UNIT OF COMPENTENCY 1

BREED SOWS AND GILTS

SIGNS OF HEAT

HEAT/ESTRUS

-Is the period when the sows or gilts are fertile and very receptive to
the boar. The average heat period is 3 days on sows and 4 days on gilts.

ESTRUS HEAT CYCLE

-Intervening period between two successive heat periods in the

absence of conception. It ranges from 18-24days, but the average
cycle is 21 days.

IMPORTANCE OF ESTRUS

-Understanding and managing estrus in swine is important because

estrus may be thought of as the starting point of the swine herd life cycle.

SIGNS OF HEAT ON A SOW/GILT

1. Grunting and mounting of other sows/gilts

-Gilts and sows coming into or going out of estrus often mount and ride
pen mates when group housed (7). Most females will not tolerate being
mounted and will vocalize loudly and make moves to escape. Females
that do stand immobilized when ridden (7) are in estrus and may develop
rough hair and rub marks on their back from being repeatedly ridden.
Females housed in crates cannot mount their neighbors but may make
attempts to bite them (8) or climb on the crate when excited by exposure
2. Swelling and reddening of the vulva

-Two to three days before onset of estrus, increasing estrogen levels from
developing ovarian follicles stimulate increased blood flow and fluid
retention in the reproductive tract and cause the vulva and clitoris to swell
and turn red. This is commonly observed in gilts (1 and 2, center gilt) but
it is usually only seen in sows if the vulva is parted to examine the interior
(3). Estrogen also acts on sites in the brain to induce the behaviors
associated with estrus. Vocalizations may change, activity may increase,
and feed intake may decrease as females approach estrus. Breeding

technicians should make note of females exhibiting these physical and

behavioral changes, mark them, and examine them again at the next heat
check.

3. Appearance of mucous discharge from the vagina

-Clear sticky mucus may drip and hang from the vulva in response to the
increasing levels of estrogen (4 gilt, 5 sow). A small sample can be
smeared on the thumb, even before a significant amount collects on the
vulva, and then pressed and stretched repeatedly between fingertips to
determine the degree of “stickiness” (6). This is commonly called “thumb
checking” and the theory behind it is that the mucus becomes
increasingly sticky as the sow approaches estrus. Non-estrus females
usually clamp their tail down when the vulva is examined but sows in
estrus will sometimes raise
4.

Loss of appetite

- Sows or gilts decrease their appetite when the estrus period comes.

5. Erect ears

- Ears erected pointed upward when you take force in his back.

6. Can only be moved with great efforts

7. Frequent attempts to urinate with little or no discharge at all

HEAT DETECTION TECHNIQUES

HEAT DETECTION:

Techniques that are generally used in verifying sexual receptivity of

gilts/sows in heat or estrus and one of the most critical components in
breeding program.

OBJECTIVES IN HEAT/ESTRUS DETECTION

 To highlight the important role of detection of estrus in swine

breeding.
 To outline the behavioral and physical changes leading up to during
estrus.
 To explain how to best manage boar exposure to stimulate females
to express estrus.
HEAT DETECTION TECHNIQUES

1. Haunch pressure test- Apply pressure on the rump with both hands.
A receptive animal will just stand firm and rigid and assume mating the
mating position.

2. Riding the back test- This is done by riding the back or pressing the
loin area or back of the animal. Like on the first test, the receptive female
will assume mating position.
3. Semen on the snout test- This is done by placing sample of old
semen on the snout of the female by either plain hand or from a squirt
bottle. A receptive female will just look around and assume mating
position in the presence of boar semen odor.

4. Teaser Method- Use a teaser boar that is usually vasectomized. If the

female allows the teaser to mount, she is sexually receptive.

SOME REASONS WHY SOWS DO NOT COME INTO HEAT

 Poor conditions of sow

 Uterine infection/Endometritis (pyometra)
  Stress due to hot environment and over crowding

BREEDING SYSTEMS AND METHODS

BREEDING

Is the multiplication of animals, It includes the selection and mating of

individual animals to reproduce their own kind. Breeding is also used to
improve the kind of animals to raise.

1. Crossbreeding- The mating of animals that belong to distinct breeds.

The result is called crossbreed.

2. INBREEDING- This is the mating of closely related animals , this is

used by animal breeders for the production of seed stock and the
development of new lines or breeds of swine.

2 TYPES OF INBREEDING

Close Breeding- The mating of very closely related animal such as

mother and son, father and daughter, brother and sister.

Line breeding- Mating of animals having blood connections but are not
closely related like cousins or uncle and niece.

The result of this system is inbreed.

Disadvantage of Inbreeding:

 Decrease in number of piglets born

 Decrease in number of piglets weaned
 Low weight of piglets at birth
 Low weight of piglets weaned
 Delayed sexual maturity
 Delayed development of testes and low production of sperm cells.
 Reduce number of eggs ovulated per heat period
 Low strength and vigor of piglets
 Slow rate growth
 Uncertainly of conception
 Lack of fertility
 Complete sterility and abortion
 Occurrence of abnormalities

3. UPGRADING OR GRADING- This is the mating of a native pig with a

pure bred, A purebred is an animal that is registered or recorded in the
association book of the breed to which it belongs. The result of upgrading
is called grades. Upgrading is one of the surest method of improving
animal breeds.

BREEDING METHODS

1. NATURAL MATING

-This breeding method requires that the boar actually serve the in-heat
sow/gilt. In extensive pig production, “pen or pasture mating” is still used
but this method does not allow accurate recording system thereby seldom
used now a days.

Hand mating- Is the most popular mating method. It is the practice of

bringing the boar to the in-heat sow/gilt or vice versa for mating. This
method facilitates a more accurate breeding record and reduces the
chance of over using the boar.
Pen mating- Is a practice wherein the boar is placed together with a
number of gilts or sow in a pen. Breeding naturally takes place in the pen
and the animals have the freedom of movement.

2.
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION (AI)

- The semen of the boar is deposited into the gilt/sow by the use of
artificial penis or catheter. The main objective of this method is to
increase the use of good boars thereby hastening the genetic
improvement of the herd.

ADVANTAGES OF ARTICIAL INSEMINATION

 Raisers not needed to buy and maintain boar

 A small native sow can be served by a big boar through A.I
 Transmission of disease is greatly reduced
 More sows can be serve by the boar throughout the breeding age
  Prepotency of the boar can be tested in a much shorter period of
time
 Prolong the active life of a boar through regulated breeding
 It allows the use of genetically superior boars economically by
increasing the boar to sow ratio
 It allows the rapid spread genetically superior traits of the boar in
the herd for the improvement of progeny

LIMITATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION

1. Need of properly trained technician.

2. Difficulty of storing diluted boar semen over prolonged period of time.
3. Additional cost for laboratory chemical and storage equipment.

PREPARE AND TRAIN BOAR FOR BREEDING

TRAIN BOAR TO MOUNT A FEMALE OR A DUMMY SOW

Training a new boar

-Many breeding difficulties associated with boars can be directly attributed

to lack of care and attention at their first mating’s. The aim is to teach the
boar as quickly as possible that the reward for courting and mounting is
mating. These first services are critical in the formation of a boar's mating
behavior.

Confidence

-The development of a young boar's confidence is vital. Intimidation by a

group of gilts or sows, or even an attack by a large sow can be a
devastating experience for a young boar. Reluctance to work is the usual
result. To develop his confidence a gilt or preferably a small quiet sow, of
similar size, on ‘standing heat’ should be used for the first few services. If
the gilt or small sow does not stand for the boar it can lead to frustration,
injury or disinclination to work. Boars reluctant to work or lacking libido are
a nuisance. They upset mating programs, resulting in the overuse of other
boars or the need to run extra boars.

Bad habits

-Supervision of mating is necessary to overcome or prevent the

development of abnormal behaviors. Often when young boars are run
together they develop bad habits. The most common is serving into the
rectum. At his first services, ensure that vaginal entry takes place. It is not
uncommon for a young boar to mount the front end of a sow, as the head is
lower and easier to mount. This is particularly noticeable when he attempts
to mate sows larger than himself. Other, less common behaviors such as
masturbation do occur, and where boars continue these habits, they should
be culled. Boars may have been isolated from females during the testing
period and they will require a period of adjustment and social contact with
females prior to being worked. Conditions in the mating area will also affect
his confidence and the development or suppression of abnormal behaviors.

Physical Disorders

There are several disorders seen in the boar which prevent erection and/or
complete penetration at mating time. Penile adhesions are not uncommon
and accidents can cause fracture of the penis. These conditions can only be
observed at mating time; therefore, supervision and observation of mating
is essential in early detection of these disorders.

Time of mating

-Mating is best carried out in the early morning before feeding. Serving on a
full stomach can impose unnecessary strain. Also, the boar is more active in
the early morning, particularly during hot weather.

The actual number of services and their timing is dictated by whether estrus
detection is carried out once or twice daily. Two services 12–18 hours apart
usually give better results than either a double service 24 hours apart, or a
single service. Triple services can be used if litter size is considered to be
low. Plan the third mating for about 12 hours after the second.

Mating routine

-It is preferable to take the sow to the boar, as she normally assumes the
major role in searching out the male. This initial contact is important in
replacing the social contact behavior with the sexual behavior sequence.

Mating behavior

-When a sow is introduced to a boar, the boar will approach her, emitting
characteristic grunts. She may run from him and he will follow, continuing to
grunt, grinding his teeth and producing foaming saliva. He may urinate
frequently. He attempts to make contact with her and if she stops he may
nose her flank quite forcefully, sniff the ano-genital region and her head,
and then attempt to mount.

Supervision

-Assistance at mating is seldom necessary but it is important that they be

supervised to ensure that a satisfactory service does occur. When the sow is
introduced to a boar and it is obvious that she will not stand, she should be
removed as quickly and quietly as possible. It is not advisable to leave a
sow unattended with the boar. There is the risk of causing serious injury to a
sow especially with a very aggressive boar.

Correct management of a boar is more important than for any other class of
pig. Viciousness in boars is often caused by bad handling and can be a
constant source of danger.

Techniques for Training Boars for Semen Collection

The boar being trained should be exposed to the dummy sow immediately
after collection of semen from an already trained boar. Many boars mount
the dummy sow during one of the first few training sessions. A boar that
does not mount after two or three exposures to the dummy sow, can be
"tricked" by the producer into mounting by his sprinkling semen from
another boar, or spraying Boar Scent, on the dummy sow. This technique
is necessary only until the boar has been trained to mount. Another option
is letting the boar mount, but not breed, a sow that is in estrus and in
same area as the dummy sow. After removing the sow by letting her exit
near the dummy sow, the boar may be stimulated to mount the dummy
sow. Alternatively, the sow in estrus is penned or caged near the head of
the dummy sow.

With regard to training the boar for semen collection, the key word is
patience.

IDEAL WEIGHT AND AGE OF A BOAR

SELECTION OF A BOARS

A boar must possess both the genetic potential to improve the performance
of his progeny, and the physical soundness to remain an active breeder.
Final selection for young boars can be carried out when they complete their
performance testing between 20 and 30 weeks of age.

Selection of breeding animals is one of the most important aspects in

starting a farm. Selection ensures the choice of the best animals for
reproduction. Most of the productive and reproductive traits are greatly
influenced by the kind of breeding stocks in the herd’

Boars contribute half of the genetic makeup of the whole herd.

Therefore, they should be selected, especially for economically important
traits such as ADG thickness, and feed efficiency

Some pointers in selecting breeding boars are as follows:

1. Select boars that possess good muscle development in the ham,

loin, and shoulder. Avoid those with excessive back fat. Back fat
thickness should not exceed 2.2 cm at 90 kg live weight.
 2. Select boars that show an ADG of not less than 750 g and a feed
conversion efficiency of not more than 2.5

3. Select those that show masculinity both in appearance and

behavior. Potential boars should have two well- developed
testicles of about the same size. The size of the testicle is
directly proportional to sperm production, thus the bigger the
size, the better.

4. The boar should possess a strong constitution and aggressive, but

controlled temperament.

5. Never select breeding boars with physical and hereditary defects

such as hernias (umbilical and scrotal), undescended
testes(cryptorchidism), and blind or inverted teats. Although
boars do not nurse their offspring, they may impart the latter defect
to their

6. Select boars with strong pasterns, particularly on the hind legs, a

strong back, and a long body. These traits influence the boars ability to
mount or service breeding gilts/sows. These traits are also highly
heritable.

Testes

The testicles must be of equal size and large

Other considerations in selecting a breeder boar:

  Make it a point to select the biggest animals within a litter.
 Select vigorous and hardy pigs from a healthy litter in a herd raised
under good swine sanitation.
 Do not keep gilts or boars or breed from litters that have physical
abnormalities. These may be inherited.
 Masculinity, both in appearance and action, should predominate in
the make-up of any boar.
 The primary sex organs should be clearly visible and be well
developed. Select only those boars whose testicles are of equal size.
 However, it is best to select a boar that has been proven and tested
to overcome the defects of the herd. Minor defects in the boar may
be ignored provided that they are not present among the sows.
 Generally, boars should be four to six months old at the time of
selection

Selecting breeding pigs involves several methods as follows:

1. Pedigree evaluation. This method relies heavily on ancestry

records which at times are unreliable, and in most cases, not
available.

2.Selection index. This is the most efficient way of establishing

genetic quality to improve the herd. However, the method is
difficult to apply as it considers many traits along with their
heritability, phenotypic and genotypic correlations, and apparent
economic values and different traits being considered in an
index.

3.Selection based on individual performance. This is the

most common, simple, effective, and practical method under
Philippine conditions. Based on this method, breeding animals
are evaluated for traits that can be measured directly on them,
such as average daily gain (ADG) and backfat thickness.
BOAR TO SOW RATIO

Reluctance to Work

A common cause of reluctance to work is the overuse of a boar or the

abuse. It is important to emphasize the need to supervise a young boar’s
first service, to make sure they are successful and that he is no way
injured or frustrated. This initial period will influence his subsequent
mating behavior.

Replacement

The useful working life of a boar can extend to about 3–4 years of age, but
by then he becomes too heavy to mate anything but old sows. He is more
prone to leg weakness and his breeding ability and value is doubtful. In
order to maintain young active boars that are easy to handle, boars should
be culled when they reach 2 years of age. As far as genetic progress is
concerned, it is more desirable to replace boars when they are 12–18
months of age. Where possible, boar replacements should be planned in
advance. Far too often young boars are brought in and expected to
immediately perform like a mature boar.

Replacement of boars

 Boars which cannot carry their own weight while on top of the
receptive sow because they have grown too heavy.
 Boars usually have a maximum working life of between 18 and 24
months. This means they should be replaced when they are 30 to 36
months old.
 Boars which fail to impregnate proven sows even after repeated
services.
 Boars which produce offspring with defects such as artesia ani,
hernia and others
 Boars which simply cannot mount a receptive sow because of
anatomical defects.
 Boars that are infected by reproductive diseases such as brucellosis
and /or leptospirosis.
 It is very important to keep record of the boars' use so that infertile
ones can be detected and replaced as soon as possible.
 A low sex drive (libido) can also be a problem. Some boars are slow
workers and are sometimes reluctant and only now and then willing
 to work. Attention must be given to these boars so that they can be
replaced if necessary.

Disease control

If a disease control program is being followed, it is important that the boar

be included in any vaccination programs. Likewise, the control of internal
and external parasites should include the boar, as he can be a source of
reinfection. Consult your veterinarian to develop a suitable health and
vaccination program for your boars.

Individual Mating System Maximum Pen Mating Systema Boar to Sow

Mating’s Ratio

7–10-day breeding
Boar Daily Weekly period

Young (8-12 mo.) 1 5 1:2 to 5

Mature (> 12 mo.) 2 10-14 1:3 to 10

Boar sow ratio

This is usually one boar per 20 sows with supervised hand matting’s, but in
small herds or under extensive conditions, the ratio could be between 15
and 18 sows per boar. This is only a guide for determining the number of
boars required. Actual boar requirements would have to be determined for
each herd, based on the number of sows to be mated in a given period and
the boar’s replacement age. Where double or triple mating’s practiced, boar
requirements are based on the number of sows to be mated per week. With
batch farrowing the number of boars required will depend on the batch sizes
selected. Obviously where artificial insemination is utilized, fewer boars are
required.
COMPARISON BETWEEN NATURAL MATING AND ARTIFICIAL
INSEMINATION

NATURAL BREEDING ARTIFICIAL

INSEMINATION

2 times per week Boar usage 2 times per week

10 sows or less No. of sows that can 15 sows or more

be served

Slow Improvement of the Fast

herd

Long Process Progeny Testing Short

More Labor Involved Less

Not necessary Labor Equipment Necessary

Bigger Space Requirement Smaller

MONITOR SIGNS OF PREGNANCY

SIGNS OF PREGNANCY

Knowing how a pig’s reproductive cycle works is the most important factor
in determining whether your pig is pregnant. Pigs can become pregnant
at around 8 Months of age or older.

1. Reproductive Changes

Once your sow becomes pregnant, she will have no interest in

reproductive behavior. If you have a boar, she will reject him and pay
him little attention. She will also stop making any courtship-related sounds
and gestures.
One of the first observable signs of a pregnant pig (and one of the first
ones that we actually noticed) is a directional change in her clitoris. When
a sow is pregnant, this organ will change. Instead of pointing downward, it
will move upward as her internal organs increase and pull the
reproductive system downward. Her clitoris will tilt against the extra
weight.

2. Weight Gain

Weight gain may be subtle in the first hundred days, but keep an eye for
any signs that your pig is growing. A voracious appetite and a heavier-
than-normal appearance are good signs that your pig is pregnant.
Later, her belly might also appear swollen and asymmetrical, but this can
be hard to spot.

3. Swollen Teats and Belly

This is an obvious sign of pregnancy but is unfortunately not usually

apparent until around three months of gestation. Your sow will develop
a rounded abdomen, having a more pot-bellied appearance. At this
time, her udders will also swell. You might have some concern that the
rest of your pig seems to be losing weight as her abdomen distended
more and more, but don’t worry – she is converting fat for milk and all of
her resources are going to her babies. She may look like she is losing
weight, but she is likely just redistributing it.

4. Changes in Heartbeat

Eventually, your sow’s heartbeat will change. This one can be tough to
detect if you aren’t in the habit of regularly monitoring your pig’s vital
signs. Commercial breeders often use heartbeat to measure gestation, but
you can do it, too, if you have the time and means.

5. Failure to Return to Estrous Cycle

The easiest way to tell if your pig is pregnant? She won’t return to her
estrous cycle after mating. Generally, if your pig has not cycled again 17
to 21 days after being bred, there’s a good chance she is pregnant. And if
you’re wondering, you should be able to tell by whether or not she has
menstruation. She will also not be terribly interested in mating again. If
you have a boar, she will reject his advances and generally stay far away
from him.
6. Increased Appetite

You may not notice a drastically heightened appetite during the early
stages of your pig’s pregnancy, but as it draws to a close, she will become
ravenous. In the last few weeks of pregnancy, your sow’s body will stop
producing most fat as her existing fat is converted into milk for her young.

7. Nesting

The period right before your piglets are born is known as farrowing. At
this time, in the few days before birth, your sow will succumb to her
natural instincts and begin gathering up straw or whatever you use for
bedding. She will use her mouth to gather dry materials and to create a
nest as she prepares to give birth, so at this time it’s crucial you make her
as comfortable as possible.

Restlessness in this time is incredibly common, as is a bit of blood,

discharge, and expressions of discomfort. She may make a lot of groaning
or whining noises, but remember – this doesn’t indicate that anything bad
or unhealthy is going on. She’s just getting ready! When she is ready to
give birth, she’ll lie down and stop all other activities completely.

8. Pregnancy Testing

Now, none of these signs in themselves are indicators that your pig is
definitely pregnant. In fact, there are certain illnesses that can mimic
pregnancy symptoms. For example, abdominal swelling can indicate
serious health problems like porcine enteropathy and intestinal torsion.
Reproductive changes can signal problems with the cervix or rectum.
PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS

The most common reason for keeping non-pregnant, non-lactating

females in swine operations is the failure to identify sows and gilts that do
not conceive soon after breeding. Consequently, the development and
implementation of effective pregnancy diagnostic procedures is an
important component of an efficient reproductive management program.
This publication provides objective information concerning several
methods used for pregnancy diagnosis in swine.

Detection of estrus If conducted properly, detection of estrus allows for

identification of pregnancy between 17 and 24 days after breeding. This
ability for early detection is coupled with a high degree of accuracy
because it is based on the observation of behaviors associated with sexual
receptivity.

1. Estrus detection

With a mature boar is an accurate means of predicting farrowing rate.

Studies on commercial farms have reported an accuracy of 98% when this
strategy was initiated during the second week of pregnancy and was
continued daily until the last three weeks of gestation.
2. Ultrasonography

Mechanical devices that use ultrasound technology have been developed

for use in pregnancy diagnosis. In general, all ultrasound machines have a
probe (or transducer) attached to a receiving unit. The most popular
probes are those that can be placed against the skin and used externally
(transcutaneous probes).

3. Doppler Machines

The ultrasound waves from Doppler machines are used to distinguish the
movement of objects such as the fetal heart and the pulsation of blood
through umbilical vessels or uterine arteries in pregnant sows and gilts.
Once the ultrasound waves from the Doppler probes encounter moving
objects, they are reflected back to the probe with a similar frequency and
converted to an audible signal by the receiving unit.

4. Endocrine Tests

In addition to physiological and behavioral changes, progesterone,

prostaglandin-F2 α, and estrone sulfate are three hormones that differ
between pregnant and non-pregnant females and have potential as
pregnancy detection tests for swine.

5. Ultra sound

Scanning equipment is now available similar to that used in humans for

detecting pregnancy. It is expensive but very accurate and can be
justified for use on large farms.

6. Vaginal biopsy

This technique involves the removal of a small piece of the vaginal

mucous membrane using a special instrument. The instrument is inserted
into the vagina 150-300mm pressed into the membrane and the end
manipulated to cut off a small piece. The sample is placed in a small
container with a special preservative and posted to a laboratory for
histological examinations. It is time consuming, expensive and little used.

7. Serum analysis

This can be carried out after day 22 by using a small stylette to puncture
the ear vein. A thin capillary tube collects a spot of blood which is then
tested for pregnancy hormones. It is time consuming, expensive and little
used. Techniques are being developed to examine faeces to detect
pregnancy but as yet are not perfected for commercial use.

8. Amplitude tests

These machines are only of value from 28-80 days of pregnancy. Beyond
this they loose their sensitivity. Also false positives can often be detected
if the bladder is full and scanning misses the womb.

Technique Physiological Basis Period of Accuracy Identification

Effective

Detection of Non-pregnant females exhibit estrus Any time Over 98% NO

estrus during
gestation

A-mode Identification of fluid in pregnant Days 28 Over 95% NO

ultrasound uterus via speed at which emitted to 80 of
sounds return to probe gestation

Doppler Identification After day Over 95% NO

ultrasound of sound 29 of
patterns of gestation
increased
blood flow in
uterine and
umbilical
arteries
during
pregnancy

Real-time Visualization of fluid and After day Over 95% NO

ultrasound fetal tissue in pregnant 21 of
uterus gestation

Progesterone Increased blood Days 17 Over 85% NO

concentrations progesterone to 20 of
concentrations gestation
(>5.0ng/ml) in pregnant
females

Prostaglandin- Increased blood Days 13 Over 80% NO

F2α prostaglandin to 15 of
concentrations concentrations in non- gestation
pregnant females
(>200pg/ml)

Estrone sulfate Increased estrone sulfate Days 25 Over 93% NO

concentrations concentrations in to 30 or
pregnant females (> 0.5 after day
ng/ml) 80 of
gestation

MAINTAIN AND MONITOR ANIMAL HEALTH CONDITION

ACTIVITIES

Activities in the farm can be grouped into daily, weekly, monthly and yearly
activities. Special activities can also be listed as a reminder of important
activities needed to be undertaken on a specific period for a specific group of
finishers (i.e. medication/treatment for illness).

Daily Activities

1. Checking of farm bulletin board

▪ Checking of farm bulletin board for special remarks of the farm
manager/farm veterinarian or technical consultants.

2. Feeding of pigs
▪ Feeding of pigs immediately but see to it that the feeding troughs
are clean. Restlessness of the animals at feeding time should be
 minimized. The use of self-feeders and advance feeding system will
be adaptable.

3. Checking whether all animals are eating

▪ Checking whether all animals are eating and mark animals with no
appetite for further observation and health check. Take necessary
measures on animals showing health problems and accomplish
necessary treatment.

4. Checking water supply of the animals

▪ Checking water supply of the animals. Water nipples may be
clogged or water output may be low.
5. Cleaning the pigpens, drinkers and feed storage

▪ Cleaning the pigpens, drinkers and feed storage. During cleaning

time, there is plenty of time to observe the behavior of the animals.
Observe the quality of the dung and urine. Practice wet cleaning in
the morning or as needed and dry cleaning in the afternoon to keep
the pen dry in the evening. Keep all cleaning tools in their proper
places after using.

6. Recording of information on records or pen boards.

7. Checking the building climate and adjust accordingly

8. Leaving of important information on bulletin board for the farm

manager, veterinarian and consultants.

9. Replacement and replenishment of disinfectants/footbaths

▪ Replacement and replenishment of disinfectants/footbaths and
leave the unit clean. Footbaths, when properly and adequately used
in a required amount of time will prevent the spread of disease in a
farm. It is important that footbaths are “replaced” daily to maintain
the strength of disinfectant or if necessary.

Weekly Activities

1. Estimating the weight of finishers and adjusting the amount of

feed according to feeding scheme.
2. Checking feed quality and quantity in storage and purchasing new
feeds on time.
3. Checking availability of drugs and disinfectants.
4. Checking and controlling mice and flies problems.
5. Planning and carrying out the needed repairs on housing and
equipment.
6. Meeting with farm personnel to discuss relevant issues in the farm,
resolve problems and suggest implementable activities to be carried
out.
 Yearly Activities

1. Farm technical and financial performance appraisal. It is necessary to

give a profound understanding to the overall performance of the farm to
serve as a guide in the future operation.
2. Farm planning and budgeting is an essential aspect to be able to carry
out the activities in the farm.

Other Activities

1. Vaccination of pigs as recommended by a licensed veterinarian .

2. If weaners are obtained from another farm, it is recommended that
deworming and mange treatment of weaners should be done at the farm
source before bringing it to your own farm.

PHYSIOLOGICAL GROWTHS AND PRODUCTION CYCLE

The life cycle of a pig from conception, to birth, through growth and then
slaughter can take up to 310 days. Pigs breed at all times of the year,
regardless of the season. However, pigs can be affected by seasonal
infertility in the warmer months. Once a sow has been mated, the
production cycle commences. It is completed when those piglets reach
‘sale weight’. This marks the completion of the growing/finishing phase
and the pigs are sold.

Pig production cycle length

The production of pigs can be divided into six life stages:

1. Breeding/mating: gilts (female pigs that have not previously farrowed

or given birth) are usually introduced to boars around 25–28 weeks old.
The boar will often have daily exposure to young gilt’s to ensure they
begin their reproductive cycling, with the gilts typically reaching puberty
10–30 days after commencing boar contact. Hormones can be used to
stimulate puberty in gilts, but are rarely used. Boar exposure is the
preferred and most effective means of bringing gilt onto heat. Gilts will
then usually be mated at their second cycle (when they go on heat for the
second time) or around 30–34 weeks. Sows, or female pigs who have
already farrowed, will have boar exposure to determine if they are on
heat. Female pigs will either be mated with a boar naturally or will be
artificially inseminated. The objective is to ensure the breeding females
will have a long and productive life in the breeding herd, which means
responsible animal welfare and treatment.

2. Gestating or dry sows: after the sows and gilts are mated, they are
moved into the dry sow or gestation area of the breeder sheds or
paddocks. They will remain there during most of their pregnancy
(approximately 116 days).

3. Farrowing or birth: about a week before giving birth, they are moved
into the farrowing or birthing sheds or paddocks.

4. Lactation: sows remain in the farrowing area, nursing their piglets for
about 3–5 weeks until the piglets are weaned.
5. Weaning: after weaning, the sows are returned to the breeding area.
The piglets are moved to weaner accommodation. The pigs can only be
moved into the weaner facilities once the pens or sheds have been
emptied of pigs by the producers moving these pigs to the next suitable
area or to sale. Generally, the sheds are cleaned, sterilized and rested for
24 hours, before the next group of pigs arrive.

6. Growing/finishing: depending on the farm, the growing pigs may be

moved to other grower accommodation either on the same farm or a
different facility. This is where the pig will live until it reaches ‘sale’
weight.

RECORD DATA

PRODUCTION PERFORMANCE

Keeping accurate and up-to-date record is very important in swine raising

operations. It serves as future reference for improving the business. It will
also help you identify animals to be culled and animals to be retained. It
also tells whether the project is gaining or losing.

The following are the important records to accomplish;

1. Livestock inventory record- This record list the number of animals

monthly. It indicates whether there an increase or decrease in the animal
population.
2. Sow breeding performance record- The performance of the sow
from breeding to farrowing can be seen from this record.

3. Boar performance record- The breeding performance of the boar can

be identified by this record.

4. Sow and litter performance record- This record shows the

performance of the sow and its litter from birth to weaning time.

5. Summary of mortality record- This is also a record which represent

the number of animals that died and identifies the cause of their death.

6. Expense record- All expenses in the swine raising project are entered
under this record for accounting purposes.

LIVESTOCK INVENTORY RECORD

CLASS OF NUMBER OF CHANGE OF % INCREASE

ANIMAL HEADS POPULATION (DECREASE)

Last This
month month

Beginning
Inventory

Breeding
Animals

Bred sows &

gilts

Lactating sow
Dry sow

Culled sow

Sub-total

Replacement
gilts

Open gilts

Young gilts

Boars

Junior boars

Senior boars

Growing-
Finishing pigs

Suckling pigs

Weanlings

Growers

Finishers

Ending
Inventory

Increases:

Pig farrowed

Purchased

Decreases:

Sold

Mortality
 SOW BREEDING PERFORMANCE RECORD

Sow No. Sire No.

Birthdate. Dam No.

Boar Date Litter size Wea Averag Transferred Remarks

used born ned e
weanin
Bred Farro Wean Ali Still MF g To From
wed ed ve birt D weight
h
 BOAR PERFORMACE RECORD

Boar No: Breed: Birthdate:

Sire No: Dam No:

Sow no, Date Litter size at birth Remarks

Bred

Bred Farrowe Total Stillbirth Mummifie

d d
 SOW AND LITTER PERFORMANCE RECORD

Date Farrowed: Litter size:

Date Weaned: Litter size:

Herd No. Sex Birth weight Pig Remarks

transferred

From To Sow
Sow

Remarks: Indicate number of stillborn pigs

Mummified fetuses: Still born pigs:

 SUMMARY OF MORTALITY RECORD

For the Month of:

DAT Daily Suck Weanl Grow Finish Bree Oth Mort % Re

E inven ling ings ers ers ders ers ality Mor mar
tory talit ks
y
 UNIT COMPENTENCY 2

PERFORM RELATED FARROWING ACTIVITIES

CONTENTS:

 BATHING OF SOWS
 SIGNS OF APPROACHING FARROWING
 FARROWING MATERIALS AND SUPPLY

CARE DURING PREGNANCY AND FARROWING

After breeding, the sow should be kept in dry, clean and hygienic
enclosure in comfortable place. It should be closely observed for estrus
symptoms around 20 days after breeding to assure the non-return of
estrus and expect the conception. Pregnant sow should be shifted to a
clean farrowing house before 3 weeks of farrowing. Newborn piglets are
active and within two minutes each piglet reaches a teat and attempt to
suck milk. Sometimes respiration is delayed in newborn piglets, to
stimulate the respiratory activity of the piglet the mucous should be
removed from the nose and mouth. The weaker piglets should be assisted
to the teat so that they can suckle the first milk (colostrum). The
placenta may be expelled during the phase of delivery as single mass
after the birth of last piglet. Care should be taken to avoid crushing of
newborn piglets during and after farrowing.

Preparations before farrowing:

  Pregnant sow should be dewormed 1-2 weeks before
farrowing
 Clean and disinfect the farrowing pen
 The sows should also be given a thorough cleaning before she
brought inside the pen at least a week before farrowing.
 Check water supply.
 Provide artificial /supplemental heat for newly-born piglets.
 Prepare the brooding pen for newly farrowed piglets
 Prepare clean rags, beddings of newly born piglets,
 Prepare hot water for hot compress, biologics, syringe, tooth
cutter, blade or scissor

SIGNS OF APPROACHING FARROWING

This can be considered in three stages, the pre-farrowing period, the

farrowing process and the immediate post-farrowing period when the
afterbirth is expelled.

Stage 1 - The pre-farrowing period

The preparation for farrowing starts some 10 to 14 days prior to the actual
date, with the development of the mammary glands and the swelling of the
vulva. At the same time teat enlargement occurs and the veins supplying
the udder stand out prominently. The impending signs of farrowing include
a reduced appetite and restlessness, the sow standing up and lying down
and if bedding is available chewing and moving this around in her mouth. If
she is loose-housed on straw she will make a bed. Within 12 hours of actual
delivery of piglets, milk is secreted into the mammary glands and with a
gentle hand and finger massage it can be expressed from the teats. A
slight mucous discharge may be seen on the lips of the vulva. If a small
round pellet of faeces is seen in the mucous and the sow is distressed,
farrowing has started and it is highly likely the first piglet is presented
backwards. This small pellet is the meconium or first faeces coming from
the rectum of the piglet inside.

Stage 2. The farrowing process

This can range from 3 to 8 hours and piglets are usually delivered every 10
to 20 minutes but there is a wide variation. Consult the sow and litter card
to see if there have been any previous problems at farrowing. For example
if a sow has had high stillbirth rates, monitor her more closely and take any
necessary actions. There is often a gap between the first and second piglet
of up to three quarters of an hour. The majority of pigs are born head first
but there are more pigs presented backwards towards the end of the
farrowing period. Immediately prior to the presentation of a pig the sow lays
on her side, often shivering and lifting the upper back leg. This is an
important point to take note of because it may indicate the presence of a
stillborn pig. Twitching of the tail is seen just as a pig is about to be born.

Stage 3. Delivery of the placenta

This usually takes place over a period of one to four hours and is an
indication that the sow has finished farrowing although some afterbirth will
sometimes be passed during the process of farrowing. Once the sow has
completed the farrowing process there are certain signs that should be
observed.

 She appears at peace, grunts and calls to the piglets.

 The shivering and movement of the top hind leg ceases. If
this is still occurring it is likely that a pig is still presented.

After the placenta has been delivered there will be a slight but sometimes
heavy discharge for the next 3 to 5 days. Provided the udder is normal, the
sow is normal and eating well ignore it, it is a natural post-farrowing
process. Occasionally a pathogenic organism enters the uterus causing
inflammation (endometritis). This may cause illness, requiring treatment.

FARROWING MATERIALS AND SUPPLY

  Old newspaper/ Clean cloth
 Brooders 50-watt incandescent bulb
 Tooth clipper
 Mild antiseptic/Betadine
 Alcohol
 Surgical thread
 Medicine (antibiotic/oxytocin)
 Nasal pump
 Syringe and needles

Feeding Gestation to lactating Sow

Feeding pregnant (gestation) sows is very important for future production.

Gestation can be divided into 4 feeding stages: the first 0-4 weeks,
following 5-11 weeks, then increasing feed during the next 12-15 weeks
and in the final week reducing feed.

 In the first week following mating keep the sows or gilts on a low
feeding rate (2 kg/head/day) to reduce the risk of abortion. After
that, increase feeding rate to 2.5 kg/head/day to supply extra
nutrients to aid recovery from any loss in condition from the
previous lactation and allow for gilts to grow.
 During the following 8 weeks, as foetuses are still small and the
sow’s maintenance requirement is still low, the feed allowances can
be reduced to 2.2kg/head/day for the older sows. However, as the
gilts and second lactation sows are still growing, the feed allowance
should remain 2.5 kg/head/day.
 From 12-15 weeks of gestation increase the feed allowance to
2.5kg/head/day for older sows and up to 2.8kg/head/day for gilts &
younger sows. The increases in late gestation feed allowance allow
the extra nutrients to support the growing foetuses and will help
avoid excessive sow fatness at farrowing and impaired lactation
feed intake.
 In the last week of gestation, gradually reduce feeding rates to
1.5kg/head/day and also provide up to 1.5kg/head/day of bran for its
bulkiness and to help avoid constipation. This practice will ease the
 delivery of piglets and will stimulate the sows to eat more after
giving birth.

PERFORM FARROWING RELATED-ACTIVITIES

CONTENTS:

 FARROWING PROBLEMS
 MANAGEMENT OF NEWBORN PIGLETS

FARROWING PROBLEMS

Inertia

-A failure of the uterus to contract. This can be primary, but more

commonly secondary, occurring part way through farrowing and is more
likely to occur in older sows or sow/gilts in extreme body condition- either
too fat or too thin. There will be no signs other than a failure to deliver a
piglet beyond the normal intervals. Intervention is necessary to avoid
subsequent stillbirth.

Obstruction
-This can result from fetal oversize (particularly in gilts), mal-presentation
(e.g. sideways), dual presentation (two attempting to pass
simultaneously) and fetal abnormalities (monsters).

Indications of difficult birth:

1. Gestation goes beyond normal limits.

2. The sow emits a whitish, foul vaginal discharge a few days before
farrowing.
3. There is straining of the sow but piglets are not farrowed. This
may be due to obstruction of the birth canal, malpresentation of
piglets, or deviation of the uterus.
4. The sows stops laboring.
5.Severe tiredness as a result of prolonged laboring.

Other common farrowing problems and how they are managed:

Dystocia- sow/gilt has difficulty in farrowing, administer oxytocin

Agalactiae- unable to produce milk

Mastitis- bacterial infection on mammary gland

Metritis- remain placenta, administer antibiotic injection

Interference

-Where farrowing is failing, manual, vaginal examination is needed. The

overriding principles to be followed are be clean and gentle.
Clean and Gentle- Wear a glove as much to protect you from infection
as protecting the sow. The sows vulvar lips should be thoroughly washed
with soap and water. A full arm length glove should be worn, liberally
covered in sterile obstetric lubricant, which should also be placed inside
the vulvar lips. Soap is a drying agent and is not appropriate as a
lubricant, which should also be placed inside the vulvar lips. Soap is a
drying agent and is not appropriate as a lubricant. Compressing the hand
to a point, it should be introduced in an upward direction at an angle of 45
degrees and gently slid into the vagina until a piglet is felt.

Piglets can be removed by grasping your fingers, by placing a finger in the

mouth with the thumb under the lower jaw or, if sufficient room is
available, by grasping the piglets head within the whole hand.

Gently and slowly withdrawal of the piglet

 If no obstruction is found inertia is likely and if piglets cannot be

reached (common on big sows) strategic use of oxytocin is
appropriate under veterinary direction. It should be applied in small
doses given by intramuscular injection and repeated at regular
intervals (15-20 mins.) as needed. Large doses will induce uterine
spasm which, whilst it may initially deliver a piglet, is more likely to
lead to even longer delays for the rest with fatal consequences for
the unborn piglets. (Very high doses- 4ml-can capture uterus).
 Following normal interference, always wash arms and hands
thoroughly with soap and water.

Attention and Assistance

 Releasing piglets from their placenta.

 Drying piglets off with paper or towels to reduce chilling.
 Umbilical cord separation.
 Draining of fluids by gently swinging the piglet by its back legs or
sucking out with a pooter.
 Mouth to mouth assistance to breathe or simply rubbing the chest.

Farrowing checklist

• For newborn piglets, ensure the nose and mouth are clear of
membranes and mucous.

• Revive any comatose piglets by holding the hind legs and swinging them
around at arm’s length to stimulate breathing and blood flow.
Resuscitation can be performed by holding the piglet’s mouth closed and
blowing gently into its nostrils.

• Check that the umbilical cord is not bleeding; tie or apply a cord clamp if
required.

• Rub the piglet vigorously to dry it, and place it in or under a source of
heat.

• Allow piglets to suckle as soon as possible, or administer colostrum or

glucose, to ensure energy and immunoglobulin intake.

Weight Pig Floor Type

Kg. Straw ℃ Concrete ℃

5 27-30 28-31

10 20-24 22-26

20 15-23 16-24
RAISE PIGLETS
30 13-23 14-24 TO WEANING

90 11-22 12-23 CONTENTS:

 Proper
temperature/micro-climate
 Medications
 Piglet processing

PROPER TEMPERATURE
Piglets should kept at a higher temperature than adult pigs, which
presents a problem since they will have different temperature
requirements than a sow. The temperature requirement for the pig might
have been 20ºC (68ºF) before the move but could well be 25ºC (77ºF) for
the first days in the new accommodation.

A GUIDELINE TO AIR TEMPERATURE ACCORDING TO FLOOR TYPE

Processing Piglets

Processing piglets includes clipping teeth, clipping and treating the

umbilical cord, iron administration, tail docking, identification, treating
splay legged piglets, providing supplemental nutrients, and castration.

Disease Transfer

While processing piglets, take steps to minimize transfer of disease. This

can be done by processing sick litters last, cleaning and disinfecting the
box or cart you use to transport piglets when you finish for the day or
before you move to another room to process, and dipping instruments
into a disinfectant after you have processed each piglet.
Personal Safety

Be careful when removing piglets from the farrowing quarters. Sows often
try to bite or grab you to protect their litter. Always have the farrowing
crate or another sturdy partition between you and the sow before you
attempt to pick up a piglet.

Holding the Piglet

Hold the piglet so you can cut the teeth, tail, and umbilical cord and
administer iron in very rapid succession without changing your grip. For a
right-handed person: place your left thumb into the crease be-hind the
piglet’s right ear about midway from top to bottom.

Umbilical Cord Care

The umbilical cord, which enables the fetus to obtain nutrients from the
dam and expel wastes during pregnancy, usually does not require much
attention. While it is possible that bacteria and viruses can travel up the
cord after the piglet is born and cause infection or that piglets can bleed
excessively from it, these situations are rare.

If excess bleeding occurs from the umbilical cord, tie it off immediately
with string using a square or surgeon’s knot or clamp it with a
commercially available plastic clip.
Needle Teeth Clipping

The newborn piglet has eight needle teeth, sometimes referred to as wolf
teeth, located on the sides of the upper and lower jaws. Many producers
clip these within 24 hours after birth to reduce the chance piglets will
lacerate each other and/or the sow’s udder.

 Use sharp cutters without nicks in the blades. Otherwise, teeth will
be crushed, which could lead to infection.

 Cut away one-half of the tooth. Do not remove the entire tooth and
avoid crushing or breaking it.

 Cut the teeth off flat and not at an angle. Piglets are not as apt to
cause skin injuries when they fight if the teeth are cut off flat.

Tail Docking

The undocked tail is very convenient target for tail biting or cannibalism.
This leads to injury and possibly infection. To reduce tail biting, dock (or
cut off) the tail of newborn piglets within 24 hours after birth. Dock tail
about one inch (or width of your thumb) cutting the tail too short could
interfere with muscle activity around the anus later in the piglets.

Supplemental Iron

Iron is necessary to prevent anemia in piglets. Iron deficiency anemia

develops rapidly in nursing piglets. Iron can be administered either by
injection or orally in 3rd day and 14th day of the piglets.
CASTRATION

Castration, the surgical removal of two testicles, is a routine management

practice for male piglets destined for slaughter. The testicle produce
sperm and the male hormone, testosterone. Pork from boars, or
uncastrated male piglets at slaughter weight, may have an odor during
cooking that is very offensive to many people. This called a “boar odor or
boar taint”.

There are various ways to castrate piglets. The position of the animal
during surgery and the method and degree of restraint are dictated by the
age and size of the animal. The best time to castrate a piglet is when it is
four to 14 days of age. Young piglets are easier to hold or restrain, bleed
less from surgery, and have antibody protection from the sow’s colostrum
and milk. Piglets can be successfully castrated when they are less than
four days old; however, one of the major disadvantages of castrating very
young piglets is that scrotal hernias are more difficult to detect and the
testicles may not have descended. There are various ways to castrate
piglets. The position of the animal during surgery and the method and
degree of restraint are dictated by the age and size of the animal. The
best time to castrate a piglet is when it is four to 14 days of age. Young
piglets are easier to hold or restrain, bleed less from surgery, and have
antibody protection from the sow’s colostrum and milk. Piglets can be
successfully castrated when they are less than four days old; however,
one of the major disadvantages of castrating very young piglets is that
scrotal hernias are more difficult to detect and the testicles may not have
descended.
DAY-1 OXYTETRACYCLINE LA (SOW)

DAY-3 IRON ADMINISTRATION (PIGLETS)/TAIL

DOCKING, TOOTH CLIPPING,

DAY-7 PRESENTING OF BOOSTER FEEDS (PIGLETS)/

VITAMIN ADMINISTRATION (SOW)

DAY- CASTRATION/IRON & OXYTETRACYCLINE LA

14 ADMINISTRATION (PIGLETS)

DAY- HOG CHOLERA VACCINE (PIGLETS & SOW)

21

DAY- PARVO VIRUS VACCINE (SOW)

25

DAY- WEANING VITAMIN ADMINISTRATION B-

30 COMPLEX (PIGLETS)/ VIT. ADE (SOW)

VACCINATION AND MEDICATION PROGRAM

POST-FARROWING
MAINTAIN HEALTH

CONTENTS:

 CHANGES IN PIGLET BEHAVIOR

 ANIMAL CONDITION/CHANGES IN FECAL COLOR
 PRODUCTION PERFORMANCE

PIGLET BEHAVIOR

 Listlessness
 Increase in body temperature
 Loss of appetite
 Solitary or separation from the group
 Huddling
 Thumping
 Shivering

ANIMAL CONDITION

 Scours, or diarrhea, are the excretion of feces containing excess

fluid. There can be a variety of causes, and therefore a multifaceted
approach to prevention is necessary. Piglets are particularly
vulnerable to scours as their digestive system is still immature and
an upset is more easily triggered. E.coli is one of the most frequent
sources, but scours can also be viral, parasitic or nutritional.

Types of scouring

 Bacterial: A number of bacteria can be responsible for scours;

common culprits are E. coli, Salmonella and Campylobacter.
 Viral: Rotavirus and reovirus can result in scours, along with swine
fever and transmissible gastroenteritis.The porcine epidemic
diarrhea (PED) virus and the PRRS virus also cause scouring.
 Parasitic: Heavy burdens of both coccidia and worms can cause
scouring.
 Dietary or nutritional: Any change in feed can cause scours.
Differences in the nutritional specification or material quality can
result in digestive upset. Introduction of a new ingredient or even
variation in the quantity of feed supplied can also be responsible.
 Contamination of feed or water also has the potential to affect
gastrointestinal function.

CLINICAL SIGNS

In acute disease:

 The only sign may be a previously good pig found dead.

 Huddle together shivering or lie in a corner.
 The skin around the rectum and tail is wet.
 Watery to salad cream consistency scour distinctive smell.
 Vomiting
 Dehydrated
 Leathery skin
 The scour often sticks to the skin of other piglets giving them an
orange to white colour.
 Prior to death piglets may be found on their sides paddling and
frothing at the mouth.

Sows and piglets

 Poor pen floors.

 Poor pen hygiene associated with bad drainage.
 Poor hygiene procedures, between pens.
 Environmental contamination from one pen to another i.e. boots,
brushes, shovels clothing etc.
 Continual use of pens.
 Moisture, warmth, waste food and faeces are ideal for bacterial
multiplication.
 Draughts.
 Routine use of milk replacers, particularly if they are allowed to get
stale or contaminated, may increase the incidence.
 Scour is more common in large litters. This can be due to:
 Insufficient colostrum.
 Poor teat access.
 Poor crate design.
 Agalactia in the sow.

Weaners and growers

Pre-weaning

Are the weaning problems mainly in gilt litters? If so consider E.

coli vaccination in gilts:

 Creep feeding. Consider the type, frequency and age of introduction.

  Stop creep feeding before weaning and assess the effects.

At weaning consider:

 Stress.
 Stocking density - group sizes.
 House temperatures and temperature fluctuations.
 Poor house hygiene.
 Continually populated houses.
 Water shortage.
 Feed type: Meal or pellets, wet or dry.
 Feeding practices.
 Quality of nutrition.

After weaning consider the effects of:

 Air flow.
 Chilling.
 Temperature fluctuations.
 High ventilation and humidity.
 Creep feed management.
 Assess the response to different creep diets.
 Consider other diseases present.
 Age and weight at weaning.
 Floor surfaces - provide comfort boards.
 Assess rate and evenness of growth.

Prevention

 Adopt procedures to prevent the spread of the scour.

 Disinfect boots between pens.
 Use a disposable plastic apron when dosing piglets to prevent
heavy contamination of clothing.
 Wash hands after handling a scoured litter.
 Disinfect brushes and shovels between pen.

 Ensure that farrowing houses are only used on an all-in all-out basis
with a pressure wash and disinfection between each batch.
 Farrowing pens must be dry before the house is repopulated.
Remember that moisture, warmth, waste food and faeces are ideal for
bacterial multiplication.
 Pen floors should be well maintained. Poor pen hygiene associated
with bad drainage predisposes to scour.
 Look carefully at the part of the pen floor where there are piglet
faeces. Is this poorly drained? Do large wet patches develop? If so
cover them with extra bedding daily and remove. This is a most
important aspect of control.
 Check nipple drinkers and feeding troughs for leakages.
 Ensure that faeces are removed daily from behind the sow from the
day she enters the farrowing crates until at least 7 days post-
farrowing if the floors are slatted. Also remove faeces daily
throughout lactation if they are solid concrete.
 Maintain creep environments that are always warm and comfortable.
Fluctuating temperatures are a major trigger factor to scour
particularly from 7 to 14 days of age.
 Do not penny-pinch on your heating costs. Many cases of scour are
precipitated by attempts to save on costs of energy.
 Check for high air flow and draughts. They predispose to scour.
 Consider vaccinating against E. coli (make sure first that this is the
cause of the problem however). E. coli vaccines only protect the piglet
for the first 5 to 7 days of age.
 Assess the environment of all the farrowing house. Poor environments
allow heavy bacterial multiplication and a much higher bacterial
challenge is likely to break down the colostral immunity.
 Check the sow's health. Animals affected with enteric or respiratory
disease, lameness or mastitis predispose the litter to scour.
 Avoid the use of milk replacers where possible. Their routine use,
particularly if they are allowed to get stale or contaminated, may
increase the incidence.
 Where farrowing house floors are very poor, pitted and difficult to
clean, brush them over with lime wash containing a phenolic
disinfectant. See chapter 15.
 Scour is more common in large litters. Split suckling should be
adopted.
 UNIT OF COMPETENCY 3

RAISE WEANLINGS

MINIMIZING PIGLET STRESS AT WEANING

Weaning is commonly thought to be the most stressful event in the life of
a pig, so what steps can you take to minimize piglet stress at weaning?
And how can you reduce the chances of a costly check in growth?

During weaning, maternal separation, change of environment, mixing with

non-litter mates, transportation, change in temperature, new sources of
feed and water, handling and administration of vaccines can all coincide
and put piglets under considerable stress.

This is important because stress at weaning has been shown to

reduce growth rates, and even cause dysfunction in the intestines that
often results in post-weaning diarrhea. Some stressors during this process
are unavoidable; however, the more we can minimize the stressors, the
more we can minimize the inevitable growth check that follows.

Every units’ standard operating procedures should include best practice

pointers on how to carry out the procedure with the minimum stress for
the pigs.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
A good place to start is environment, and you won’t be surprised that
clean, disinfected and dry housing for the pigs to move into comes top of
the list. It’s not exaggerating to say you should be happy to put your
sandwiches on the floor! After all, a newly weaned pig’s stomach is likely
to be even more sensitive to bacteria than yours!

It’s also important to ensure the temperature is correct for freshly weaned
pigs. About 28°C (or 83F) in the laying area is ideal, and if possible it’s
good practice to pre-warm the accommodation to avoid cold shocking the
weaners.

Where there’s no heat source, and this applies to pigs going into straw-
based finishing systems too, make sure there’s suitable kenneling and
plentiful bedding to allow them to keep warm.

Feed and water is another area that should be carefully considered, and
indeed this is something that should be considered in the weeks before
weaning when creep feed should be offered in an attempt to encourage
intake before the pigs are separated from the sow.

And here’s a simple point, but one that’s often overlooked: it’s
important that the pigs are given the same creep feed after
weaning so that they get access to something they’re already
familiar with.

The way the feed is delivered is important too, and ideally you should
provide several options of feeder type, for example a floor trough and
hopper. Exposing the pigs to different feeder types at this stage will
engage their curiosity and assist in helping them discover the feed on
offer.

The same is true for water, where arguably it’s even more important that
intake is maximized, as this can often be the limiting factor as far as feed
consumption is concerned.

Several options of water sources, including bowls and nipples, should be

provided to give the pigs every opportunity to discover the drinking points
and start building water intake.
TIPS FOR HANDLING PIGLETS

Weaners and farm staff have to interact, and any handling of the pigs will
also lead to stress. The first thing to remember is that they should always
be handled in a calm and gentle manner – they are only babies after
all!

It’s also important that the young pigs are not picked pig up by their front
legs, as there’s a good chance that it will damage their shoulder. And
when picking them up by one of their back legs, it’s important not to
snatch or swing the pig, as you will damage its hips or knees. The
preferable approach is to pick up the weaner by both of its back legs, or if
you do catch it by one leg, quickly supporting it underneath the chest to
take any strain off its leg joints.

Most of the pig handling that takes place at weaning will be related to
routine health treatments, and it’s important that if you’re using a trolley
to either hold or move the animals that this is clean, disinfected and has
some bedding in it.

Feeding strategies for weaned pigs

Several key management factors are required to maximize growth and
profitability of the weaned pig regardless of age at weaning:

Feed and water intake: The factors necessary to maximize feed intake
include a warm, draft-free environment, appropriate water and disease
control programs.

Newly weaned pigs dehydrate rapidly and must have ready access to
drinking water. Whether you are providing water through nipple or bowl
drinkers, proper positioning and sanitation of watering devices are
essential elements of proper pig hydration.

Feeder adjustment: Proper and frequent feeder adjustments are the

keys to excellent feed efficiency and low feed cost in the nursery. Feeder
adjustment must start with the first feed placed in the feeder. Regardless
of whether the first diet comes in bags or bulk, the feed gate in all feeders
should be closed before placement of the first pellets. The feed gate then
should be opened so a small amount of feed is visible in the feed pan.

Avoid placing pelleted feed into an empty feeder with the agitation gate
open, because it will result in large amounts of feed filling the trough,
leading to feed wastage and difficulty in achieving the proper feeder
adjustment.

Although adequate amounts of feed must be present in the feeder at all

times after weaning, too much feed in the pan of the feeder can also
decrease growth rate.

Identifying starve-outs: Weaning an older pig will reduce but not

eliminate starve-out pigs. It's essential to have a dedicated workforce who
can identify the signs of a starve-out pig, and then gently teach the pig
where and how to eat with either a mat or individual feeding system.

Some pigs simply don't start eating readily after weaning — regardless of
age. Producers who have the ability to teach these starve-out pigs to eat,
rather than treating them with an antibiotic, will save more pigs.

The main signs to help identify starve-out pigs include:

• Mental status — depressed;
• Body condition — thin;
• Abdominal shape — gaunt;
• Skin — fuzzy;
• Appetite — huddled with no activity at the feeder, and
• Signs of dehydration — sunken eyes.

Caring Piglets to Market Age

The management practices given to the weanling pigs greatly

depend on their ages and vigor at weaning, and the weaning facilities.
It is suggested that the newly weaned pigs be left in the farrowing or
nursery pen for 2-3 days after which they are transferred to the
weanling pens to minimize the weaning stress on the pigs.

Management Practices given to weanling pigs:

1. Classification- At weaning time, the pigs are classified according

to their sizes and weights. In doing this they are given equal chances to
get to the feeding and watering trough and sleeping areas.

2. Feeding- Give them the same feeds they have been used to while
they are still sucklings. It is not good to change the ration at weaning
time to minimize post weaning scours.

3. Deworming- The weanlings should be given a dewormer a few days

after weaning. Deworming may be repeated after 30 days depending
on the severity of worm infestation, deworming program and
dewormer being used.
4. Vaccination- Vaccination of the piglets against hog cholera is also
done to animals after they have been dewormed. The piglets are
immunized only once in their lifetime until they are sold as slaughter
animals.

5. Sanitation- Weanlings should always be provided with plenty of

clean drinking water, the pen should be cleaned daily and the pigs may
be give bath every time cleaning is being done. Maintain the pen in
sanitary condition to minimize scouring.

6. Castration- In big commercial piggeries under the best

management, there are few pigs uncastrated in the weanling pens.
These pigs should be castrated as soon as possible.

7. Disease Prevention-Flat deck appears to be the best solution to

minimize and totally avoid diseases.

Different stress factors that must be minimized during the

management of growing pigs:

 Overcrowding- overcrowded animals are more susceptible to

diseases
 Transferring of pigs- This is another form of stress. Transferring
of pigs from one pen to another is generally not recommended.
 Temperature- Pigs in areas with cooler prevailing temperatures
perform better than those raised in hot and humid environmental
conditions.
 Overexposure- Growing-finishing pigs suffer more during summer
months or when the temperature inside the building is high. To
minimize this incidence consider the construction of the hog house,
 Feeds and feeding- Underfed animals are subjected to continuous
stress. Take note of the average daily feed intake and expected
average daily gain in weight or the average weight of the animals
for a given age. On the other hand, overfeeding causes
considerable amount of stress and discomfort to the animals.

Nutritional requirements/feeding scheme of piglets to market age

 Feeding Scheme for Piglets to Weanlings

Age (Weeks) Grams Feed/piglet/day Feed type

2 50-100 Booster

3 125 Pre-starter

4 250 Pre-starter

5 350 Pre-starter

6 400 Pre-starter

7 500 Starter

8 600 Starter

9 700 Starter

10 800 Starter
 UNIT OF COMPENTENCY 4
PRODUCE FINISHERS

Feeding systems
 Ad libitum feeding
 Restricted feeding
 Combined
 Wet feeding
 Dry feeding

Feeding Different Classes of Animals

1. Feeding dry sows. Flush or increase the feed allowance of the sow about
four days after weaning. This can be done by providing high energy rations.
Doing this will prepare the animal for the next breeding season. A week after
breeding, stop flushing. Limit the energy feeds to keep the sow trim during the
gestation period. This will prevent the sow from becoming too fat which will
result to fewer and smaller piglets.
2. Feeding pregnant sows. Give the sow 14 % crude protein ration up to the
eleventh week of pregnancy. Give the animal two kg of feeds daily depending
on its size and weight. Increase the feed allowance during the last five weeks
of pregnancy. Give the sow plenty of green feeds like camote vines and
kangkong 2 to 3 days before farrowing. Green feeds will prevent constipation
during farrowing. You may also use one-third rice bran and two-thirds
gestation ration.
3. Feeding lactating sow. Feed lactating sows 5 kg of brood sow ration
depending on its body size. Provide plenty of clean drinking water to improve
milk secretion and to prevent constipation.
4. Feeding baby pigs. Creep feeding may start as early as 5 to 8 days after
birth if the piglets are well managed. They should be able to eat sufficient
amounts of concentrate feeds so that they can be weaned earlier. From the
pre-starter ration, shift the feed to the starter ration after weaning. Shifting
must be done gradually to avoid rejection of feeds by the piglets. This can be
done by mixing the old feed with new feed little by little until the piglets learn
to eat without noticing the difference.
 5. Feeding growing-finishing pigs. When the pigs reach 30 kg, change the
ration to grower ration following the same procedure of shifting. Feed the pigs
punctually 2 to 3 times a day. As their weights increases, their feed allowance
must also increase. If possible at this stage, feed them an average of 2.5 kg of
feeds daily. At about 3 to 4 months, shift the grower ration to a fattener ration.
This feed is given until the pigs reached market weight which is 90 kg or
more. Provide plenty of green feeds between meal times.
6. Feeding breeding pigs. Hand-feed gilts and boars 2 kg of feed with 14
percent of protein per head daily. Increase the feed allowance 2 to 3 weeks
before breeding to improve their breeding efficiency. During breeding season,
feed the boars after service not before service. Doing this will improve the
efficiency of the boar.

FEEDING GUIDE SWINE

Ration Weight(kg.) Feeding Days Amount/day No. of days

Kg.

Pre-Starter Up to 10 kg. 10-54 days 0.50 kg 44

Starter 10kg. to 25 kg. 55-82 days 1.0-1.2 kg 27

Grower 25kg. to 60 kg. 83-137 days 2.0-2.2 kg 54

Finisher 60kg. to 83 kg 125-155 days 2.2-3 kg 30

Estimated number of heads:

Pre-Starter: 44days x 0.30kg= 13.2 kg.

Starter: 27 days x 1.2 kg= 32.4 kg.

Grower: 54 days x 2.2 kg= 118.8 kg.

Finisher: 30 days x 2.5 kg= 75 kg

 Space Requirements of Pigs at Different Stages

Space is another vital consideration in swine production. Inadequate space

retards growth and increase the risks posed by diseases and parasites; too much of
it results in high cost of production.
Space greatly affect health and fertility of the animals. The smaller the space,
the greater chance of acquiring diseases, the bigger the space, the more prone to
injury: enough space means increase growth and development.
As the animal grow bigger, they require wider spaces. However, you can
crowd them to a certain limit without adversely affecting growth rate and reproductive
performance. Below is the recommended space requirement of pigs at different
stages of life.

Space requirements of Building and Equipment for Swine

Age & Size of Pen Size Height of Pen Height of Width of Doors
Animal per Animal Partition Doors (cm)
(sq.m) (m) (cm)

Sow before
farrowing:
Gilts 1.5 2-2.25 100 100
Mature sows 2 2-2.5 100 100

Sow with pigs:

Young sows 4 2-2.25 100 100
Mature sows 6 2-2.25 100 100
Herd boars 2 2-2.25 120 100

Growing/finishing
swine
Weanling to
35 kg .5 2.25 75 75
35 to 60 kg .7 2.25 85 85
60 to 80 kg 1.0 2.25 100 100

Marketing Hogs

The final step to a successful swine business enterprise is to have a good

market. Reliable and up-to-date knowledge of current prices and the supply and
demand for pork are important in marketing hogs. Some guidelines on marketing
hogs include the following:

1. Produce good quality market hogs by practicing approved swine management

techniques.

2. Sell fattening pigs as soon as they weigh 85-90kg.

3. Castrate culled boars and provide thirty days allowance for the wound to heal
before selling them.

4. Culled sows should be allowed to recover from pregnancy or nursing before

marketing them.

5. Follow the proper the procedure in transporting hogs to avoid death or loss of
weight while they are being transported.

Below are some guidelines to follow when transporting hogs

a. Group hogs according to size.

b. Provide facilities for easy and proper loading and unloading.

c. Place sand or sawdust mixed with rice straw on the floor of the truck.

d. Avoid overfeeding hogs before transport.

e. Advise the driver to slow down on sharp curve causing swinging and
 piling up of pigs on one side.

f. Remove protruding nails and other objects that may harm the pigs.

g. Do not overload or under load the truck.

h. Do not kick the hogs to drive them up and down the truck.

i. Do not excite or exhaust hogs.

J.Avoid over dealing with middlemen.

K. Sell animals based on weight and never on a per head basis.

L. Program the production and marketing of hogs to ensure adequate

supply of pork in the market.

M. Organize a cooperative market system.

Signs of Unhealthy Pigs

To minimize losses from diseases, early detection of any illness is necessary,

followed immediately by an effective medication and control program.
Isolate/quarantine sick animals as soon as possible. Call a licensed veterinarian to
examine the sick animal for immediate and proper medication.

Characteristics of a Good Starter Animal

 Bruise-free skin
 Bright, alert eyes with no staining
 Shiny hair coat
 Inquisitive and alert behavior
 Good appetite and competes with other pigs in the pen for food.
 Solid fecal consistency
 No coughing
Characteristics of unhealthy pig
 Separates from the rest of the herd
 Lacks interest or fails to respond to environment stimuli, especially to feeding
 Pale, depressed, dull, and weak.
 Poor or complete loss of appetite resulting in more feed leftovers.
 Huddles together with other pigs, and always lies down or rest on its side or
belly.
 High body temperature(fever)

Optimum Environmental Temperature for Finishers

-18-20 °C

-22°C-24 °C would be needed by newly-arrived weaners/starters

 Feces is either hard(constipated) or watery, with or without mucus and or

blood. Urinates irregularly.
 Scattered feces in the pig pen.
 Eyes are bloody and sunken.
 Droopy head, ears, or tail, and arched back.
 Straddling of legs, staggering gait, in-coordination, and lameness.
 Yellowing of the body (Jaundice); hemorrhagic spots; and reddening of the
ears, abdomen, legs and other parts of the body.
 Coughing, sneezing, nasal discharges, and labored breathing
 Emaciation, unthriftiness, stuntedness, and vomiting.
Minimizing Fighting in
the Finisher Stage

1. Regrouped/mixed animals be housed in new pen to avoid territorial defense.

2. Mixing should take place in the evening as darkness also limits aggressiveness.

3. Give them a “toy” (something to attract their attention attention) and keep them
busy.

4. Pigs may be sprayed with strong solution around the ears/tails to interfere with
the olfactory mechanism. Done twice on the first day and repeated on the
following day: animals are usually stable after 48 hours.

Production Parameters in Finisher Production

1. ADG (Average Daily Gain)

2. Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR)

3. Mortality Rate
 UNIT OF COMPENTENCY 5
Maintain Healthy Animal Environment

Herd Health Management

PREVENTIVE MEASURES ON THE OCCURRENCE OF DISEASES

1. Sanitation. Practice cleanliness in the swine operations at all

times. Clean the runs, pens, alleys, and other equipment regularly.
Clean and disinfect equipment after each use.

2. Isolation of sick animals. Separate sick animals immediately in a

pen especially for them and treat them promptly to prevent the
spread of disease among the herd.

3. Disposal of dead animals. Dead hogs should be burned or buried

deeply to prevent dogs and other animals from digging the carcass
for food.

4. Immunization. Vaccinate animals promptly against diseases that

are prevailing in the locality.

5. Good nutrition. Feed animals properly with the correct kind and
amount of feeds. Give soilage and clean water between feedings.

6. Adoption of deworming program. Deworm animals periodically.

Follow the recommended deworming procedures.

7. Quarantining. All newly acquired animals should be quarantined

for at least thirty days before letting them join the other animals
inside the pen.

Guidelines in preventing infectious diseases are as follows:

 Purchase and raise only healthy and vigorous pigs

  Provide pigs with balanced ration and fresh, clean, and cool
water.
 Provide comfortable housing, avoid overcrowding
 Properly dispose dead pig by burying. Do not open dead
animal in the farm unless supervised by a veterinarian.
 Avoid giving kitchen/restaurant refuse to pigs. This is the
common cause of disease outbreaks in the farm.
 Purchase stock only from reputable piggeries
 Maintain production and health records.
 Control people movement
 Control other animals like straydogs,to enter the hog house
 Brooms should be cleaned and disinfected too
 Proper waste disposal of hog manure
 Handling of medicine- proper storing of specific medicines,
like storing in refrigerator after opening, store in cool places,
avoid direct exposure to sunlight
 Foot bath and wheel bath must be provided, cleaned and
maintained and regularly replenished with disinfectant.
 Animal health program must be properly implemented
 All animals inside the piggery must be grouped according to
size, class and purpose.

Relative Humidity

The normal body temperature of the pig is 38.7-40 °C (101.6-104° F).

Pigs are "most comfortable" in temperatures ranging from 18-20° C

(64.4-68°F).

They can tolerate and adapt to temperatures of 20- 25°C (68-77° F)

but above this heat stress is evident.

Any activity e.g. eating increases heat production.

Heavy pigs most vulnerable

Heavier pigs produce more body heat and are most susceptible to
heat stress. The real danger is when the temperature is greater
than 30 °C (86°F). If the deep body temperature of the pig reaches
43°C (109.4°F), it dies - from heart failure.

When the temperature is higher, more water is drunk, respiratory

rates rise and there is a marked increase of insensible heat loss (by
evaporation of water from the lungs by panting).

At a temperature of 34°C (93°F) and relative humidity of 40 per cent

the pig loses 80 per cent of its total heat loss as evaporative heat but,

at the same temperature with a relative humidity of 50 per cent then

only half the total heat loss is as evaporative heat. This leads to an

increase in deep body temperature.

When surrounding air is moist (i.e. humid) it cannot absorb as much

moisture from the lungs and the pigs must pant faster. Also, when the

outside temperature is high, the respiration rate increases.

When it is hot and humid, the pigs may not be able to pant fast

enough to remove the heat from its body.

When this happens the internal body temperature continues to rise

gradually until death occurs.

Heavier pigs are more sensitive to heat stress and losses in live

weight gain frequently exceed 1 Kg. per day.

The bigger and fatter the pig the less able it is to transfer body

heat to the environment because the fat inhibits heat transference.

Pigs do not have active sweat glands except in the snout and

must rely on other forms of heat loss.

Posture changes signal problems

Changes in posture are an attempt to control deep (internal) body

temperature by increasing the area of skin available for heat

loss by convection, conduction and radiation.

The desirable deep body temperature is 38°C (100°F).

How to control humidity inside the animal house or building?

1. Design of the building

2. Location of the building
3. Use of blowers and curtain

Common Air Pollutants

BUILDINGS AND FACILITIES

Sources of odors in and around swine buildings include:

• wet, manure covered floors and walls,

• manure in improperly cleaned recharge-pits,
• dirty, manure covered hogs,
• spoiled or moldy feed,
• dust from feeders and hogs, and
• improper disposal of dead pigs.

The solution for most of these sources of odor is good, “common sense”
management.

• Wash down the pens on a regular basis.

• Collect and remove manure from the building as often as possible.
• Wash the floors daily or use slotted floors to keep animals clean.
• Repair all leaky waterers or pipes.
• Clean feeding equipment regularly.
• Remove spoiled feed regularly.
• Remove dead animals and dispose of them promptly.

Ventilation System

Mechanical and natural ventilation are used in all types of swine buildings.
Mechanical ventilation is commonly used in farrowing and nursery
buildings where temperature control and heating energy costs are
important. Natural ventilation can be used for farrowing and nursery
buildings, but is more common for gestation, breeding, and finishing
facilities. The purposes of any swine facility ventilation system are to:

(1) maintain an adequate supply of fresh air for the animals,

(2) remove excess moisture during cold weather,
(3) remove combustion gases from heaters,
(4) provide adequate temperature control during mild weather, and
(5) limit the temperature rise during hot weather.

Mechanical Ventilation
 Exhaust ventilation is the most common type of system used in modern
swine facilities. It takes three basic components: properly sized fans,
properly sized and distributed fresh air inlets, and controls. The fans and
inlets must be designed to provide at least three stages of ventilation.
Testing of Water Supply

The use of a suitable water supply is important for good bio-security. If

water treatment is required, in general, water with a high level of organic
matter is unsuitable for chlorination alone. Ultraviolet treatment is also of
little use for turbid water. It may be necessary to seek expert advice to
ensure a safe water supply. Any water treatment process should be
monitored regularly.

Recommended practices.

1. Drinking water quality should be maintained at a suitable standard for

pigs.

2. All surface water should be tested and if necessary treated before being
used as drinking water for pigs.
3. Expert advice should be sought on water treatment options if water
testing shows the available water to be of unsuitable quality.
4. A treated water supply should be kept in a closed system from the point
of treatment to the drinker.

Drinking water varies from place to place, depending on the condition

of the source water from which it is drawn and the treatment it
receives.

Even though our tap water supplies are considered to be one of the
safest in the world, water contamination can still occur. There are many
sources of contamination, including:
 Sewage releases
 Naturally occurring chemicals and minerals (for example, arsenic,
radon, uranium)
 Local land use practices (for example, fertilizers, pesticides,
livestock, concentrated feeding operations)
 Manufacturing processes (for example, heavy metals, cyanide)
 Malfunctioning on-site waste water treatment systems (for example,
septic systems)

In addition, drinking water that is not properly treated or which

travels through an improperly maintained distribution system (for
 example, the piping system) may also create an environment for
contamination.

The presence of certain contaminants in our water can lead to

health issues, including gastrointestinal illness, reproductive problems,
and neurological disorders.

Ventilation in Swine

Ventilation is the proper movement of air through a building, replacing the

stale air inside with fresh air from outside.

The definition of ventilation has been repeated many times in the

classrooms, in research projects and on farms. The definition is simple,
but the actual management of the process presents a problem for swine
facilities. The definition mentions the movement of air through the
building not the management of air in the building. The object of swine
facilities ventilation is to replace the air in the building. The problem
occurs when it comes to removing the air and replacing it without causing
stress on the animals. It is hard to control ventilation, especially on
extremely hot or cold days. It is important to focus on the basic purpose
of ventilation. It is easy to overlook these items on a daily basis and
experience problems with facility ventilation. A review of the five basic
reasons to ventilate will help focus on the problem.

1. To remove excess heat.

2. To remove excess moisture.

3. To minimize dust.

4. To limit the buildup of harmful gases.

5. To provide oxygen for respiration.

The picture below shows a graphic image the water holding ability of
warm air.
·

Ventilating when outside air is cooler than inside air

Incoming heated air expands to accept the moisture from the air in a
swine facility. The moisture holding capacity of air nearly doubles for
every 20-degree rise in temperature. The goal is to use the warm air like a
sponge to soak up the excess moisture and transport it outside the
building. We would like to maintain the relative humidity level between 50
and 70 percent.

Theoretically as cold air moves through the room along the ceiling, it is
heated up. The cold air temperature is increased (cut in half)
approximately every four feet of entry in the building. Cold dry air enters
the building and equal amount of warm moist air exits the building. The
temperature and moisture level of the air exiting the building is greater
than it was when it entered the building. Heat, excessive moisture,
pathogens, and gases are expelled from the building. The example below
explains this concept.
 UNIT OF COMPETENCY 6
Apply Bio-security Measures
Practices to Contain Disease Spread
Bio-security

A measure or program meant to reduce the introduction of new

pathogen in the herd to minimize the impact of pathogens.Bio-security is
the prevention of disease-causing agents from entering or leaving any
place where animals are present. It involves a number of measures and
protocols designed to safeguard producers, animals and the livestock
industry from disease outbreaks. A bio-security program includes the
following measures:

• Isolate new animals from the flock or stock returning from the market or
other places.

• Do not bring infection onto your farm, or spread it around your farm
through clothes, footwear or hands.
• Where possible, limit and control farm visitors.

• Do not allow contact with neighbouring animals, such as through fences.

• Do not share injecting and dosing equipment with other producers. If

necessary, cleanse and disinfect all equipment thoroughly.

• Dispose of dead animals properly.

• Use separate equipment and personnel for isolated animals.

• Keep the isolation barn as near as possible to the farm entrance and
separate it from other pens or barns by at least 3 meters.

• Dispose of bedding properly so that other livestock do not have access

to it.

Importance of Disease Control, Prevention and

Monitoring

Disease control
• Disease control is the reduction in the incidence of disease and the
number of deaths in a herd.

• Disease control can be achieved by treating diseased animals and by

preventing disease through proper herd management practices.

Strategies of disease control

Quarantine
• Quarantine is the isolation of animals that are either infected or
suspected of being infected with a disease or diseases. Non-infected
animals that are at risk of getting a disease may also be quarantined.

• A quarantine period is also used to isolate new animals before allowing

them to mix with a herd.

• A quarantine period is a minimum of 3 weeks.

Vaccination
• Vaccines are used routinely to prevent disease.

• A vaccine is a suspension prepared in a laboratory from the cause of the

disease. When injected into an animal, the animal produces immunity to
that disease, which protects the animal from that specific disease.

• Vaccines need to be kept in a cold chain, meaning kept cold at all times
from production through transport and storage, and before injecting into
an animal. Hence, vaccines must be kept:

¨ in an ice box with sufficient amount of ice during transport,

¨ at 400oC or -200oC while in the clinic, and

¨ out of direct sunlight.

• Vaccines are easily damaged if handled improperly.

• Always exactly follow the instructions given for the storage and use of
vaccines.

• Most vaccines are injected under the skin.

• Always use sterile syringes and needles for vaccination.

• Always give the correct dose by the correct route.

Movement of susceptible animals

• Susceptible animals can be removed from high risk areas where
infections are endemic.

Control of biological vectors

• Infectious diseases transmitted by biological vectors (insects, birds,
rodents, etc.) can be controlled by eliminating the vectors.

• As examples, insect vectors can be killed with insecticide; snail habitat

can be destroyed to prevent liver flukes.

Disinfection of fomites
• Fomites include farm equipment, surgical instruments, etc., used with
animals.

• Fomites can be disinfected to prevent the transmission of infectious

agents.

Disease prevention
• Preventing disease is much more effective than trying to cure sick
animals.

• Through good husbandry practices, livestock owners can reduce the risk
of diseases entering a herd.

• Understanding the main disease threats to a herd can assist a producer

in taking appropriate disease prevention measures, and thus lower the
impact of disease problems.

Good management practices are vital to preventing

diseases
• These include provision of clean water and proper nutrition, maintaining
clean housing with adequate ventilation, and clean pastures that reduce
parasite and disease build-up, and the strategic treatment of stock with
anthelmintics. All of these measures will reduce disease challenges.
 Program Disposal of Waste (Placenta, Dead Fetus and Others)

Guidelines in Proper Waste Disposal

Waste Generated in the piggery Proper Disposal

Dead animals Burn or bury deep to prevent dogs from
digging at least 6 ft. below the ground
Fetuses Burn or bury 6 ft below the ground
Empty vials of vaccines Burn or bury 6 ft below the ground
Disposable Syringe Burn and bury 6 ft below the ground
Busted Bulbs and /fluorescent lamps Burn and bury 6 ft below the ground
Empty sacks Recycle or sell
Hog manure Decompose and use as organic fertilizer

Methane gas production

TASK SHEET

Title : Cleaning and Disinfecting Pig Pen

Performance Objective: Given the needed supplies and materials, you

Should be able to clean and disinfect a house.

Supplies : Water, disinfectant, detergent soap

Equipment : Water hose, knapsack sprayer, brush, Hard broom

Steps/Procedure:

1. Douse/spray the pig pen with water to loosen caked dung and other organic matter.

2. Scrub caked chicken dung on the floors.

3. Wash the pig pen with detergent soap and water.

4. Allow the pig pen to dry.

5. Dilute recommended disinfectant dosage with water.

6. Spray the pig pen starting from the ceiling, wall and finally the floor.

Assessment Method: Demonstration