Q1 What is project. Explain different characteristics of Project.

Ans: What is a Project?

A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product,

service, or result. It has a defined start and end, specific objectives, and utilizes
resources such as time, money, and labor to achieve its goals. Projects are often
carried out to bring about change or solve specific problems.

Characteristics of a Project:

1. Temporary:
o A project has a clear start and finish. It is not ongoing and ends
once the objectives are met.
2. Unique Outcome:
o The project produces a unique product, service, or result. Each
project is distinct in terms of its deliverables.
3. Defined Objectives:
o Projects are driven by specific goals or objectives that need to be
achieved within the project’s timeframe.
4. Resource Constraints:
o Projects require the allocation and management of various
resources like time, money, and manpower.
5. Complexity:
o Projects often involve various tasks, processes, and stakeholders,
making them complex and requiring careful planning and
coordination.
6. Uncertainty:
o Every project involves a degree of uncertainty and risk, as it works
toward achieving something new or innovative.
7. Progressive Elaboration:
o Projects evolve over time, and details are often refined as more
information becomes available.

Summary:

 A project is a temporary endeavor to achieve specific, unique objectives,

with defined start and end points, requiring resources and management of
complexity and uncertainty.

Q2 What is Project Management. Explain Project Management

framework in detail.

Ans: What is Project Management?

Project management is the process of planning, organizing, leading, and
controlling resources to achieve specific project goals within a defined timeline,
budget, and scope. It involves coordinating all aspects of a project, including
tasks, resources, risks, and stakeholders, to ensure successful project
completion.

Project Management Framework:

The Project Management Framework provides a structured approach to

managing projects, typically consisting of processes, methodologies, and
knowledge areas. It guides project managers in handling the complexities of
projects from initiation to closure.

Key Components of the Project Management Framework:

1. Process Groups:
o Initiating: Defining the project and obtaining authorization.
o Planning: Establishing the scope, objectives, and steps needed to
complete the project successfully. It includes creating detailed
plans for time, cost, and quality.
o Executing: Implementing the plan by coordinating resources,
stakeholders, and activities.
o Monitoring and Controlling: Tracking project progress, comparing
actual performance with the plan, and making adjustments as
necessary.
o Closing: Finalizing all project activities, delivering the final product,
and closing the project.

2. Knowledge Areas: These areas outline the primary disciplines that need
to be managed throughout the project:
o Integration Management: Ensures all parts of the project are
properly coordinated.
o Scope Management: Defines and controls what is included in the
project.
o Time Management: Ensures timely completion of the project.
o Cost Management: Managing the project budget and costs.
o Quality Management: Ensuring the project meets the required
quality standards.
o Human Resource Management: Managing the project team and
stakeholders.
o Communications Management: Ensuring effective communication
among all stakeholders.
 o Risk Management: Identifying and managing project risks.
o Procurement Management: Managing external resources and
contracts.
o Stakeholder Management: Identifying and engaging stakeholders
throughout the project.

3. Project Constraints:
o Projects are constrained by scope, time, cost, quality, resources,
and risk, all of which need to be balanced for project success.

Summary:

 Project management involves overseeing all phases of a project to

ensure its successful completion.
 The Project Management Framework includes process groups
(initiating, planning, executing, monitoring/controlling, closing) and
knowledge areas (integration, scope, time, cost, quality, risk, etc.) that
guide project managers in handling various project tasks and challenges.

Q3 Explain Modern Approaches to Leadership And Leadership

Styles

Ans: Modern Approaches to Leadership:

Modern leadership approaches focus on evolving strategies that emphasize

collaboration, adaptability, and empowerment. These approaches recognize the
dynamic nature of the workplace and the diverse needs of teams.

1. Transformational Leadership:
o Focuses on inspiring and motivating employees to achieve higher
levels of performance. Leaders act as role models and encourage
innovation, personal growth, and a shared vision.
o Example: A leader who encourages team members to take on new
challenges and fosters creativity.
2. Servant Leadership:
o Leaders prioritize the well-being of their team members,
supporting their personal and professional growth. The focus is on
serving others and ensuring the team has the resources needed for
success.
o Example: A leader who listens actively, supports team
development, and ensures a healthy work environment.
3. Situational Leadership:
 o This approach asserts that no single leadership style is best. The
leader must adjust their style based on the situation and the
maturity of the team.
o Example: A leader may take a more directive approach when the
team is inexperienced and a more delegative approach when the
team is experienced.
4. Authentic Leadership:
o Leaders are encouraged to be true to their values and beliefs,
building trust and credibility by being open, transparent, and
ethical in their actions.
o Example: A leader who communicates openly with their team and
stays true to their ethical values even in tough situations.
5. Collaborative Leadership:
o Focuses on building strong teams, fostering communication, and
creating partnerships both within and outside the organization.
Leaders work together with team members to achieve common
goals.
o Example: A leader who values team input and collaborates across
departments for collective decision-making.

Leadership Styles:

1. Autocratic Leadership:
o The leader makes decisions unilaterally without input from others.
This style is efficient but can lead to low morale.
o Example: A manager who tells employees what to do and expects
compliance.
2. Democratic Leadership:
o Leaders involve team members in the decision-making process,
fostering collaboration and participation.
o Example: A leader who seeks input from team members and values
their opinions before making decisions.
3. Laissez-Faire Leadership:
o The leader takes a hands-off approach, allowing employees to
make decisions and work independently. This style works best with
highly skilled teams.
o Example: A manager who trusts employees to complete tasks with
minimal supervision.
4. Transactional Leadership:
 oBased on a system of rewards and punishments. Leaders provide
clear expectations and operate within a structure of performance-
based incentives.
o Example: A manager who rewards employees for meeting targets
but penalizes them for missing deadlines.
5. Charismatic Leadership:
o Leaders rely on their personal charisma and persuasive qualities to
influence and inspire followers. They are often seen as visionary.
o Example: A leader who motivates the team through their energy,
passion, and inspiring vision.

Summary:

 Modern approaches to leadership, like transformational, servant,

situational, and authentic leadership, emphasize adaptability,
empowerment, and trust-building.
 Leadership styles, such as autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire,
transactional, and charismatic, reflect different ways leaders interact with
their teams and make decisions.

Q4 Short Note
A) Role of project Manager

Ans: Role of a Project Manager:

A Project Manager (PM) is responsible for planning, executing, and closing

projects. The role includes overseeing the project’s scope, timeline, budget,
resources, and quality to ensure successful delivery.

Key Responsibilities:

1. Planning: Define project goals, scope, timelines, and resources required.

2. Execution: Coordinate tasks, allocate resources, and lead the team.
3. Monitoring: Track progress, manage risks, and ensure adherence to
schedules and budgets.
4. Communication: Act as the liaison between stakeholders, ensuring clear
communication.
5. Problem-solving: Address issues and obstacles, adjusting plans when
necessary.
6. Closing: Ensure all deliverables are met and close the project by
documenting results.

Summary:
The project manager ensures that the project is completed on time, within
budget, and to the required quality standards, while managing resources, risks,
and stakeholder expectations.

B) System View of Project Management

Ans: System View of Project Management:

The System View of Project Management considers a project as a system of

interrelated components that work together to achieve project objectives. It
focuses on the interactions between various project elements (such as tasks,
resources, stakeholders, and processes) and emphasizes a holistic approach to
managing the project.

Key Aspects:

1. Inputs: Resources, information, and requirements necessary to start the

project.
2. Processes: Activities such as planning, executing, and controlling that
transform inputs into project deliverables.
3. Outputs: The project deliverables, outcomes, and results.
4. Feedback Loops: Ongoing evaluation and adjustments based on
performance to ensure the project stays on track.

Summary:

The System View of Project Management focuses on understanding the project

as a whole, integrating various components and ensuring their smooth
interaction to achieve project success.

C) StakeHolder management

Ans: Stakeholder Management:

Stakeholder management is the process of identifying, analyzing, and

engaging individuals or groups (stakeholders) who have an interest in the
project, ensuring their needs and expectations are met, and managing their
influence on the project.

Key Steps:

1. Identify Stakeholders: Determine who the stakeholders are (e.g., clients,

team members, suppliers).
 2. Analyze Stakeholders: Assess their interests, power, and influence on
the project.
3. Plan Engagement: Develop strategies to communicate and manage
relationships with stakeholders.
4. Engage and Communicate: Keep stakeholders informed and involved as
needed, addressing concerns and expectations.
5. Monitor and Control: Continuously track stakeholder relationships and
adjust engagement strategies as the project progresses.

Summary:

Stakeholder management ensures that key project participants are effectively

engaged and their expectations are managed, helping to minimize risks and
maximize project success.

D) Life Cycle of Project

Ans: Life Cycle of a Project:

The Project Life Cycle refers to the phases a project goes through from
initiation to closure. It provides a structured approach to project management.

Key Phases:

1. Initiation: Define the project, obtain approval, and identify key

stakeholders.
2. Planning: Develop detailed plans for scope, time, cost, resources, and
risk management.
3. Execution: Implement the plan, coordinate resources, and execute tasks
to create deliverables.
4. Monitoring and Controlling: Track project performance, monitor
progress, and make adjustments as needed.
5. Closure: Finalize all project activities, hand over deliverables, and close
the project.

Summary:

The Project Life Cycle provides a framework for managing projects efficiently,
ensuring proper planning, execution, monitoring, and successful completion.

Unit 2
Q1 explain Waterfall model
Ans: Waterfall Model:

The Waterfall Model is a linear and sequential approach to software

development, where each phase must be completed before moving on to the
next. It is one of the earliest models in software engineering, often used for
projects with well-defined requirements.

Phases of the Waterfall Model:

1. Requirement Gathering: Collect and document all requirements before

development begins.
2. System Design: Design the system architecture and components based on
requirements.
3. Implementation: Code the system according to the design specifications.
4. Integration and Testing: Test the system to identify and fix bugs.
5. Deployment: Deliver the final product to the client or release it to users.
6. Maintenance: Address issues and provide updates after deployment.

Key Features:

 Linear Process: Each phase depends on the previous one, and progress
flows in one direction—like a waterfall.
 Documentation-Heavy: Each phase requires extensive documentation
before proceeding.
 Best for Simple, Well-Defined Projects: Works well for projects with
clear requirements and little change during the process.

Summary:

The Waterfall Model is a structured, step-by-step approach to software

development, where each phase must be completed before the next begins,
making it ideal for projects with fixed, predictable requirements.

Q2 Explain evolutionary Process Model (Prototype and Spiral)

Ans: Evolutionary Process Model:

The Evolutionary Process Model is an iterative approach to software

development where the system is developed in a series of incremental versions
or prototypes. It allows for flexibility and adaptation based on user feedback
and changing requirements.
1. Prototype Model:

The Prototype Model focuses on building a prototype (an early version) of the
system, which is refined based on user feedback.

Phases:

1. Requirements Gathering: Basic requirements are gathered from the

user.
2. Prototype Development: A prototype is created quickly with limited
functionality.
3. User Evaluation: The user interacts with the prototype and provides
feedback.
4. Refinement: The prototype is refined based on feedback and additional
requirements.
5. Final System: Once the prototype is refined enough, the final system is
developed.

Advantages:

 Quick user feedback leads to better understanding of requirements.

 Changes can be easily incorporated.

Disadvantages:

 Can be costly and time-consuming if not managed well.

 Might not be suitable for very large systems.

2. Spiral Model:

The Spiral Model combines elements of both the waterfall and prototype
models, focusing on iterative development with an emphasis on risk
management.

Phases:

1. Planning: Define objectives and plan the project.

2. Risk Analysis: Identify and assess risks, then develop strategies to
mitigate them.
3. Engineering: Develop and test a portion of the system.
 4. Evaluation: Review progress, assess the prototype, and gather feedback
from stakeholders.
5. Repeat: Continue through multiple iterations (spirals) until the system is
complete.

Advantages:

 Emphasizes risk management.

 Allows for continuous refinement and user feedback.

Disadvantages:

 Can be complex to manage due to the number of iterations.

 Potentially expensive due to constant prototyping and risk assessment.

Summary:

 Prototype Model: Develops an early prototype and refines it based on

user feedback.
 Spiral Model: An iterative model that combines prototyping and risk
management to continuously refine the system in multiple cycles or
spirals. Both models provide flexibility to accommodate evolving
requirements during development.

Q3 Agile Development Model (Extreme

Programming,Scrum ,Lean Model)

Ans: Agile Development Model:

The Agile Development Model emphasizes flexibility, collaboration, and

customer-centric development. It uses short development cycles called
iterations or sprints, with a focus on continuous feedback and adaptive
planning.

1. Extreme Programming (XP):

Extreme Programming (XP) is an Agile methodology that focuses on
improving software quality and responsiveness to changing customer
requirements.

Key Practices:

 Pair Programming: Two developers work together at one workstation.

 Test-Driven Development (TDD): Writing tests before code to ensure
software quality.
 Continuous Integration: Regularly integrating code into a shared
repository to detect issues early.
 Frequent Releases: Delivering small, functional releases frequently to
the customer.

Advantages:

 Improves software quality through continuous testing and feedback.

 Enhances communication within the development team.

Disadvantages:

 Requires skilled developers and may not be suitable for all teams.
 Can be challenging to implement in large projects.

2. Scrum:

Scrum is an Agile framework that focuses on managing and completing

complex projects in small, incremental iterations called sprints (typically 2-4
weeks).

Key Roles:

 Product Owner: Defines the features and requirements.

 Scrum Master: Facilitates the process and removes obstacles.
 Development Team: Self-organized team responsible for delivering the
product.

Key Artifacts:

 Product Backlog: List of features and requirements to be developed.

 Sprint Backlog: List of tasks to be completed during the sprint.
  Increment: The working product at the end of each sprint.

Advantages:

 Focuses on delivering value early and continuously.

 Adaptable to changes in requirements throughout the project.

Disadvantages:

 Requires active participation from all stakeholders.

 Can be difficult to implement for large, complex projects.

3. Lean Model:

The Lean Development Model is inspired by Lean manufacturing principles,

focusing on eliminating waste and optimizing efficiency in the development
process.

Key Principles:

 Eliminate Waste: Remove unnecessary processes and features.

 Empower Teams: Give development teams autonomy to make
decisions.
 Build Quality In: Focus on quality at every step.
 Continuous Improvement: Regularly assess processes for improvement.

Advantages:

 Reduces waste and optimizes resource usage.

 Increases customer satisfaction by focusing on essential features.

Disadvantages:

 Can be challenging to maintain continuous improvement practices.

 May be difficult to apply in environments that are not familiar with Lean
principles.

Summary:
  XP focuses on technical excellence and continuous feedback to improve
software quality.
 Scrum uses structured roles, ceremonies, and sprints to manage the
development process incrementally.
 Lean emphasizes efficiency, eliminating waste, and continuous
improvement in the development cycle. All three approaches prioritize
flexibility and customer value.

Q4 DevOps Model

Ans: DevOps Model:

DevOps is a collaborative approach that combines development (Dev) and

operations (Ops) teams to improve the software development and deployment
lifecycle. The goal is to shorten development cycles, increase the frequency of
releases, and ensure high-quality software through continuous integration,
continuous delivery (CI/CD), and automation.

Key Principles of DevOps:

1. Collaboration: Developers and operations teams work together

throughout the entire lifecycle, from planning to deployment and
maintenance.
2. Automation: Automating manual tasks such as testing, integration, and
deployment to reduce errors and speed up processes.
3. Continuous Integration (CI): Code changes are frequently integrated
into a shared repository, with automated testing to detect issues early.
4. Continuous Delivery (CD): Code is automatically deployed to
production after passing tests, ensuring that software is always in a
deployable state.
5. Monitoring and Feedback: Continuous monitoring of applications in
production to gather feedback, enabling faster response to issues and
improvements.

Advantages:

 Faster delivery of high-quality software.

 Improved collaboration between teams.
 Reduced risk of errors through automation and continuous testing.

Disadvantages:

 Requires cultural shift and strong collaboration.

  Can be complex to implement for large organizations with legacy
systems.

Summary:

The DevOps Model aims to break down silos between development and
operations teams, enabling continuous integration, automated delivery, and
rapid feedback to improve the speed, quality, and reliability of software
development and deployment.

Unit 3

Q1 Explain Types of Requirements and Elicitation techniques.

Ans: Types of Requirements:

1. Functional Requirements:
o Define the specific functions, features, and behavior the system
must support.
o Example: "The system must allow users to log in using a username
and password."
2. Non-Functional Requirements:
o Specify the criteria that judge the operation of the system, such as
performance, usability, and security.
o Example: "The system should be able to handle 1,000 concurrent
users."
3. Technical Requirements:
o Specify the technology, tools, platforms, or standards that the
system must adhere to.
o Example: "The system must be developed using Java and run on a
Linux server."
4. Business Requirements:
o Define the high-level objectives and goals of the business that the
system must align with.
o Example: "The system must improve customer service response
time by 20%."
5. User Requirements:
o Define what users need the system to do from their perspective.
o Example: "The user must be able to reset their password without
admin assistance."
6. System Requirements:
 o Define the hardware, software, and system features needed to
support the system.
o Example: "The system must run on a 64-bit operating system."

Elicitation Techniques:

1. Interviews:
o One-on-one discussions with stakeholders to gather detailed
information about requirements.
o Advantage: Direct and personal insights.
2. Surveys/Questionnaires:
o Distributing predefined questions to a larger group of stakeholders
to gather broad input.
o Advantage: Efficient for collecting data from many people.
3. Workshops:
o Collaborative sessions with stakeholders to brainstorm and gather
requirements in a group setting.
o Advantage: Promotes active participation and immediate
feedback.
4. Observations:
o Watching users in their work environment to understand how they
perform tasks and identify system needs.
o Advantage: Provides real-world insights into user behavior.
5. Prototyping:
o Creating an early version of the system for users to interact with, to
clarify and refine requirements.
o Advantage: Helps visualize the system and gather feedback early.
6. Document Analysis:
o Reviewing existing documentation (e.g., reports, user manuals) to
extract relevant requirements.
o Advantage: Utilizes existing resources and knowledge.
7. Use Cases and User Stories:
o Defining user interactions with the system in terms of specific use
cases or stories to capture functional requirements.
o Advantage: Focuses on the user experience and functionality.

Summary:

 Types of Requirements include functional, non-functional, technical,

business, user, and system requirements.
  Elicitation Techniques like interviews, surveys, workshops, and
prototyping are used to gather detailed and accurate requirements from
stakeholders.

Q2 Explain steps involved in requirement Engineering.

Ans: Steps Involved in Requirement Engineering:

1. Requirement Elicitation:
o Gather requirements from stakeholders using techniques like
interviews, surveys, workshops, and observations.
o Goal: Identify the needs and expectations of users, customers, and
other stakeholders.
2. Requirement Analysis:
o Analyze the gathered requirements to ensure they are clear,
feasible, and aligned with project goals.
o Goal: Identify conflicts, ambiguities, and missing requirements.
3. Requirement Specification:
o Document the requirements in a detailed, organized format such as
requirement specifications or user stories.
o Goal: Create a clear, concise, and unambiguous description of the
system's requirements.
4. Requirement Validation:
o Review and validate the requirements with stakeholders to ensure
accuracy and completeness.
o Goal: Confirm that the requirements meet user needs and are
achievable within project constraints.
5. Requirement Management:
o Manage changes and track the status of requirements throughout
the project lifecycle.
o Goal: Ensure that requirements are kept up-to-date and that
changes are controlled and communicated effectively.

Summary:

The Requirement Engineering process involves eliciting, analyzing,

specifying, validating, and managing requirements to ensure that the final
product meets stakeholders' needs and expectations.

Q3 Explain SRS and its characteristics.

Ans: Software Requirements Specification (SRS):

The Software Requirements Specification (SRS) is a document that describes
the functionality, features, and constraints of a software system. It serves as a
detailed description of the system to be developed, acting as a communication
tool between stakeholders, including developers, clients, and users.

Characteristics of SRS:

1. Clear and Unambiguous:

o The requirements should be written in a way that they are easily
understood and free of confusion or ambiguity.
2. Complete:
o The SRS should include all the necessary requirements, covering
all aspects of the system functionality, constraints, and behaviors.
3. Consistent:
o The document should be free of contradictions and conflicting
requirements. It should present a unified view of the system's
needs.
4. Modifiable:
o The SRS should be structured in a way that makes it easy to update
as requirements change during the project lifecycle.
5. Verifiable:
o The requirements should be defined such that they can be tested
and validated during the system development and testing phases.
6. Traceable:
o Each requirement should be traceable to its source (e.g., a
stakeholder or a business need), and its relationship to other
requirements should be clear.
7. Understandable:
o The language used should be simple, precise, and understandable
to both technical and non-technical stakeholders.
8. Feasible:
o The requirements should be realistic and achievable within the
constraints of the project (time, budget, technology).

Summary:

An SRS provides a detailed and clear description of software requirements,

ensuring that the development team and stakeholders have a shared
understanding of the system. Its characteristics include clarity, completeness,
consistency, modifiability, verifiability, traceability, understandability, and
feasibility.
Q4 Short note on DFD

Ans: Data Flow Diagram (DFD):

A Data Flow Diagram (DFD) is a visual representation of how data flows

through a system, illustrating the system's processes, data sources, data storage,
and data destinations.

Key Components:

1. Processes: Represented by circles or ovals, these show the transformation

of data within the system.
2. Data Flows: Arrows that indicate the movement of data between
processes, data stores, and external entities.
3. Data Stores: Represented by open rectangles, these show where data is
stored in the system.
4. External Entities: Represented by squares or rectangles, these show
external sources or destinations of data (e.g., users or other systems).

Types of DFD:

1. Context Diagram: A high-level DFD that shows the entire system as a

single process with data flowing in and out.
2. Level 1 DFD: Breaks down the context diagram into major sub-processes
and data flows.
3. Level 2+ DFD: Further decomposes processes into smaller sub-
processes, providing more detail.

Summary:

A DFD helps to visualize the flow of data in a system, enabling better

understanding, analysis, and communication of system processes.

Q5 short note Data Dictionary

Ans: Data Dictionary:

A Data Dictionary is a centralized repository that contains definitions,

descriptions, and attributes of data elements used in a system. It provides
metadata (data about data) that helps standardize data usage and understanding
across the project or organization.
Key Components:

1. Data Element: Defines the name, type, and structure of individual data
fields (e.g., "Customer ID", "Date of Birth").
2. Data Type: Specifies the type of data (e.g., integer, string, date).
3. Description: Provides a clear explanation of what the data represents.
4. Constraints: Defines rules or limits on the data (e.g., "must be unique",
"cannot be null").
5. Relationships: Shows how different data elements are related or interact
with each other.

Purpose:

 Ensures consistency and clarity in data usage across the system.

 Assists developers, analysts, and users in understanding data
requirements.

Summary:

A Data Dictionary serves as a detailed reference guide for all data elements in
a system, promoting consistency, clarity, and standardization.

Q6 Any one UML Diagram (Activity, Use Case, Class, Sequence,

State Transition)

Ans: Use Case Diagram:

A Use Case Diagram in UML (Unified Modeling Language) is a visual

representation that shows the interactions between actors (users or other
systems) and the use cases (functionalities or services) provided by a system. It
helps to identify system functionalities from a user perspective.

Key Components:

1. Actors: External entities (users, other systems) that interact with the
system.
o Example: Customer, Admin, Payment System.
2. Use Cases: Specific functionalities or services the system provides to the
actors.
o Example: "Login", "Make Payment", "View Account".
3. Associations: Lines connecting actors to the use cases, indicating
interaction.
 4. System Boundary: Represents the scope of the system (usually shown as
a box around use cases).

Example:

 Actors: Customer, Admin

 Use Cases: "Place Order", "View Order History", "Manage Products"

Description: A customer can place an order and view order history, while an
admin can manage products.

Summary:

A Use Case Diagram models the functional requirements of a system by

showing how users (actors) interact with the system’s features (use cases). It
provides a high-level overview of system functionality from an external
viewpoint.

Unit 4

Q1 Numerical on Function Point and Cocomo Model (upto Early

Design Architecture).

Ans: Function Point Analysis (FPA):

Function Point Analysis (FPA) is a method to measure the size of a software

application based on its functionality from the user's perspective. It is used for
estimating project cost, time, and effort.

Steps to Calculate Function Points:

1. Identify Function Types: Classify the functions into five categories:

o External Inputs (EI): User inputs to the system (e.g., forms).
o External Outputs (EO): Outputs from the system (e.g., reports).
o User Inquiries (EQ): User queries.
o Internal Logical Files (ILF): Files maintained by the system.
o External Interface Files (EIF): Files used by the system, maintained
externally.
 2. Assign Complexity Weights: Each function type is assigned a weight
based on its complexity (low, average, or high).
3. Calculate Function Points:

Function Points=∑(Weight of Function Type×Count of Functions)\

text{Function Points} = \sum (\text{Weight of Function Type} \times \
text{Count of Functions})

Example:

 External Inputs (EI): 3 (Average complexity)

 External Outputs (EO): 2 (Low complexity)
 User Inquiries (EQ): 1 (Average complexity)
 Internal Logical Files (ILF): 2 (High complexity)

Assuming the complexity weights:

 EI: 4, EO: 5, EQ: 4, ILF: 7, EIF: 5

The total function points would be:

Function Points=(3×4)+(2×5)+(1×4)+(2×7)=12+10+4+14=40 Function Points\

text{Function Points} = (3 \times 4) + (2 \times 5) + (1 \times 4) + (2 \times 7) =
12 + 10 + 4 + 14 = 40 \text{ Function Points}

COCOMO Model (Constructive Cost Model):

COCOMO is a model used to estimate the cost, effort, and time required for
software development. The model uses various levels of detail for estimation,
with Early Design Architecture being one level.

Formula (Early Design Stage):

At the Early Design stage, the effort estimation is given by the formula:

Effort (Person-Months)=2.4×(KLOC)1.05\text{Effort (Person-Months)} = 2.4 \

times (\text{KLOC})^{1.05}

Where:

 KLOC = Thousands of Lines of Code (Estimated lines of code)

Example:

Assume KLOC = 50 (50,000 lines of code).

The effort estimation would be:

Effort=2.4×(50)1.05≈2.4×52.65≈126.36 Person-Months\text{Effort} = 2.4 \times

(50)^{1.05} \approx 2.4 \times 52.65 \approx 126.36 \text{ Person-Months}
Summary:

 Function Point Analysis is used to measure the functional size of a

software system.
 COCOMO Model estimates effort and time based on lines of code and
other project characteristics. In the Early Design stage, it uses a formula
involving KLOC to estimate the required person-months for the project.

Unit 5

Q1 Explain the procurement Management in detail.

Ans: Procurement Management:

Procurement Management is the process of acquiring goods, services, or

works from external sources through a structured process. It involves activities
that ensure the acquisition of resources necessary for the project in a timely and
cost-effective manner. It includes planning, executing, and managing contracts
with external vendors, suppliers, or contractors.

Key Components of Procurement Management:

1. Plan Procurement Management:

o Objective: Determine which goods and services need to be
acquired externally and define the procurement strategy.
o Includes identifying procurement requirements, establishing
contract types (fixed-price, cost-reimbursable, time and material),
and defining procurement roles and responsibilities.
2. Conduct Procurements:
o Objective: Obtain the necessary goods or services by soliciting
bids, proposals, or quotes.
 o Includes sending out Requests for Proposals (RFPs), Requests for
Quotation (RFQs), evaluating proposals, selecting suppliers, and
awarding contracts.
3. Control Procurements:
o Objective: Ensure that the vendor’s performance aligns with the
contract and resolve any issues that arise during execution.
o Includes monitoring vendor performance, managing contracts,
controlling changes, and ensuring compliance with terms and
conditions.
4. Close Procurements:
o Objective: Finalize and close all procurement activities once goods
or services are delivered and accepted.
o Involves formal acceptance of deliverables, resolving any disputes,
and completing contract closure documentation.

Procurement Process Flow:

1. Identify Procurement Needs: Recognizing what goods, services, or

resources need to be acquired externally.
2. Market Research and Solicitation: Investigating suppliers, sending out
RFPs, or RFQs, and inviting vendors to bid.
3. Vendor Selection: Evaluating bids and selecting the best-suited vendors.
4. Contract Negotiation: Negotiating terms, costs, and conditions of the
contract.
5. Contract Management: Managing the relationship with the supplier and
monitoring the contract’s performance.
6. Payment and Closure: Finalizing payments and closing out the contract
once deliverables are met.

Benefits of Effective Procurement Management:

 Ensures timely acquisition of required resources.

 Helps manage costs and avoid delays.
 Mitigates risks associated with supplier performance.
 Ensures quality and compliance with contract terms.

Summary:

Procurement Management involves the planning, conducting, controlling, and

closing of procurement activities to ensure that goods, services, and works are
obtained from external sources effectively, efficiently, and in compliance with
contract terms.
Q2 short note on Change management

Ans: Change Management:

Change Management is the structured approach to transitioning individuals,

teams, and organizations from a current state to a desired future state. It
involves planning, implementing, and managing changes to processes,
technologies, or organizational structures to ensure smooth adoption and
minimize resistance.

Key Elements:

1. Identifying Change: Recognizing the need for change within the

organization.
2. Planning: Developing a strategy for implementing the change.
3. Communication: Informing all stakeholders about the change and its
impacts.
4. Execution: Implementing the change with support and training.
5. Monitoring: Assessing the success and addressing any issues.
6. Sustaining: Ensuring long-term adoption and improvement.

Goal:

The goal of change management is to help organizations successfully adapt to

change while minimizing disruptions and maximizing the benefits of the
transition.

Summary:

Change Management helps organizations manage transitions effectively,

ensuring that changes are implemented smoothly with minimal resistance and
maximum benefit.

Q3 Short note on PERT/CPM

Ans: PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) / CPM (Critical

Path Method):

PERT and CPM are project management techniques used to plan, schedule,
and control projects.
  PERT is used for projects with uncertain activity durations and focuses
on time estimation. It involves three time estimates for each activity:
optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely.
 CPM is used for projects with predictable activity durations and focuses
on determining the longest path of dependent tasks (the critical path) to
identify the minimum project duration.

Key Components:

1. Activities: Tasks required to complete the project.

2. Dependencies: Relationships between tasks.
3. Critical Path: The longest sequence of dependent activities that
determines the project duration (CPM).
4. Slack Time: The amount of time an activity can be delayed without
affecting the project deadline (PERT).

Goal:

To optimize project schedules, ensure efficient use of resources, and identify

key tasks that impact project completion.

Summary:

PERT and CPM are project management techniques that help in scheduling,
coordinating, and controlling complex projects by analyzing the time required
for tasks and identifying the critical path.

Q4 short notes on WBS

Ans: WBS (Work Breakdown Structure):

A Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) is a hierarchical decomposition of a

project into smaller, more manageable components or tasks. It breaks down the
overall project scope into smaller work packages that can be easily planned,
assigned, and tracked.

Key Features:

1. Hierarchy: Organizes work into levels, from the overall project down to
individual tasks.
 2. Work Packages: The smallest units of work that can be assigned to a
team or individual.
3. Scope Definition: Helps define the scope of work by breaking it into
manageable chunks.

Purpose:

To ensure that all project deliverables and tasks are clearly identified and
assigned, aiding in effective planning, resource allocation, and tracking.

Summary:

WBS is a hierarchical structure that divides a project into smaller, manageable

tasks, helping with scope management, planning, and execution.

Q5 Numerical on PERT/CPM

Ans: Numerical Example on PERT/CPM:

Consider a project with the following activities and their durations (in days):

Optimistic Time Most Likely Time Pessimistic Time

Activity Predecessor
(O) (M) (P)
A None 4 6 8
B A 2 4 6
C A 3 5 7
D B 1 3 5
E C 2 4 6

Step 1: Calculate Expected Time (Te) for each activity using

PERT formula:
Te=O+4M+P6Te = \frac{O + 4M + P}{6}

 For Activity A:
TeA=4+4(6)+86=4+24+86=366=6 daysTe_A = \frac{4 + 4(6) + 8}{6} = \frac{4 +
24 + 8}{6} = \frac{36}{6} = 6 \text{ days}

 For Activity B:

TeB=2+4(4)+66=2+16+66=246=4 daysTe_B = \frac{2 + 4(4) + 6}{6} = \frac{2 + 16

+ 6}{6} = \frac{24}{6} = 4 \text{ days}

 For Activity C:

TeC=3+4(5)+76=3+20+76=306=5 daysTe_C = \frac{3 + 4(5) + 7}{6} = \frac{3 + 20

+ 7}{6} = \frac{30}{6} = 5 \text{ days}

 For Activity D:

TeD=1+4(3)+56=1+12+56=186=3 daysTe_D = \frac{1 + 4(3) + 5}{6} = \frac{1 +

12 + 5}{6} = \frac{18}{6} = 3 \text{ days}

 For Activity E:

TeE=2+4(4)+66=2+16+66=246=4 daysTe_E = \frac{2 + 4(4) + 6}{6} = \frac{2 + 16

+ 6}{6} = \frac{24}{6} = 4 \text{ days}
Step 2: Draw the Network Diagram and Calculate Critical Path:

 From the above data, we construct the network, calculate the earliest
start (ES), earliest finish (EF), latest start (LS), and latest finish (LF) times.
 Identify the critical path (the path with zero slack), which determines the
project duration.

Step 3: Calculate Project Duration:

Assume the critical path is A → C → E, and the total project duration will be
the sum of the expected times on this path:

Project Duration=TeA+TeC+TeE=6+5+4=15 days\text{Project Duration} = Te_A

+ Te_C + Te_E = 6 + 5 + 4 = 15 \text{ days}

Summary:
In this example, the project duration using PERT/CPM is 15 days. PERT
provides expected times based on optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely
estimates, while CPM helps identify the critical path and project timeline.

Unit 6

Q1 Explain tools and techniques for qualtity control.

Ans: Tools and Techniques for Quality Control:

Quality control (QC) involves monitoring and ensuring that project deliverables
meet the required standards. Several tools and techniques are used to assess and
control quality throughout the project.

1. Control Charts:

 Purpose: Monitor process performance over time and identify any

variations or deviations from the desired process.
 Technique: Used to track data points (e.g., measurements of a product or
process) and analyze if they fall within control limits (upper and lower).

2. Pareto Chart:

 Purpose: Identify the most significant issues or defects contributing to

problems.
 Technique: A bar graph that helps visualize the frequency or impact of
defects, based on the Pareto principle (80% of problems come from 20%
of causes).

3. Histogram:

 Purpose: Show the distribution of data and the frequency of quality

issues.
 Technique: A bar graph displaying the frequency of data points within
specified ranges, helping identify trends or patterns in the data.

4. Cause and Effect Diagram (Fishbone/Ishikawa Diagram):

 Purpose: Identify the root causes of quality problems.

 Technique: A diagram that categorizes potential causes of defects (e.g.,
people, processes, equipment, materials), helping teams analyze the
factors that affect quality.
5. Flowchart:

 Purpose: Visualize the steps in a process and identify inefficiencies or

bottlenecks.
 Technique: A diagram that outlines the sequential flow of tasks in a
process, helping to identify areas for improvement.

6. Scatter Diagram:

 Purpose: Identify relationships between two variables.

 Technique: A graph that plots data points, showing how one variable
affects another, helping to detect correlations or trends.

7. Inspection:

 Purpose: Physically examine and test deliverables or processes to ensure

they meet specifications.
 Technique: Reviewing outputs, conducting tests, or measuring to verify
compliance with predefined quality criteria.

8. Six Sigma:

 Purpose: Improve process quality by identifying and removing causes of

defects and variability.
 Technique: A data-driven methodology (DMAIC – Define, Measure,
Analyze, Improve, Control) used to reduce defects to a minimal level (3.4
defects per million opportunities).

Summary:

Quality control tools help identify, analyze, and correct issues in processes or
products to meet quality standards. These techniques, such as control charts,
Pareto charts, and flowcharts, enable project teams to continuously monitor and
improve quality.

Q2 Short note SEI CMM

ANS: SEI CMM (Software Engineering Institute Capability Maturity

Model):

SEI CMM is a framework used to assess and improve the maturity of software
development processes. It provides organizations with guidelines for evolving
their software processes to improve quality, reduce risks, and increase
efficiency.

Key Levels of CMM:

1. Level 1: Initial - Processes are unpredictable, poorly controlled, and

reactive.
2. Level 2: Managed - Processes are project-focused, with basic project
management practices.
3. Level 3: Defined - Processes are standardized and documented across the
organization.
4. Level 4: Quantitatively Managed - Processes are measured and
controlled using data.
5. Level 5: Optimizing - Focus is on continuous improvement through
process optimization.

Purpose:

To guide organizations in improving their software development capabilities

and ensuring more predictable and successful project outcomes.

Summary:

SEI CMM is a maturity model that helps organizations improve their software
development processes by progressing through five levels of increasing process
maturity.

Q3 short note on Mccalls Quality Mode

Ans: McCall's Quality Model:

McCall's Quality Model is a framework for assessing software quality based on

11 characteristics, grouped into three categories: product operation, product
revision, and product transition.

Key Characteristics:

1. Product Operation: These are the attributes related to how the software
behaves during normal operation (e.g., reliability, efficiency, usability).
2. Product Revision: These characteristics reflect how easily the software
can be modified (e.g., maintainability, flexibility, testability).
 3. Product Transition: These characteristics focus on the software's ability
to adapt to new environments (e.g., portability, adaptability).

Purpose:

To evaluate software quality from multiple perspectives, ensuring that the

software meets user needs, can be maintained, and can adapt to future changes.

Summary:

McCall's Quality Model defines software quality through 11 characteristics,

focusing on operational performance, ease of revision, and adaptability to
changes.

Q4 short note Six Sigma

Ans: Six Sigma:

Six Sigma is a data-driven methodology aimed at improving process quality by

identifying and eliminating defects and variability. The goal is to achieve near-
perfect performance, with fewer than 3.4 defects per million opportunities.

Key Principles:

1. Define: Identify the problem and project goals.

2. Measure: Collect data to understand current performance.
3. Analyze: Identify the root causes of defects or issues.
4. Improve: Implement solutions to address root causes.
5. Control: Ensure sustained improvements and monitor processes.

Purpose:

To improve quality, reduce waste, and increase efficiency by systematically

reducing variability in processes.

Summary:

Six Sigma is a quality management methodology focused on reducing defects

and variability in processes to achieve near-perfect results.
Q5 short note on FTR

Ans: FTR (Formal Technical Review):

FTR is a structured process where a team of experts reviews a project or

product for defects, issues, or improvements. It is a form of peer review used to
ensure the quality of software, documentation, or designs.

Purpose:

To identify defects early in the development process, improve product quality,

and enhance team collaboration.

Process:

1. Planning: Define objectives and schedule the review.

2. Preparation: Team members prepare by reviewing materials.
3. Review: Discuss issues, defects, and improvements.
4. Follow-Up: Ensure necessary actions are taken based on review findin a
methodical review to detect

Summary:

FTR is a methodical review to detect defects and improve the quality of

software or project artifacts early in the development cycle.

Q6 short note on ISO 9001

Ans: ISO 9001:

ISO 9001 is an international standard for quality management systems (QMS).

It provides guidelines for organizations to ensure consistent quality in products
and services by focusing on customer satisfaction, continuous improvement,
and process efficiency.

Key Principles:

1. Customer Focus: Meeting customer needs and expectations.

2. Leadership: Clear direction and commitment from management.
 3. Engagement of People: Involvement of employees at all levels.
4. Process Approach: Efficient and effective process management.
5. Improvement: Continuous enhancement of processes and systems.
6. Evidence-Based Decision Making: Decisions based on data and
analysis.
7. Relationship Management: Building relationships with stakeholders for
mutual benefit.

Purpose:

To help organizations ensure product/service quality, improve operations, and

enhance customer satisfaction.

Summary:

ISO 9001 is a globally recognized standard that sets requirements for quality
management systems to improve organizational performance and customer
satisfaction.

Q7 Explain the processes involved in risk management.

Ans: Processes Involved in Risk Management:

1. Risk Identification:
o Identifying potential risks that could affect the project or
organization. This involves brainstorming, expert judgment, and
analyzing historical data to recognize risks.
2. Risk Assessment:
o Evaluating the identified risks to determine their likelihood and
potential impact. This helps in prioritizing risks based on their
severity.
3. Risk Analysis:
o Analyzing the identified risks to understand their causes and
potential consequences. This includes qualitative and quantitative
analysis to assess the level of risk.
4. Risk Response Planning:
o Developing strategies to mitigate, avoid, transfer, or accept the
risks. This step involves defining actions to minimize negative
effects or enhance opportunities.
5. Risk Monitoring and Control:
 o Continuously tracking risks throughout the project or process
lifecycle. This involves reviewing identified risks, monitoring new
risks, and adjusting the response plans as necessary.

Summary:

Risk management involves identifying, assessing, analyzing, planning

responses, and monitoring risks to minimize negative impacts and maximize
opportunities in a project or organization.