Unit 3: Random Variables and Random Processes
21. Random Variable Definition
A random variable represents numerical outcomes of a random experiment in digital communication, like si
22. Discrete vs. Continuous Random Variable
- Discrete: Takes specific, countable values (e.g., number of errors).
- Continuous: Takes any value within a range (e.g., signal amplitude over time).
23. Probability Density Function (PDF)
The PDF describes the likelihood of a continuous random variable taking a specific value, represented as a
24. Autocorrelation Function
Measures similarity between values of a random process at different times, indicating time-based depende
25. Mean of a Random Variable
The mean is the expected value (average) of the random variable, calculated as the weighted average of a
26. Variance of a Random Variable
Measures the spread of a random variable around its mean, indicating signal variability.
27. Random Process
A collection of random variables indexed by time. Example: Thermal noise in communication systems.
28. Power Spectral Density (PSD)
Describes how the power of a signal or process is distributed over frequencies, helping analyze signal band
29. Gaussian vs. Poisson Random Process
- Gaussian: Values follow a normal distribution.
- Poisson: Models count-based events occurring randomly over time.
30. Stationary Random Process
A process whose statistical properties (mean, variance, etc.) do not change over time.
Unit 4: Baseband Receivers, Detection Theory, Signal Space Representation
1. Primary Function of a Baseband Receiver
To recover transmitted digital signals from the received noisy baseband signals.
2. Maximum A Posteriori (MAP) Estimation
Detects the transmitted signal with the highest posterior probability, based on prior knowledge and received
3. Likelihood Ratio Test (LRT)
A hypothesis test comparing the likelihood of received signals under two hypotheses, used for signal detec
4. Minimum Error Test
Minimizes the average probability of error in detecting the transmitted signal.
5. Error Probability
Probability of incorrect signal detection, computed using the noise distribution and decision threshold.
6. Signal Space Diagram
A graphical representation of signals as points in a multi-dimensional space, aiding in modulation analysis.
7. Geometric Signal Representation
Represents signals as vectors in signal space, simplifying detection and error analysis.
8. Continuous AWGN to Vector Channel Conversion
Transforms a continuous noisy channel into a discrete vector representation for easier signal processing.
9. Optimum Filter
Maximizes the output SNR for detecting signals in noisy environments.
10. Matched Filter
A filter that maximizes SNR by correlating the received signal with the expected transmitted signal.
11. Correlation Receiver
Detects signals by computing the inner product of the received signal with template signals.
12. Correlation Receiver vs. Matched Filter
Both achieve the same result in maximizing SNR but use different implementations.
13. Advantages of Signal Space Representation
Simplifies error probability calculation, modulation analysis, and decision-making processes.
14. Minimum Error Test vs. MLE
- Minimum Error Test: Minimizes error probability.
- MLE: Selects the most likely signal without considering prior probabilities.
15. Decision Boundary in Signal Space
Defines regions for different transmitted signals to minimize detection errors.
Unit 5: Passband Digital Transmission
16. Passband Transmission
Modulates baseband signals to a higher frequency for transmission over band-limited channels.
17. Passband vs. Baseband Model
- Baseband: Signals transmitted directly at low frequencies.
- Passband: Signals modulated to higher frequencies.
18. Signal Space Diagram for BPSK
BPSK signals are represented as two points symmetrically placed on the real axis.
19. BFSK and Signal Space Diagram
BFSK uses two frequencies to represent bits, with signal points separated in frequency or orthogonal dimen
20. QPSK vs. BPSK
QPSK encodes two bits per symbol using four phase states, while BPSK encodes one bit with two phases.
21. M-QAM
Combines amplitude and phase modulation to represent multiple symbols, improving bandwidth efficiency.
22. M-PSK
Encodes information in the phase of the signal, with signal points evenly distributed on a circle.
23. Error Probability for BPSK in AWGN
P_e = Q(sqrt(2E_b/N_0)), where Q is the Q-function.
24. Error Probability for BFSK
Depends on frequency separation and SNR; improves with larger separation.
25. QPSK Error Probability
Similar to BPSK, as each bit in QPSK is equivalent to a BPSK symbol.
26. Signal Space Diagrams in M-QAM
Help visualize signal points, minimizing overlap to reduce errors.
27. Error Probability of M-PSK
Increases with M due to smaller phase separation.
28. BPSK vs. QPSK Error Robustness
BPSK is more robust due to greater separation between signal points.
29. Distance Between Signal Points in M-QAM
Larger distances reduce error probability by minimizing overlap.
30. Modulation Scheme Trade-off
Higher-order schemes improve bandwidth efficiency but increase error probability due to reduced symbol s
