ELECTROMAGNETISM

Electric Flux:
The number of lines of force passing through a given area is known as electric flux.
The scalar product E.dS is defined as the electric flux for the surface. It is given by
 
 E   E.ds
s

N  m2
Unit
coulomb
Electric flux is a property of an electric field. Electric field lines are usually considered
to start on positive electric charges and to end on negative charges. If there is no given
net charge within a given closed surface then every field line directed into the given surface
continues through the interior and is usually directed outward elsewhere on the surface. The
negative flux just equals in magnitude the positive flux, so that the net or total, electric flux is
zero. If a net charge is contained inside a closed surface, the total flux through the surface is
proportional to the enclosed charge, positive if it is positive, negative if it is negative.

Gauss law in Electrostatics:

The mathematical relation between electric flux and the enclosed charge is known
as Gauss law for the electric field. It is one of the fundamental laws of electromagnetism. Gauss’s
law states that the total electric flux (ϕE) over a closed surface is equal to 1/ε0 times the total
charge Q enclosed within the surface.
  q
 E   E.dS 
S
0
Here S is known as Gaussian surface and ε0 is the permittivity of the free space.
In a dielectric medium Gauss’s law is given by
  q
 E   E.dS  where ε is the permittivity of free space
S

Proof:
Let a charge +Q is placed at O within a closed surface of irregular shape. Consider a
point P on the surface at a distance r from O. Now take a small area ds around P. The normal
to the surface ds is represented by a vector ds which makes an angle θ with the direction of
electric field E along OP. The electric flux dΦ E outwards through the area ds is given by
d E  E.dS  EdS cos …… (1)

Dr. P. Venkata Ramana, AUCE (A)

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 From coulombs law, the electric intensity E at a point P distance r from a point charge
Q is given by
1 q
E   ……. (2)
40  r 2 
From eqn (1) and (2), we get
q
d E  .dS cos
40 r 2

q  dS cos 
d E   
40  r 2 

 dS cos  
But   is the solid angle dω subtended by dS at O. Hence
 r 
2

q
d E  d …… (3)
40
The total flux ΦE over the entire whole surface is given by
q
E 
40  d
Where  d is the solid angle subtended by whole surface at O. This is equal to 4π.
q
E   4
40

q
E  ….. (4)
0
Let the closed surface encloses several charges say +q1, +q2, +q3 ,….. +qʹ1, +qʹ2, +qʹ3
,….. Now each charge will contribute to the total electric flux. Here it should be remembered
that for positive charges, the electric flux will be outward and hence positive while for the

Dr. P. Venkata Ramana, AUCE (A)

2
negative charges, the electric flux will be inward and hence negative. Thus the total flux is
given by

E 
1
q1  q2  q3  .......  q1  q2  q3 
0
1
E 
0
q where q is algebraic sum of all charges

So the total normal electric flux over the closed surface is equal to 1/ε0 times the total
charges enclosed within the surface which established the Gauss’s law.
Gauss’s Law in Differential form:
  Q
Gauss’s law is given by  .dS 
E
S
0
For a charge distribution
Q   dv where ρ is the charge density
V

Using Gauss divergence theorem

 E.ds   .E dv
S V

1
 0 V
 dv   .E dv
V

 
  .E  
V 0
dv  0


 .E  0
0

 .E  This is the differential form of Gauss’s law
0
 The charges enclosed by the surface may be point charges or continuous charge
distribution.
 The net electric flux may be outward or inward depending upon the sign of charges.
 Electric flux is independent of shape and size of Gaussian surface.
 The Gaussian surface can be chosen to have a suitable geometrical shape for
evaluation of flux.
Limitation of Gauss’s law:
(a) Since flux is a scalar quantity Gauss’s law enables us to find the magnitude of electric
field only.
3
Dr. P. Venkata Ramana, AUCE (A)
 (b) The applicability of the law is limited to situations with simple geometrical symmetry.
Applications of Gauss's law:
1. If the charge distribution has spherical symmetry, then Gauss's law can be used with
concentric spheres as Gaussian surfaces.
2. If the charge distribution has cylindrical symmetry, then Gauss's law can be used with
coaxial cylinders as Gaussian surfaces.
3. If the charge distribution has plane symmetry, then Gauss's law can be used with pill
boxes as Gaussian surfaces.
Electric field due to a uniformly charged sphere:
Case i: At a point outside the charged sphere:
Consider a sphere of radius R with center O. let q be the charge uniformly distributed
over it. Suppose P be an external point at a distance r from the centre of the sphere. By
symmetry, take Gaussian spherical surface with radius r and center O. The Gaussian surface
will pass through P and experience a constant electric field all around as all points is equally
distanced ‘r’ from the center of the sphere.
According to Gauss law, the total
electric flux over a closed surface is 1/ε0
times the charge enclosed within the surface.
q
 E   E.dS 
0
Since E and dS are in the same direction
q
 E   EdS 
0
q
 E  E  dS 
0
q
 E  E.4r 2  (Area of Gaussian surface is 4πr2)
0
1 q
E
40 r 2
The electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell at a point outside the
shell is such as if the whole charge were concentrated at the centre of the shell.
Case ii: At a point on the surface:

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 When the point lies on the surface of the sphere, then r=R. in this case, the field
intensity is given by
1 q
E
40 R 2
The electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell at a point on the
surface of the shell is maximum.
Case iii: At a point inside the charged sphere:

Here we shall find the electric field E at a point which is inside the charged sphere at a
distance rʹ from the center.
The electric flux over the entire Gaussian surface
q
 E   E.dS 
0
Since E and dS are in the same direction
q
 E   EdS 
0

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 q
 E  E  dS 
0
q
E.4r  2  (area of Gaussian surface is 4πrʹ2)
0
1 q
E
40 r  2

1 0
E
40 r  2
Since q=0 inside the Gaussian surface
E 0
This property E=0 inside a cavity is used for electrostatic shielding.
Electric Field due to a Charged Cylinder:

Consider an infinite circular cylinder of radius R. let the charge is distributed

uniformly along the cylinder and ρ is the charge per unit volume. Consider a cylindrical
Gaussian surface of length l and radius r with same axis as that of the charged cylinder.

 E.dS   E.dS   E.dS   E.dS

S A B C

The contribution to electric flux due to circular ends of the cylinder comes out to be
zero because E and dS are at right angles to each other. The only contribution to the electric
flux is due to the curved surface of the cylinder.

 E.dS   EdS cos 90   EdS cos 90   EdS cos 0

  

S A B C

 E.dS   EdS cos 0



S C

 E.dS   EdS
S C

 E.dS  E  dS
S C

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  E.dS  E  2rl
S

The total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is given by

Charge=volume x volume density
Charge  r 2l  
According to Gauss’s law
q
 E   E.dS 
0
1
E  2rl  r 2l  
0
r
E
2 0
Expression in terms of charge per unit length of cylinder λ:
q
Let λ be the charge per unit length of the cylinder, then  
L
Charge= r 2l  
q
Charge= r 2l 
R 2 L
lr 2 
Charge=
R2
lr 2 
E 2rl  
1

0 R2
r
E
20 R 2

Gauss’s law and Coulombs law:

Consider an isolated point charge q. construct a Gaussian
surface of radius r.
At any point on the spherical surface, the electric intensity E
will have the same magnitude and direction normal to the surface.
Both E and ds are directed outward.
q
According to Gauss’s law, this must be equal to or ε0.
0

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 q
 E.ds   0

As E is constant everywhere at the spherical surface, hence

 0 E. ds  q

 0 E.(4r 2 )  q  ds  4r
2
(Since surface area of the sphere)

1 q
E
40 r 2
If at the spherical surface, a second charge q0 is placed, it experiences a force given by
F  Eq0

1 qq0
F This is Coulombs law.
40 r 2
Force on a current carrying conductor:
Consider the case of a current carrying conductor placed in magnetic field
(perpendicular to paper). We know that current is an assembly of moving charges, therefore
the magnetic field will exert a side way force on the conductor carrying current.

If the charge is infinitely small, then

dF  dq (v  B)
Where v is the velocity of charge per unit time
dl dl
dF  dq(  B) (v  )
dt dt
dq
dF  (dl  B)
dt
dF  i (dl  B)
When B is uniform over the length of wire, then integrating above equation
F  i (l  B)
The force is perpendicular to both l and B
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Case i: when the angle between magnetic induction B and length of l be θ, then the
magnitude of force F is given by
F  i Bl sin 
The force will be perpendicular to l and B
Case ii: when the angle between magnetic induction B and length of l be 90°, then the
magnitude of force F will be maximum and is given by
Fmax  iBl
The force is again in a direction perpendicular to both l and B
The direction of force can be obtained from Fleming’s left hand rule
Torque on a current loop:

Consider a rectangular loop pqrs of length l and breadth b placed in a uniform field of
magnetic induction B. the sides pq and rs are always normal to the field direction. The normal
to the plane of the loop makes an angle θ with the direction of uniform magnetic field. Let a
current I flows through the loop.
The sides pq and rs are perpendicular to field, equal and opposite forces of magnitude
ilB acts on them. The direction of force on pq being upwards and on rs being downward (by
Fleming’s left hand rule)
The sides qr and ps makes an angle θ with the field direction. Equal and opposite
forces of magnitude ibBsinθ act on them. The directions being towards right and left
respectively.
The resultant force on the loop is zero however the resultant torque is not zero
because the forces on sides pq and rs constitute a torque. The moment of torque is given by
  ilBb sin 
When θ=90°, the torque is maximum and when θ=0, torque is zero.

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   iAB sin  where A=lb= area of the coil
If the coil has N turns, then
  iNAB sin 
  iNA B
  M B where M=NiA= magnetic moment of current circuit.
Biot - Savart’s Law:
The Biot-Savart law is an equation describing the magnetic field generated by a
constant electric current. It relates the magnetic field to the magnitude, direction, length, and
proximity of the electric current. This law is fundamental to magnetostatics, playing a role
similar to that of Coulomb’s law in electrostatics. Biot-Savart observed that the magnetic
field distribution dB at any point due to small element dl of a current carrying conductor
depends upon the following factors.

1. It is directly proportional to the current flowing through the conductor

dB  i
2. It is directly proportional to the length dl of the element considered
dB  dl
3. It is directly proportional to the sine of the angle θ between length of element and the
line joining the element to the point
dB  sin 
4. It is inversely proportional to the square of the distance r of the point from the element
dl
1
dB 
r2
i dl sin 
Combining all these factors dB 
r2
0 i dl sin 
When the conductor is placed in vacuum or air, then dB  
4 r2

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 0
where the proportionality constant and μ0 is the magnetic permeability of the free
4
space.
Magnetic Induction:
The magnetic induction at any point in the magnetic field is defined as the magnetic
flux passing through the unit area at that point. It is denoted by B. it is a vector quantity. Its
S.I. unit is Wb/m2 or tesla (T)

B
A
Where B is magnetic induction, Φ is magnetic flux; A is the area through the
magnetic flux passing.
Magnetic field due to long straight conductor carrying current:

Consider an infinitely long conductor placed in vacuum and carrying a current i. Let
the distance of P from the conductor be R. Consider a small element of length dl from the
conductor at distance l. Let be the distance of the element from the point P. suppose θ be the
angle in clockwise direction which the direction of current makes with the line joining the
element P. The magnitude of the field dB due to small element dl at point P is given by

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 0 i dl sin 
dB   …. (1)
4 r2
The field due to the whole conductor is given by
 0 i  sin  dl
B   dB 
4  r 2

From figure, r  l 2  R 2  1/ 2

and sin   sin(    ) 
R
r
R
sin  
l 2
 R2 1/ 2

Substituting the values of r and sinθ in equation (1)

 0 i  R dl
4  l 2  R 2 3 / 2
B

In order to evaluate this integral we substitute l = R tan

dl = R sec 2 d
The limits of integration under this substitution become –π/2 to π/2


 0i 2
R.R sec 2  d
B
4  R 2
tan 2   R 2  3/ 2

2



i 2
R 2 sec 2  d
B 0
4  R 1  tan  
3 2 3/ 2

2



i 2
d
B 0
4  Rsec  

2



 0i 2
4R 
B cos  d

2


0i
sin  2

B
4R 2

 0i
B 1  1
4R
 0i
B
2R

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 This is the expression for the magnetic field induction near a long straight conductor.
Magnetic field on the axis of a current loop:

Let there be a circular coil of radius R and carrying current i. Let P be any point on
the axis of a coil at a distance x from the center and which we have to find the field. To
calculate the field, consider a small element dl at the top of the coil.
Let r is the distance of the element from the point P and θ is the angle which the
direction of current makes with the line joining the element to the point P.
The magnetic field dB at point P due to current element of length dl is given by
0 i dl sin 
dB  
4 r2
 0 i dl sin 90 
dB   (Angle between dl and r =90°)
4 r2
 0 i dl
dB  
4 r 2
Resolving dB into two components: dBsinϕ along the axis of the loop and another one
is dBcosϕ at right angles to the x-axis. Since coil is symmetrical about x-axis the contribution
dB due to the element on opposite side (along -y axis) will be equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction and cancel out. Thus we only have dBsinϕ component.
The resultant B for the complete loop is given by,
B   dB sin 

 0i
4r 2 
B dl sin 

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  0i a a
2 
B dl    sin  
4r r r
 0ia
4r 3 
B dl

But  dl 
is the circumference of the coil = 2πa and from figure r  a 2  x 2 
1/ 2

 0ia
B  2a
4 (a 2  x 2 ) 3 / 2

0ia 2
B
2(a 2  x 2 )3 / 2
If there is N turns of the coil
0 Nia 2
B
2(a 2  x 2 ) 3 / 2
The direction of B is along the axis of the coil
1. At the centre of the coil x=0. Thus at the centre of the coil
0 Nia 2
B
2(a 2 ) 3 / 2

0 Nia 2
B
2(a 3 )
 0 Ni
B
2a

2. At very far off from the loop x>>a and a 2  x 2  3/ 2

 x3

 0 Nia 2
B
2x 3
Ampere’s law:
Ampere derived a relation between current i and magnetic field B, the relationship is
known as Ampere’s law. According to Ampere’s law the line integral  B.dl for a closed

curve is equal to μ0 times the net current i through the area bounded by the curve.

 B.dl   i0 where μ0 is the permeability constant

Proof: Consider a long straight conductor carrying a current i. Let the conductor be
perpendicular to the page directed outward. The magnitude of the magnetic induction at a
distance R from the conductor is given by

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  0i
B (Biot-Savart’s law) …… (1)
2R
The direction of magnetic induction B is tangent to the circle of radius R centered on
the conductor. Regarding B, two points should be remembered:
1. The magnitude of B is constant at all points on the circle
2. This is parallel to the circuit element dl
Now we shall calculate the line integral of B and dl,

 B.dl   B.dl cos 0

0

 B  dl

 B(2R) ….. (2)

Where  dl  2R =circumference of the circle.

From equations (1) and (2),
 0i
 B.dl  2R  2R
 B.dl   i0

The line integral  B.dl for a closed curve is equal to μ0 times the net current i

through the area bounded by the circle. This is Ampere’s law.

Magnetic field induction due to a solenoid:
Consider a long solenoid of length l and radius a. Let N be the total number of turns
in the solenoid. Suppose the solenoid carries a current i. We shall calculate the field in the
following cases.

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1. Field at an inside point
2. Field at an axial end point
3. Field at the centre of solenoid of finite length
(1) Field at an inside point: Here we shall calculate the magnetic induction B at a point P
inside the solenoid axis. For this purpose we divide the solenoid into a number of
narrow equidistance coils.
Consider one such coil of width dx. There will be ndx turns.
Let x be the distance of point P from the centre O of the coil.
The field at P due to elementary coil of width dx carrying a current i is given by
 0 (ndx) i a 2
dB  ……. (1)
2(a 2  x 2 ) 3 / 2
From the figure ΔABC, we have
rd
sin  
dx
rd
dx 
sin 
From ΔAPO, a 2  x 2  r 2 
a 2
 x2 
3/ 2
 r3
Substituting these values in equation (1)
 0 n (rd / sin  ) i a 2
dB 
2r 3

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  0 n i a 2 d
dB 
2r 2 sin 

 0 n i d  a 
2

dB   
2 sin   r 

 0 n i d
2

dB 
2 sin 
sin 2  
a
    sin 2 
r
 0 n i d sin 
dB  …… (2)
2
The field induction B at P due to whole solenoid can be obtained by integrating the
above equation between the limits θ1 and θ2. The θ1 and θ2 are the semi vertical angles
subtended at P by first and last turn respectively of the solenoid.

2 2
 0 n i sin d
B   dB  
1 1
2

0n i
B  cos  2

2 1

0 n i
B cos1  cos 2  ….. (3)
2
At any axial point P when it is well inside a very long solenoid, θ1=0 and θ2=π
0n i
B cos 0  cos  
2
0n i
B 1  (1)
2
0 n i
B 2
2
B  0 n i
This can be taken as the field at the centre of a long solenoid.
(2) Field at an axial end point:

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 In this case θ1=0 and θ2=90°
0 n i
B
2
cos 0  cos 90  0

0n i
B
2
This shows that the field at either end is one half of its magnitude at the centre.
(3) Field at the centre of a solenoid of finite length
Consider that point P is at the centre i.e., it is a distance l/2 from either end.
l/2 l
In this case, cos1  =
{a  (l / 2) }
2 2 1/ 2
4a 2  l 2  1/ 2

l/2 l
and cos(   2 )  =
{a  (l / 2) }
2 2 1/ 2
4a  l 2
2
 
1/ 2

l
cos 2 
4a 2
l2 
1/ 2

Putting these values in equation (3)

0 n i  l l 
B  2 2  1/ 2 
2 
 4a  l 
1/ 2

4a 2  l 2  

0 n i  2l 
B  2 2 1/ 2 
2 
 4a  l  

  0 n il 
B 1/ 2 

 4a 2  l 2  
  0 iN 
B 

 4a 2  l 2  1/ 2

This expression gives the field at the centre of the solenoid of finite length

Hall Effect:
When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current carrying conductor or
semiconductor, voltage is developed across the specimen in a direction perpendicular to both
the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is called the Hall Effect and voltage so
developed is called the Hall voltage.

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 P-type semiconductor N-type semiconductor

Let us consider, a thin rectangular slab of conductor carrying current (I) in the
positive x-direction. If we place it in a magnetic field B which is in the y-direction, then the
electrons experience a Lorentz force given by,
FL  Bevd
where ‘e’ is the charge of the electron and ‘vd ’ is the drift velocity of the electron.
According to the Fleming's left hand rule, the forces exerted on the electrons are in the
negative y-direction. Hence, potential VH called Hall voltage appears between the upper and
lower surfaces of the semiconductor which establishes as electric field EH called the Hall
electric field. The Hall electric deflecting force is given by,
FH  eEH
When equilibrium is reached, the magnetic deflecting force on the charge carriers are
balanced by the electric forces due to electric field.
i.e., FL  FH

e(vd  B)  eEH

EH  (vd  B)
J
The relation between current density and drift velocity is vd  , where n is the
ne
concentration of charge carriers
EH  (vd  B)

J
EH  (  B)
ne
1
EH  (  JB )
ne
EH  RH  JB

19
 1 EH
RH ( Hall coefficient )  
ne JB
The coefficient can be evaluated by substituting the quantities EH, J and B. By
knowing the Hall coefficient the carrier density n can be estimated. Since the charge carriers
are holes for p-type material. The Hall coefficient is,
EH 1
RH   where p is the density of holes
JB pe
The Hall electric field per unit current density per unit magnetic induction is called
Hall coefficient (RH). If ‘d’ is the width of the sample across which Hall voltage VH is
measured,
VH
EH 
d
1 VH EH
RH   ( RH  )
JB d JB
If t is the thickness of the sample, then its cross section is (d x t) and current density
I
J
d t
VH  RH JBd
I
VH  RH ( ) B
t
VH t
RH 
IB
 Since all the three quantities EH, J and B are measurable, the Hall coefficient RH and
hence the carrier density can be found out.
 Generally for n-type material since the Hall field is developed in negative direction
compared to the field developed for a p-type material, negative sign is used while
denoting hall coefficient RH.
Applications of Hall Effect:
1. The sing of charge carriers can be determined.
2. The carrier density can be estimated.
3. The mobility of charge carriers can be measured directly.
4. It can be used to determine whether the given material is a metal, an insulator or a
semiconductor.

20
 5. The magnetic field can be measured by knowing the values of Hall voltage and Hall
coefficient.

Faraday’s law:
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction which is also known as Faraday’s law is
the basic law of electromagnetism which explains the working principle of motors,
generators, inductors, and electrical transformers. It helps to understand key points leading to
the practical generation of electricity or electromagnetic induction. The following are the two
laws of electromagnetic induction
1. When the magnetic flux linked with a circuit is changed, an induced e.m.f is set up in
the circuit.
2. The magnitude of the induced e.m.f is directly proportional to the negative rate of
variation of the magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
If magnetic flux ϕB in a closed conducting loop and e be the induced e.m.f in the
dB
conducting loop, then e   . This law is also called as Neumann’s law.
dt
dB
If there are N turns in the coil, then e   N
dt
Integral and differential forms of Faraday’s law:
Now using Stoke’s theorem

 E.dl   (  E )ds
C S

 
But  E.dl   t
C

t S
B.ds

From above two equations

 B
 (  E)ds   t  B.ds   t .ds
S S S

B
 (  E  t ).ds  0
S

B
  E  0
t
This is differential form of Faraday’s law electromagnetic induction.
Applications of Faraday’s law:
1. Electrical equipment like transformers works on the basis of Faraday’s law.

21
 2. Induction cooker works on the basis of mutual induction which is the principle of
Faraday’s law.
3. By inducing an electromotive force into an electromagnetic flow meter, the velocity
of the fluids is recorded.

Lenz’s law:
The Lenz law is reflected in the formula of Faraday’s law. Lenzs law tells us the direction
of this induced current, which opposes the initial changing magnetic field which produced it.
This is signified in the formula for Faraday’s law by the negative sign.
dB
e
dt
“The induced emf is directed so that any induced current flow will oppose the change
in magnetic flux (which causes the induced e.m.f.)”.
The law is based on the principle of conservation of energy. Thus when the applied
flux density B in a closed circuit is increasing, the e.m.f. or current induced in the closed
circuit is in such a direction as produce a field which tends to decrease B. on the other hand
when the applied flux density is decreasing in magnitude the current in the closed circuit is in
such a direction as to produce a field which tends to increase B. thus the induced current is in
a direction such that it produces a magnetic flux tending to oppose the original change of flux
i.e. tending to keep the total flux constant in the circuit.
Lenz’s law also obeys Newton’s third law of motion (i.e to every action there is
always an equal and opposite reaction). If the induced current creates a magnetic field which
is equal and opposite to the direction of the magnetic field that creates it, then only it can
resist the change in the magnetic field in the area. This is in accordance with Newton’s third
law of motion.
Lenz law Applications:
 Eddy current balances  Braking systems on train
 Metal detectors  AC generators
 Eddy current dynamometers  Card readers
 Microphones

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Electromagnetic or Magnetic Induction:
Electromagnetic or magnetic induction is the production of an electromotive force
across an electrical conductor in a changing magnetic field. Michael Faraday is generally
credited with the discovery of induction in 1831 and James Clerk Maxwell mathematically
described it as Faraday's law of induction.
Two types of inductance are there Self Induction and Mutual Induction
Self Induction:
When there is a change in the current or magnetic flux of the coil, an opposed induced
electromotive force is produced. This phenomenon is termed as Self Induction. When the
current starts flowing through the coil at any instant, it is found that, that the magnetic flux
becomes directly proportional to the current passing through the circuit.

LN
I
Where L is the self inductance, N is the number of turns, ϕ is the magnetic flux and I
is the current in amperes
Mutual Induction:
We take two coils, and they are placed close to each other. The two coils are P- coil
(Primary coil) and S- coil (Secondary coil). To the P-coil, a battery, and a key is connected
wherein the S-coil a galvanometer is connected across it. When there is a change in the
current or magnetic flux linked with two coils an opposing electromotive force is produced
across each coil and this phenomenon is termed as mutual induction.
0  r NA
M 
l
Where μ0 is the permeability of free space, μr is the relative permeability of the soft
iron core, N is the number of turns in coil, A is the cross-sectional area and l is the length of
the coil
Self induction Mutual induction
Self inductance is the characteristic of the coil itself. Mutual inductance is the characteristic of a pair of
coils.
The induced current opposes the decay of current in The induced current developed in the neighboring coil
the coil when the main current in the coil decreases. opposes the decay of the current in the coil when the
main current in the coil decreases.
The induced current opposes the growth of current in The induced current developed in the neighboring coil
the coil when the main current in the coil increases. opposes the growth of current in the coil when the
main current in the coil increases

23
Conduction Current:
Conduction current is due to drift of electric charges in a conductor when an electric
field is applied. Let E be the electric field strength applied across a linear conductor of length
l and cross-sectional area A. A current i flows through the conductor and V be the potential
difference between the end points of the conductor. Then,
l
R ….. (1)
A
Where R is the resistance between the points and σ is the conductivity. Applying
Ohms law, we get
V  iR  El ….. (2)
From equation (1) and (2)
i J i
E  1 where J1   E
A  A
J1 is the conduction current per unit area referred to as the conduction current densit y
and is directly proportional to the electric field intensity.
Displacement Current:
Consider the case of a capacitor of capacitance C, charged by applying a voltage V
across its ends. Then, the current through the capacitor is
dQ dV
ic  C ….. (1)
dt dt
where Q is the charge on the capacitor plates. In the case of a parallel plate capacitor.
A
C …... (2)
d
where A is the cross sectional area of the plates, d the separation between the plates
and e the dielectric constant of the medium. Electric field strength
V
E ….. (3)
d
From equations (1), (2) and (3)
dE
ic  A
dt
ic dE dD
J2    (D=εE)
A dt dt
where D is the electric displacement density and J2 is called displacement current
density, representing the current which directly passes through the capacitor and is only an
apparent current representing the rate at which flow of charge takes place from electrode-to-
24
electrode in the external circuit. Hence, it is known as displacement current. In an
electromagnetic field, both conduction current and displacement current are present, hence
the expression for total current density is
J  J1  J 2
dD
J  E 
dt
The concept of displacement current is very helpful in explaining the magnetic fields
in free space due to time varying electric fields.

Distinction between displacement current and conduction current

Conduction Current Displacement Current
Due to actual flow of charge in conducting Exists in vacuum any medium even in
medium. absence of free charge carriers.
It obeys ohm’s law Does not obey ohm’s law
Depends upon V and R E
Depend upon ε and
t

Maxwell’s Equations:
8
Maxwell in 1962 formulated the basic laws of electricity and magnetism in the form
of four fundamental equations. These equations are known as Maxwell’s equations. The
integral forms of these equations are given below.
q
1.  E.dS   0

This is the Gauss’ law of electrostatics which states that the electric flux though a
closed surface is equal to the net charge enclosed by the surface divided by the
permittivity constant ε0.
2.  B.dS  0
This is the Gauss’ law of magnetism; this states that the magnetic flux through a
closed surface is zero.
d B
3.  E.dl   dt
This is the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. This law states that an electric
field is produced by changing magnetic field.

25
4.  B.dl   0 i

This is the Ampere’s law for magnetic field due to steady current. This law states that
the amount of work done in carrying a unit magnetic pole one around a closed arbitrary
path linked with the current is μ0 times the current i.

The Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations can also be stated in the differential forms as
follows:

i. div E 
0
ii. div B  0
B
iii. curl E  
t
 E 
iv. curl B  0  j   0
 t 
The above differential forms can be obtained from the integral forms as follows:
q
1.  E.ds   0
(Gauss’s law for electricity)

If ρ be the charge density and dV, the small volume considered, then
q    dv
V

1
 E.ds    dv 0V

 0 E.ds   dv
V

 D.ds  dvV
( 0E  D )

According to Gauss’s divergence theorem

 A.ds   (.A) dv
s v

Hence  D.ds  (.D)dv

V

So,  (.D) dv    dv
V V

.D  

26
Dr. P. Venkata Ramana, AUCE (A)
  
.E  or div.E 
0 0

Ex E y Ez 
  
x y z  0

2.  B.ds  0 (Gauss law of magnetism)

Transforming the surface integral into volume integral, we get

 B.ds   (.B)dv
V

 .Bdv  0
V

As the volume is arbitrary, the integral must be zero

Bx By Bz
.B  0 or   0
x y z
 B
3.  E.dl   t

 E.dl   t  B.ds
S

B
 E.dl   t .ds
S

Applying Stokes theorem

 E.dl  (  E ).ds
S

B
  E .ds   t .ds
S S

As the equation is true for all surfaces, we have

B B
 E   or curl E  
t t
 E E   E E   E y Ex  
or i  z  y   j x  z k     iBx  jBy  kBz 
 y z   z x   x y  t

 E E y  Bx
 z  
 y z  t

 Ex Ez  By

 z   
 x  t

27
Dr. P. Venkata Ramana, AUCE (A)
  E y Ex  Bz
  
 x y  t

4.  B.dl   i
0 (Ampere’s law)

Using Stokes theorem,  B.dl      B  ds

l S

    B .ds  0  j.ds
S S

  B  0 j

 E  E
  B  0  j   0  Replacing j by j   0
 t  t
Physical Significance of Maxwell’s Equation:
1. Maxwell equations incorporate all the laws of electromagnetism.
2. Maxwell equations lead to the existence of electromagnetic waves.
3. Maxwell equations are consistent with the special theory of relativity.
4. Maxwell equations are used to describe the classical electromagnetic field as well as
the quantum theory of interaction of charged particles electromagnetic field.
5. Maxwell equations provided a unified description of the electric and magnetic
phenomena which were treated independently.

28

Dr. P. Venkata Ramana, AUCE (A)