stick and
about 2” deep. They come in a variety of shapes and sizes.
Weighing scale: Used to weigh ingredients as well as portioning of products for service.
Measuring jugs: Used for liquid measures.
Measuring cups: are the bakery equipment used for both dry and liquid measures.

Measuring spoons: Used to measure small volumes, especially spices and seasonings.
Candy thermometer: Used to test temperatures of sugar syrups, can read upto 400ºF.

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Serrated slicer: A knife with a long flexible blade upto 14” long with a serrated edge, used
to cut breads, cake and similar items.
Ball scoop/Parisienne scoop: The blade is a small cup shaped half sphere, used to cut fruits
and vegetables into small balls.
Palette knife: A long flexible blade with rounded end, used to spread icing on cakes and
mixing or scraping bowls.
Rubber spatula: A broad flexible rubber or plastic tip on a long handle, used to scrape bowls
and pans and also in folding of egg foams or whipped cream.
Pie server/gateau slicer: Bakery equipment which is a wedged shape off-set spatula used to
cut and lift wedges of cake or pie.
Bench scraper/dough scraper: A broad stiff piece of metal with a wooden handle on one
edge, used to cut pieces of dough and to scrape workbenches.
Pastry wheel/cutter: A round rotating blade on a handle used for cutting rolled out doughs
and pastry or baked pizza.
Wire whisk/whip: Loops of stainless steel wire fasten to a handle. This bakery equipment
are of two types
Heavy whisks are straight/stiff and have relatively few wires. Used for general mixing and
beating of heavy liquids.

Balloon whisks or piano wire whisks have many flexible wires used to whip eggs, cream,
hollandaise and mixing thinner liquids.

Sieve: Screen type mesh support in a round metal frame used to sift flour and other dry

ingredients.
Grater: Four sided metal box with different sized grids, used to shred vegetables, cheese,
citrus rinds and other foods.
Zester: Small hand bakery equipment to remove the zest of citrus fruits in thin strips.
Pastry bag and nozzles: Cone shape cloth or plastic bag with open end that can be fitted
with nozzles of various shapes and sizes. Used to pipe icing on cakes, desserts, dough etc.
Pastry brush: A soft bristle bakery equipment or a brush, used to coat items with egg wash,
glaze etc.

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OTHER BAKERY EQUIPMENT:

 Dough sheeter
 Dough divider
 Croissant rolling machine
 Chocolate tempering machine
 Chocolate flaking machine
 Crusher (nuts, praline)
 Hot cabinets
 Tray greaser
 Proofing chambers

There are five basic ingredients required for baking −

 Flour
 Sugar
 Margarine
 Baking Soda/Powder
 Salt
Commodities Used in Baking
Given below are some food commodities used in baking −
 Flour − It is the basic ingredient of baking cookies, breads, cakes, muffins, pizzas,
tarts, and pastries. Its variants are self-rising flour, wheat flour, all-purpose flour, cake
flour, etc.
 Essence − It is an extract acquired from a plant or other matter used for flavoring food.
Some typical essence are almond, vanilla, saffron, lemon and rose.
 Margarine or Butter − Margarine is made of refined vegetable oil, water, and milk.
Butter is made of processing milk. These both are called shortening.
 Sugar − It is used as food sweetener.
 Eggs − They are used as leavening and binding agents and they can bring moisture in
the cakes. The chefs need to add either yogurt or applesauce in eggless cakes.
 Baking Powder/Yeast − It is used as a rising/leavening agent that gives softness and
fluffy texture to cakes and breads. The baking powder is white fine powder made of
Sodium Bicarbonate, Potassium Bitartrate, and corn starch. The yeast comes in two
variants − dry and liquid.
 Cocoa Powder − It is used for introducing chocolate flavor to the food.
 Chocolate slabs − They are used for acquiring flakes by grating and then using the
flakes for garnishing and decorating cakes. They come in the variety of chocolate-
milk-sugar proportion. Now chocolate drops or chips are also available in the market.
 Fruit Jams − They are used for decorating sweet baked products.
 Milk − It is used for softening batter for the cakes, breads, and cookies.

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 Salt − A pinch of salt is added into batter of sweet baked products to balance the taste
of Baking powder and sugar.
Some typical equipment required in baking are −
 Ovens − They are used as a heating chambers for baking. Direct heat large kilns and
modern electric ovens are used in food preparation units. The electric ovens provide
high degree of precise temperature control and uniform heat.
 Mixing Machine − It is used to mix all bread or cake ingredients together into soft
dough or batter.
 Tins − There are tins with various shapes and sizes used in baking. They create the
resulting baked product in attractive shapes.
 Icing Bag with Nozzles − The icing bags hold the icing. They are used in decorating
cakes in a large variety of ways using nozzles of catchy shapes and widths. They
provide a great way of filling small glasses and molds in a sophisticated manner.
 Baking Parchment − It is a cellulose-based paper used as a non-stick surface. It is
often thin and disposable.
 Knives − Bakery knives are used for cutting loafs, cakes, and handling pieces of cakes.
 Cake Stands − They are required to keep cakes of multiple tiers. Some of them are
rotary. They provide circular motion that makes the process of cake decoration easy.
 Spatula − They are flat tip spoons, used to fold the batter and fill the icing bag. Spatulas
often have rubber tips.
Basic Bread Fabrication
Bread fabrication is a complex process. Once started, it cannot be interrupted, as timing is
very important for bread making.
There are 12 important stages of baking a bread.
Weighing Ingredients
During this stage, the chef assembles all the required ingredients and weigh them properly to
ensure a good quality final product.
Preparing Ingredients
The chef selects an appropriate flour and sieves it. The chef also prepares yeast mixture by
adding right amount of water of right temperature into the dry yeast.
Mixing the Ingredients
Mixing the ingredients is not as simple as it sounds. There are various factors that need
consideration such as room temperature, flour temperature, speed of machine, the timings of
adding various ingredients like margarine, sugar, yeast etc.
Bulk Fermentation
During bulk fermentation, the yeast acts on sugar in the flour and releases carbon dioxide and
alcohol while it respires. The gas makes the flour dough rise and the alcohol brings flavor to
the bread. The longer the fermentation, the more intense the aroma.
Folding/Degassing

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Folding a dough is superior to simply punching it down. Folding involves gently kneading the
dough into parts and new rolls. Degassing is a very important piece of the bread jigsaw. It
removes some of the carbon dioxide and redistribute the food for yeast so that the yeast can
resume to their meal.
Dividing
A large dough is divided into several smaller portions to make loaves or buns.
Benching
At this stage, the dough is kept for a while so that the gluten can rest and shaping becomes
easy. This time is not more than a few minutes.

Shaping
At this stage, the baker shapes the bread for various looks such as loaves, buns, begels,
baguette, rolls, sticks, and other various shapes. Shaping affects the physical form of the bread.

Proofing
Once the dough is made into a desired shape, the baker keeps it for the final fermentation
before it enters the oven. Proofing affects the chemical form of the bread.

Baking
The baker preheats the oven and keeps the doughs into it under a controlled temperature.

Cooling
In this stage, the baker takes out the bread and sets on the racks for exposing it to the air for
cooling. Some breads such as baguette are eaten at room temperature.

The bread is thus ready to be consumed.

Types of Cakes
Cakes are named according to the way they are prepared.

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[Link]. Type & Preparation

1 Butter cakes
They contain fat such as butter. It starts with beating sugar and butter together until
the sugar dissolves partially and then adding dry and wet ingredients alternatively.
The resulting cake is light and rich with moisture. For example, Pound cake made
with a pound each of butter, sugar, eggs, and flour.

2 Layer Cakes
They also contain butter and can be made by arranging layers of different butter
cakes. For example, Golden cake, Birthday cake.

3 Sponge cake
They do not contain fat or leavener such as baking powder. The preparation starts
with whipping eggs or egg whites such that it becomes fluffy with air. Dry
ingredients are sifted and folded in gently. During baking, the air expands to rise
the cake on its own. It gives extremely light and spongy but less moist cake.

4 Angel Food Cake

It contains egg whites and no egg yolks. Preparation starts with beating egg whites
until they are firm and adding dry ingredients gently. This cake is very white and
delicate. It is often paired with addition of fruits. It is cooled by inverting it on the
cooking rack.

5 Genoise
It is a kind of sponge cake made with whole eggs. In the preparation, eggs and sugar
are combined and whipped in the pan kept over simmering water. They are sliced
into thin horizontal layers and stacked with alternate layers of cream/frosting and
slices to create layered cake. For example, Swiss roll.

6 Flourless Baked Cake

It does not contain flour. All ingredients are folded gently and poured into a pan
that is kept in a larger pan which is partially filled with water. This water bath is
arranged to reduce effect of strong heat from oven to this delicate cake. For
example, cheese cake.

7 Flourless Unbaked Cake

They are chilled instead of baking. The bottom is often crusted with a layer of cake
and on the top of it whipped cream and egg white is added. For example, Chocolate
mousse.

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PASTRY

It is a dough often used for preparing both, sweet and savoury meals. It contains flour,
shortening like butter or oil, sugar, water, and salt. A filling is put inside the pastry and it is
baked to get resulting food with crispy coat. There are various pastries made such as short
crust pastry, puff pastry, and Filo pastry. For example, pastry is used for pies, puffs, croissants,
and tarts.

Pastes, Creams, Fillings, and Sauces

Baked items often look and taste good when paired with fillings and creams, and topped with
sauces. They bring tempting presentation to the main cake or bread and also extend their
flavour.

Pastes
Pastes are the compound of fruit pulp, lemon juice, and sugar. The bakers often add light
spices such as cinnamon or cardamom, which go well with the sweet taste. Some widely used
pastes in bakery are −

 Apple paste
 Banana paste
 Coconut paste
 Guava paste

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 Mango paste
For preparing savoury puffed pastries, ginger-garlic paste is also used.

Creams
Their texture changes as per the amount of butterfat they contain. The higher the butterfat
contents, less whipping is required to get thick cream.

 Half and Half/Single Cream − It contains around 15% fat. It cannot be whipped as it
contains proportion of cream and milk as 50:50. It goes well with coffee or on cereal.

 Whipping Cream − It contains around 30% fat and it is thick enough to be whipped.

 Double Cream − It contain around 48% fat. It cannot get whipped well.

Fillings
The fillings have a strong foot in the domain of desserts, cakes, and other bakery products.
The fillings provide delicate flavour and aroma. A perfect filling has a good spreading ability
and consistency. Some of the widely used fillings are −

 Chocolate filling
 Coffee fillings
 Almond filling
 Cashew nut filling
 Hazelnut filling
 Peanut filling
Sauces
Various sweet sauces often known as dessert sauces are used with cakes and desserts that take
them to the next heights. They contribute flavour and moisture to the dessert. The dessert
sauces are made by combining cooked fruit pieces, sugar, and liquid caramel or light alcohol
such as wine.

Some popular ones are crème Analgise, classic caramel sauce, chocolate sauce, strawberry
sauce, raspberry sauce, blueberry sauce, butterscotch sauce, and fruit curds.

Today, a large range of colourful, flavourful confections available in the market, which serve
as a treat to our tongues as well as our eyes. May it be the candies, bite-size chocolates,
cookies, lollies, or other sweets; not only children but grown-ups also favour them. Adults
being health conscious, consume them with confessions.

In Europe and US, syrups, caramel, cocoa powder, milk powder, and sugar are generally used.
In Indian subcontinent, the confections are often generally referred to as Mithai, which is

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based on the main ingredient khoyaa; the thick hard cream of milk. Mithai is also made
from Halwaa, the wheat extract or it can be made from gram flour. Confections in Indian
subcontinents also use palm sugar or jiggery; the concentrate of cane juice as a sweetener.

What is Confectionery?
Confectionery is an art of making confections by using sugar and a carbohydrate based
binding medium.

The confections is broadly divided into the following categories −

 Flour Confections − they are cakes, tarts, doughnuts, cookies, sweet pastries, or any
similar confection made using flour. They are mainly served in desserts course.

 Sugar Confections − they are candies, chewing gums, and jellies. They flavour and
colour sugar as their main ingredient. They are made at high temperatures around
150oC. The spoilage is low and hence they have longer shelf life without refrigeration.

 Chocolate Confections − they use cocoa powder and chocolate syrup as their main
ingredient. They need refrigeration during warm weather.

 Milk Confections − they are thick milk cream based/milk powder based confections
made by combining various dry fruits, flavours, and colours into them. They are
treated as a part of main course. They are best when fresh. Their shelf life is short but
can be extended by refrigeration.

 Other Confections − they are made from extract of soaked wheat, which is flavoured,
thickened, and coloured.

Commodities Used in Confectionery

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Ingredients used in Confectionery

 Fruits/Dry Fruits/Nuts − they are a prominent ingredient. Fruits are cooked with or
without sugar to get sweet thick pulp. Dry fruit pieces, Nut powders, broken Nuts, or
roasted nuts are used.

 Sugar (Glucose/Sucrose) − It is required to bring sweetness to the confection.

 Cocoa Powder − It is a key ingredient of preparing chocolates and chocolate-based

confections.

 Milk Powder − It brings thick and moist physique to the confection.

 Pectin − It is a texturizing gelling agent and thickener. It is used in preparing gums,

chewable candies, and jelly products.

 Gelatine − It is used almost exclusively in confectionery products which require long,

tough, gum-like textures.

 Acid − It is lemon juice, tartaric acid or any vinegar.

 Essence − It is a flavouring agent for the confections.

 Colour − It is simple food colour. It is available in dry as well as liquid form.

Equipment used in Confectionery

These commodities often involve preparation, mixing, cooking, dispensing, and packaging
machines. They are used depending upon the requirement. In smaller food preparation units,
not all types of machines are required. They can use cake/candy/jelly molds, icing bags, trays,
frying, and baking instruments.

Some Popular Confections

Let us see a few popular confections −

 Caramel − Wet caramel is prepared by melting sugar with water then cooked with
milk powder. Dry caramel is prepared by cooking sugar by itself until it liquefies and
caramelizes.

 Chocolates − Bite-sized confectioneries generally made with chocolate.

 Dodol − A toffee-like confection prepared in South East Asian countries such

Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines.

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 Fondant − It is a thick paste made of sugar and water. It is often flavoured and
coloured, used in preparation of sweets, icing, and cake decoration.

 Fudge − It is made by boiling milk, milk powder, and sugar together.

 Halwaa − It is made of the extract of wheat soaked overnight, sieved and cooked with
sugar and colour till it becomes thick. It is often arranged in layers, and cut into cubes.

 Candy − It is hard and based purely on sugar. For example, lollipops, peppermint drops
and disks, candy canes, and rock candy.

 Marshmallow − fluffy and puffy lightly flavoured candies.

 Marzipan − an almond-based confection, doughy in consistency, a sweet yellow or

white paste of ground almonds, sugar, and egg whites. It is used to coat cakes or to
make confectionery.

 Mithai − A generic term for confectionery in India, it is typically made from dairy
products, powdered nuts, cardamom powder, and saffron.

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