Network Devices

Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers, fax machines
and other electronic devices to a network are called network devices. These
devices transfer data in a fast, secure and correct way over the same or different
networks. Network devices may be inter-network or intra-network. Some devices
are installed on the device, like NIC card or RJ45 connector, whereas some are
part of the network, like router, switch, etc.

Functions of network devices:

- Separating networks or expanding network: e.g. repeaters, hubs, bridges,
routers, brouters, switches,gateways
- Remote access: e.g. 56K Modems and ADSL modems

Ethernet Card or NIC Card

A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component without which a

computer cannot be connected over a network. It is a circuit board installed in a
computer that provides a dedicated network connection to the computer. It is
also called network interface controller, network adapter or LAN adapter.
Each NIC is identified by a unique code called a Media Access Control (MAC)
address.

Purpose:
- Used to convert data into digital signals.
- NIC allows both wired and wireless communications.
- NIC allows communications between computers connected via local area
network (LAN) as well as communications over large-scale networks
through Internet Protocol (IP).
- NIC is both a physical layer and a data link layer device, i.e. it provides
the necessary hardware circuitry so that the physical layer processes and
some data link layer processes can run on it.
- High communication speed, easy to troubleshoot, not so expensive
- Not secure, Wired connection, Proper configuration needed.
 Repeaters

A repeater is a powerful network hardware device that regenerates (not

amplifies) an incoming signal from the sender before retransmitting it to the
receiver. It is also known as a signal booster, and it helps in extending the
coverage area of networks. The Incoming data can be in optical, wireless or
electrical signals. It works at the physical layer of the OSI model.

When the incoming signals are attenuated, it copies them bit by bit and
retransmits them at their original strength. It is used for longer-distance data
transmission without compromising data security or quality. Repeaters are
two-port devices.

Features of a Repeater:
- It strengthens the system signals by transmitting signals to the weaker
locations.
- The Repeaters can continuously monitor the signals generated between
the two LANs.
- Repeaters can help with networking flexibility.
- Repeaters do not necessitate any additional processing. The only time
they need to be investigated is when performance suffers.
- Signals can be connected using various types of cables by using repeaters.

Advantages of repeaters:
- The Repeater supports the signal strength.
- These Repeaters are both cheap and easy to use.
- The Repeaters have no impact on the network's performance.
- These Repeaters are capable of retransmitting data and boosting weak
signals.

Disadvantages of repeaters
- The number of collisions increases as the number of repeaters increases.
- Only a limited number of repeaters can be connected to it.
- We can't connect the different network architectures in repeaters.
- The data traffic in the Repeaters cannot be reduced.
 Hub

The main purpose of a hub is to connect all present network devices together on
a predefined internal network. Hub is a device consisting of multiple ports that
accept ethernet connections from network devices. Hub is not considered to be
an intelligent one because it doesn't filter any data present or has no intelligence
to assume as to where the data is actually supposed to be sent, and that’s the
reason because the only thing a hub knows is that when a device is actually
connected to one of its ports. So whenever a data packet arrives at one of the
ports, it is copied to all the other ports. So all the devices present on that hub
see that data packet. So again, when a data packet comes into one port, the hub
will just rebroadcast that data to every port that has a device connected to it.
Hub is a multiport Repeater.

So, even if only two computers among the entire group want to communicate,
the other computers will also receive the data, even though it was not actually
intended for them. So whenever this happens, it not only creates security
concerns, but it also creates unnecessary traffic on the network, which wastes
bandwidth.
Pros:
- Ability to connect to the network using various physical devices.
- Cheaper compared to other devices.
- Causes a minimum delay.
- Does not affect the network’s performance.
Cons:
- Does not filter the data, hence wastage of bandwidth.
- Makes the network insecure by sharing data to all devices present in the
network.
- Involves flooding of data.

Types of Hubs:
- Active Hub: Electronics are used in Active Hubs to amplify and clean
signals before transmitting them to additional ports. The primary purpose
of active hubs is to increase the maximum distance between nodes. It
serves as both a wiring centre and a repeater.
- Passive Hub: Hubs that connect solely to Active Hubs are known as
Passive Hubs. Passive Hubs are merely used to link all ports together
electrically, and they are typically not powered. Passive hubs are more
expensive than these hubs. The signal is not amplified nor regenerated by
passive hubs.
 Bridge

A bridge in a computer network is a device used to connect multiple LANs

together with a larger Local Area Network (LAN). The mechanism of network
aggregation is known as bridging. The bridge is a physical or hardware device
but operates at the OSI model’s data link layer and is also known as a layer of
two switches.
A bridge in computer networks is used to divide network connections into
sections, now each section has separate bandwidth and a separate collision
domain. Here bridge is used to improve network performance.

Functions of Bridges in the Network

- The bridge is used to divide LANs into multiple segments.
- To control the traffic in the network.
- It can interconnect two LANs with a similar protocols.
- It can filter the data based on destination/MAC address.

Working of a Bridge:
A bridge performs in the following aspect:
- A bridge receives all the packets or frame from both LAN (segment) A and
B.
- A bridge builds a table of addresses from which it can identify that the
packets are sent from which LAN (or segment) to which LAN.
- The bridge reads the send and discards all packets from LAN A sent to a
computer on LAN A and that packets from LAN A send to a computer on
LAN B are retransmitted to LAN B.
- The packets from LAN B are considered in the same method.

Types of Bridges:

- Transparent Bridge:
Transparent bridges are invisible to other devices on the network. This bridge
doesn’t reconfigure the network on the addition or deletion of any station. The
prime function of the transparent bridge is to block or forward the data according
to the MAC address.
 - Source Routing Bridge:
Source routing bridges were developed and designed by IBM specifically for
token ring networks. The frame’s entire route is embedded with the data frames
by the source station to perform the routing operation so that once the frame is
forwarded it must follow a specific defined path/route.

- Translational Bridge:
Translational bridges convert the received data from one networking system to
another. Or it is used to communicate or transmit data between two different
types of networking systems. Like if we are sending data from a token ring to an
Ethernet cable, the translational cable will be used to connect both the
networking system and transmit data.

Advantages:
- Bridges can be used as a network extension like they can connect two
network topologies together.
- It has a separate collision domain, which results in increased bandwidth.
- It can create a buffer when different MAC protocols are there for different
segments.
- Highly reliable and maintainable. The network can be divided into multiple
LAN segments.
- Simple installation, no requirement of any extra hardware or software
except the bridge itself.
- Protocol transparency is higher as compared to other protocols.

Disadvantages:
- Expensive as compared to hubs and repeaters.
- Slow in speed.
- Poor performance as additional processing is required to view the MAC
address of the device on the network.
- As the traffic received is in bulk or is broadcasted traffic, individual
filtering of data is not possible.
- During the broadcasting of data, the network has high broadcast traffic
and broadcast storms can be formed.
 Switch

Unlike our hub, a switch is the intelligent one. A switch can learn the physical
addresses of the devices that are actually connected to it, and then it stores
these physical addresses called MAC addresses in its table. So whenever a data
packet is sent to a switch, it’s only directed to the intended destination port,
unlike a hub where a hub will just rebroadcast the data to every port.

If two computers here want to communicate with each other, the data packet
first arrives at the switch, and then the switch will look at its table of MAC
addresses and matching ports there and deliver the data to the correct port. And
then, the data packet goes to the required computer. So as a result, switch are
far more preferred over hubs because they reduce any unnecessary traffic on the
network. Switches operate at the Data Link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model.
Switches resemble bridges and can be considered as multiport bridge.

Types of Switching:
- Store-and-Forward Switching:
Store-and-forward switching is a method of switching data packets by the
switching device that receives the data frame and then checks for errors before
forwarding the packets. It supports the efficient transmission of non-corrupted
frames. It is generally used in telecommunication networks.
In store-and-forward switching, the switching device waits to receive the entire
frame and then stores the frame in the buffer memory. Then the frame is
checked for errors by using CRC(Cyclic Redundancy Check) if the error is found
then the packet is discarded else it is forwarded to the next device.

- Cut-through Switching:
Cut-through switching is a method of switching data packets by the switching
device that forwards the packets as soon as the destination address is available
without waiting for the rest of the data to arrive. It supports low latency and
high-speed transmission and requires less storage space. It is used in fiber
channel transmission, SCSI traffic transmission, etc.
In cut−through switching, data transmission starts as soon as the destination
address field arrives at the switching device. Then the device performs a lookup
operation to check whether the destination address is valid or not. If the address
is found valid and the link to the destination is available then the switching
device starts to transmit the packets to the destination without waiting for the
rest of the frame to arrive.
Pros:
- Increases the bandwidth in the network.
- Secure.
- Lower the chances of collisions.
- Can exchange the data simultaneously.
- Transfers the data at different speeds.
- Broadcast the data.

Cons:
- Expensive.
- Potential problems may cause during broadcasting traffic.
- Broadcasting may be troublesome.
- Vulnerable to security attacks.
- Proper design should be implemented.

Layer 2 Switch Layer 3 Switch

Operate on layer 2 (Data link) of Operate on layer 3 (Network Layer)

OSI model. of OSI model.

Send “frames” to destination on Route Packet with help of IP address

the basis of MAC address.

Work with MAC address only Can perform functioning of both 2

layer and 3 layer switch

Used to reduce traffic on local Mostly Used to implement VLAN

network. (Virtual Local area network)

Quite fast as they do not look at Takes time to examine data packets
the Layer 3 portion of the data before sending them to their
packets. destination

It has single broadcast domain It has multiple broadcast domain.

Can communicate within a network Can communicate within or outside

only. network.
 Router

A router is a piece of network hardware in charge of routing packets to their

destinations. Routers connect to two or more IP networks or subnetworks and
share the data packets as per the need. Routers are used in homes and offices
to connect to local networks. We can find different kinds of routers based on
their power found over the internet, which helps the data packets reach their
destinations.

Routing is the process of choosing a path for traffic within a network and
between or across networks. Routing is performed in many networks, including
circuit-switched networks like the public switched telephone network (PSTN) and
computer networks like the Internet. It is a process that uses layer 3 (or
network layer) devices to deliver packets by selecting the best path from one
network to another. The routing algorithm design and maintains the routing table
for the path determination process.

How does Router work?

A router analyzes a destination IP address of a given packet header and
compares it with the routing table to decide the packet's next path. The list of
routing tables provides directions to transfer the data to a particular network
destination. They have a set of rules that compute the best path to forward the
data to the given IP address.

Routing Table:
A routing table determines the path for a given packet with the help of an IP
address of a device and necessary information from the table and sends the
packet to the destination network. The routers have the internal memory that is
known as Random Access Memory (RAM). All the information of the routing table
is stored in RAM of routers.
S.NO Static Routing Dynamic Routing

1. In static routing routes are In dynamic routing, routes are

user-defined. updated according to the topology.

2. Static routing does not use Dynamic routing uses complex

complex routing algorithms. routing algorithms.

3. Static routing provides high or Dynamic routing provides less

more security. security.

4. Static routing is manual. Dynamic routing is automated.

5. Static routing is implemented Dynamic routing is implemented in

in small networks. large networks.

6. In static routing, additional In dynamic routing, additional

resources are not required. resources are required.

7. In static routing, failure of the In dynamic routing, failure of the

link disrupts the rerouting. link does not interrupt the
rerouting.

8. Less Bandwidth is required in More Bandwidth is required in

Static Routing. Dynamic Routing.

9. Static Routing is difficult to Dynamic Routing is easy to

configure. configure.

10. Another name for static Another name for dynamic routing
routing is non-adaptive is adaptive routing.
routing.
 Gateway
A gateway is a network node that forms a passage between two networks
operating with different transmission protocols. The most common type of
gateways, the network gateway operates at layer 3, i.e. network layer of the OSI
(open systems interconnection) model. However, depending upon the
functionality, a gateway can operate at any of the seven layers of OSI model. It
acts as the entry – exit point for a network since all traffic that flows across the
networks should pass through the gateway. Only the internal traffic between the
nodes of a LAN does not pass through the gateway.

Types of Gateways:
On basis of direction of data flow, gateways are broadly divided into two
categories:
- Unidirectional Gateways − They allow data to flow in only one direction.
Changes made in the source node are replicated in the destination node,
but not vice versa. They can be used as archiving tools.
- Bidirectional Gateways − They allow data to flow in both directions. They
can be used as synchronization tools.

Firewall
A firewall is a network security device, either hardware or software-based, which
monitors all incoming and outgoing traffic and based on a defined set of security
rules it accepts, rejects or drops that specific traffic. Accept : allow the traffic
Reject : block the traffic but reply with an “unreachable error” Drop : block the
traffic with no reply A firewall establishes a barrier between secured internal
networks and outside untrusted network, such as the Internet.

Modem
The word Modem stands for "Modulator Demodulator." The main task of this
device is to convert analog signals into digital signals. Computer process all data
in the form of 0s and 1s, but while browsing the Internet or transmitting data
from a sender to a receiver, digital data need to be converted into analog data.
The medium carries the signal to the receiver. These modems are connected to
the receiver and sender nodes—the modems at the sender end act as
modulators that convert digital signals into analog signals. The modem at the
receiver ends acts as a demodulator that converts analog signals to digital
signals.
 Transmission Media

In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path

between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which
data is sent from one place to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified
into the following types:

1. Guided Media: It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.

Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by
using physical links.
Features:
- High Speed
- Secure
- Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

(i) Twisted Pair Cable –
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They
are the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
Unshielded Twisted pair, Shieled Twisted pair

(ii) Coaxial Cable –

It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or
Teflon and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection
cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband
mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split
into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use
Coaxial cables.

(iii) Optical Fiber Cable –

It uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or
plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called
the cladding. It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division
Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.
2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical
medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
- The signal is broadcasted through air
- Less Secure
- Used for larger distances

There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:

(i) Radio waves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending
and receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM
and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.

(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to
be properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is
directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz –
300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone communication and television
distribution.

(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot
penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems.
Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse,
keyboard, printer, etc.

Connectors

A device that eliminates a section of cabling or implements a state of access for

network devices, including PCs, hubs, and switches. Connectors can be famous
for their physical presentation and mating features, including jacks and
attachment (male connectors) or attachments and ports (female connectors).
Connectors are used to connect the guided (wired) transmission media to
devices like the hub, server, workstations etc.

- RJ45: RJ45 connectors are used for Ethernet networking and are typically
found on the end of Ethernet cables. They are designed to fit into Ethernet
ports on computers, routers, switches, and other networking devices.
- UTP Coupler: UTP couplers are used to connect two unshielded twisted
pair (UTP) Ethernet cables together to create a longer cable. They are
designed to be easy to use and allow for quick and easy connections.
 - BNC Connector: BNC connectors are used for coaxial cables and are
commonly found on older networking equipment. They are typically used
in video and audio applications and can also be used for networking.
- F-Type Connectors: F-type connectors are commonly used for cable
television (CATV) and satellite television (SATV) applications. They are
designed to be easy to install and provide a secure connection for coaxial
cables.
- USB Connector: USB connectors are used for connecting peripherals to
computers and other devices. They are typically found on devices such as
printers, scanners, and external hard drives.
- MT-RJ Connectors: MT-RJ connectors are used for fiber optic networking
and provide a small, compact connection for fiber optic cables. They are
commonly used in data centers and other high-speed networking
applications.
- Twisted Pair Connector: Twisted pair connectors are used for connecting
twisted pair cables in Ethernet networking. They are designed to provide a
secure connection and prevent interference from other cables and devices.
They are commonly found on networking equipment such as switches and
routers.
- Coaxial Connector: Coaxial connectors are used for connecting coaxial
cables in networking and communication applications. They are commonly
used in cable television (CATV) and satellite television (SATV) applications,
as well as in networking equipment such as routers and switches.
- Fiber Optic Connector: Fiber optic connectors are used for connecting fiber
optic cables in high-speed networking applications. They provide a secure,
low-loss connection for transmitting data over long distances at high
speeds. There are several types of fiber optic connectors, including the
MT-RJ connector mentioned earlier, as well as the SC connector, LC
connector, and ST connector, among others. Each type of connector has its
own unique features and benefits, depending on the specific networking
application.

UPC vs APC

Ultra Physical Contact (UPC) and Angled Physical Contact (APC) are two types of
fiber optic connector end-face finishes that are commonly used in high-speed
networking applications. The key differences between these two types of
connectors are as follows:

1. End-face geometry: The main difference between UPC and APC connectors
is the geometry of the end-face. UPC connectors have a flat, polished
end-face that is perpendicular to the axis of the fiber. APC connectors, on
the other hand, have an angled end-face that is typically angled at 8
degrees.
2. Return loss: Return loss is a measure of the amount of light reflected back
toward the source after it passes through the connector. APC connectors
have a lower return loss than UPC connectors due to the angled end-face,
which reduces the amount of light reflected back toward the source.
3. Insertion loss: Insertion loss is a measure of the amount of light lost as it
passes through the connector. Both UPC and APC connectors have low
insertion loss, but APC connectors may have slightly higher insertion loss
due to the angled end-face.
4. Compatibility: UPC and APC connectors are not interchangeable, meaning
that a UPC connector cannot be plugged into an APC adapter, and vice
versa. It is important to use the correct type of connector for the specific
networking application to ensure optimal performance.
 WIFI

We all know about Wi-Fi, in our mobile, laptop everywhere Wi-Fi is supported.
Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology, by which we can access networks or
connect with other computers or mobile using a wireless medium. In Wi-Fi, data
are transferred over radio frequencies in a circular range.

It’s a Wireless network which works as a Local Area Network to operate without
using the cable and any types of wiring. It is known as WLAN. The
communication standard is IEEE 802.11. Wi-Fi works using Physical Data Link
Layer.
Nowadays in all mobile computing devices such as laptops, mobile phones, also
digital cameras, smart TVs has the support of Wi-Fi. The Wi-Fi connection is
established from the access point or base station to the client connection or any
client-to-client connection within a specific range, the range depends on the
router which provides the radio frequency through Wi-Fi. These frequencies
operate on 2 types of bandwidth at present, 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz.

Wireless routers are commonly found in homes -- they're the hardware devices
that Internet service providers use to connect you to their cable or xDSL Internet
network. A wireless router, also called a Wi-Fi router, combines the networking
functions of a wireless access point and a router.

Advantages of Wi-Fi
- It is a flexible network connection, no wiring complexities. Can be
accessed from anywhere in the Wi-Fi range.
- It does not require regulatory approval for individual users.
- It is salable, can be expanded by using Wi-Fi Extenders.
- It can be set up in an easy and fast way. Just need to configure the SSID
and Password.
- Security in a high in Wi-Fi network, its uses WPA encryption to encrypt
radio signals.
- It is also lower in cost.
- It also can provide Hotspots.
- it supports roaming also.

Disadvantages of Wi-Fi:
- Power consumption is high while using Wi-Fi in any device which has a
battery, such as mobile, laptops, etc.
- Many times there may be some security problems happening even it has
encryption. Such as many times has known devices become unknown to
the router, Wi-Fi can be hacked also.
- Speed is slower than a direct cable connection.
- It has lower radiation like cell phones, so it can harm humans.
- Wi-Fi signals may be affected by climatic conditions like thunderstorms.
 - Unauthorized access to Wi-Fi can happen because it does not have a
firewall.
- To use Wi-Fi we need a router, which needs a power source, so at the time
of power cut, we cannot access the internet.

Features of Wi-Fi include:

- Wireless Connectivity: Wi-Fi allows devices to connect to a network
without the use of physical cables, providing greater mobility and
flexibility.
- High Speed: Wi-Fi networks can provide high-speed internet access,
allowing users to download and upload data quickly.
- Easy Setup: Wi-Fi networks are easy to set up and configure, requiring
minimal technical knowledge. Most modern devices come with Wi-Fi
connectivity built-in.
- Multiple Device Connectivity: Wi-Fi networks can support multiple devices
at the same time, allowing multiple users to connect to the same network
and access the internet simultaneously.
- Security: Wi-Fi networks can be secured using encryption and other
security measures, which protect against unauthorized access and
hacking.
- Range: Wi-Fi networks can cover a wide range of distances, depending on
the type of router and the environment in which it is used.
- Compatibility: Wi-Fi is a widely adopted technology and is compatible with
a wide range of devices, including smartphones, laptops, tablets, and
smart home devices.
- Interference: Wi-Fi signals can be subject to interference from other
wireless devices and physical barriers, such as walls and buildings, which
can impact network performance.
- Reliability: Wi-Fi networks can sometimes suffer from dropouts or signal
loss, particularly in areas with high network congestion or interference.
 Bluetooth

Bluetooth simply follows the principle of transmitting and receiving data using
radio waves. It can be paired with the other device which has also Bluetooth but
it should be within the estimated communication range to connect. When two
devices start to share data, they form a network called piconet which can further
accommodate more than five devices.

Features:
- Bluetooth Transmission capacity 720 kbps.
- Bluetooth is Wireless.
- Bluetooth is a Low-cost short-distance radio communications standard.
- Bluetooth is robust and flexible.
- Bluetooth is cable replacement technology that can be used to connect
almost any device to any other device.
- The basic architecture unit of Bluetooth is a piconet.

Advantage:
- It is a low-cost and easy-to-use device.
- It can also penetrate through walls.
- It creates an Ad-hoc connection immediately without any wires.
- It is used for voice and data transfer.

Disadvantages:
- It can be hacked and hence, less secure.
- It has a slow data transfer rate: of 3 Mbps.
- It has a small range: 10 meters.
- Bluetooth communication does not support routing.
- The issues of handoffs have not been addressed.

Applications:
- It can be used in laptops, and in wireless PCs, printers.
- It can be used in wireless headsets, wireless PANs, and LANs.
- It can connect a digital camera wirelessly to a mobile phone.
- It can transfer data in terms of videos, songs, photographs, or files from
one cell phone to another cell phone or computer.
- It is used in the sectors of Medical health care, sports and fitness, Military.
1. Radio (RF) layer: It specifies the details of the air interface
2. Baseband Link layer: It performs the connection establishment within a
piconet, addressing, packet format, timing and power control.
3. Link Manager protocol layer: It performs the management of the already
established links which includes authentication and encryption processes.
4. Logical Link Control and Adaption (L2CAP) Protocol layer: It allows the
communication between upper and lower layers of the Bluetooth protocol
stack. It packages the data packets received from upper layers into the
form expected by lower layers. It also performs segmentation and
multiplexing.
5. Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) layer: It allows discovering the services
available on another Bluetooth-enabled device.
6. RF comm layer: It provides a serial interface with WAP and OBEX. It also
provides emulation of serial ports over the logical link control and
adaption protocol(L2CAP). The protocol is based on the ETSI standard TS
07.10.
7. OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication protocol to
exchange objects between 2 devices.
8. WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for internet access.
9. TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. The basic function of this
layer is call control (setup & release) and group management for the
gateway serving multiple devices.
10.Application layer: It enables the user to interact with the application.

WiMax
WiMax stands for Worldwide Inter-operability for Microwave Access. This
technology is based on IEEE 802.16. It is used to provide higher data rates with
increased coverage. It is based on MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) technology.
Its range is upto 50 Km. It may provide speed upto 70 Mbps and it can operate
in Non-Line-of-Sight. This technology is fast, convenient and cost effective.

Architecture:
Physical Layer: This layer specifies frequency band, synchronization between
transmitter and receiver data rate and multiplexing scheme.
MAC Layer: This layer provides and interface between convergence layer and
physical layer. The MAC layer is responsible for transmitting data in frames and
controlling access to shared wireless medium. The MAC protocol defines how and
when a subscriber may initiate a transmission on the channel.
Convergence Layer: This layer provides the information of the external network.
It accepts higher layer protocol data unit (PDU) and converts it to lower layer
PDU. It provides functions depending upon the service being used.

Advantages of WiMAX:
- Wide Coverage Area: WiMAX can cover an area of up to 50 kilometers,
making it suitable for providing broadband access in rural and
underserved areas.
- High Data Rates: WiMAX can provide data rates of up to 75 Mbps, which is
higher than many other wireless technologies.
- Scalability: WiMAX can be easily scaled to support a large number of users
and devices.
- Interoperability: WiMAX is based on an international standard, which
allows for interoperability between different vendors’ equipment.
- Cost-effective: WiMAX is a cost-effective solution for providing broadband
access in areas where it is not economically feasible to deploy wired
infrastructure.
-
Disadvantages of WiMAX:
 - Limited Mobility: WiMAX is designed for fixed or nomadic (semi-fixed) use,
not for mobile use.
- Interference: WiMAX operates in the same frequency range as other
wireless technologies, which can lead to interference.
- Security Concerns: WiMAX uses a shared spectrum, which can make it
vulnerable to security threats such as eavesdropping and jamming.
- Limited device availability: WiMAX devices are not as widely available as
devices for other wireless technologies, such as WiFi.
- Limited penetration: WiMAX signals may have trouble penetrating through
walls, buildings and other obstacles.

Applications:
- Broadband Internet Access: WiMAX is used to provide high-speed internet
access in rural and underserved areas where traditional wired broadband
is not available.
- Mobile Broadband: WiMAX is used to provide mobile broadband services,
allowing users to access high-speed internet on the go.
- Public Safety: WiMAX is used to provide wireless connectivity for public
safety networks, allowing emergency responders to communicate and
share information in real-time.
- VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) : WiMAX is also used to provide a
wireless link for Voice over IP (VoIP) phone services, allowing users to
make phone calls over the internet.
- Video Surveillance: WiMAX is used to provide wireless connectivity for
video surveillance systems, allowing security personnel to monitor and
record video footage remotely.

Zigbee

ZigBee is a Personal Area Network task group with low rate task group 4. It is a
technology of home networking. ZigBee is a technological standard created for
controlling and sensing the network. As we know that ZigBee is the Personal
Area Network of task group 4 so it is based on IEEE 802.15.4 and is created by
Zigbee Alliance.

ZigBee is an open, global, packet-based protocol designed to provide an

easy-to-use architecture for secure, reliable, low power wireless networks.
ZigBee is a standard that addresses the need for very low-cost implementation
of Low power devices with Low data rates for short-range wireless
communications.
IEEE 802.15.4 supports star and peer-to-peer topologies. The ZigBee
specification supports star and two kinds of peer-to-peer topologies, mesh and
cluster tree. ZigBee-compliant devices are sometimes specified as supporting
point-to-point and point-to-multipoint topologies.
Types of ZigBee Devices:
- Zigbee Coordinator Device: It communicates with routers. This device is
used for connecting the devices.
- Zigbee Router: It is used for passing the data between devices.
- Zigbee End Device: It is the device that is going to be controlled.

Advantages of Zigbee:
- Designed for low power consumption.
- Provides network security and application support services operating on
the top of IEEE.
- Easy implementation
- Adequate security features.
- Low cost: Zigbee chips and modules are relatively inexpensive, which
makes it a cost-effective solution for IoT applications.
- Mesh networking: Zigbee uses a mesh network topology, which allows for
devices to communicate with each other without the need for a central
hub or router. This makes it ideal for use in smart home applications
where devices need to communicate with each other and with a central
control hub.
- Reliability: Zigbee protocol is designed to be highly reliable, with robust
mechanisms in place to ensure that data is delivered reliably even in
adverse conditions.

Disadvantages of Zigbee :
- Limited range: Zigbee has a relatively short range compared to other
wireless communications protocols, which can make it less suitable for
certain types of applications or for use in large buildings.
- Limited data rate: Zigbee is designed for low-data-rate applications, which
can make it less suitable for applications that require high-speed data
transfer.
- Interoperability: Zigbee is not as widely adopted as other IoT protocols,
which can make it difficult to find devices that are compatible with each
other.
 - Security: Zigbee’s security features are not as robust as other IoT
protocols, making it more vulnerable to hacking and other security
threats.

Zigbee Applications:

- Home Automation
- Medical Data Collection
- Industrial Control System
- Meter reading system
- Light control system
- Home Networking