BOARD EXAM REVIEW
FOR MRI
By: Mr. Joey D. Paris, RRT
THINKING GROUND REVIEW CENTER
MRI
MRl is a computer-based cross- sectional imaging
modality.
Instead, MRI creates images of structure through the
interaction of magnetic fields and radio waves with
tissue .
MRI was originally called nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR).
MRI
Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell first discovered the
properties of magnetic resonance in the I940s.
In 1952 Bloch and Purcell were jointly awarded the
Nobel Prize in physics.
Dr. Raymond Damadian discovered that water is the
very essence of MRI imaging. He also invented the
1st whole body MRI scanner and called it
INDOMITABLE.
In 1973 Lauterbur published the first cross-sectional
images of objects obtained with MRI techniques
MRI
Dr. Paul Lauterbur stated that NMR signals could
produce a magnetic tomographic region and by the
implementation of the Fourier transformation to
produce a spatial image. He also states that
magnets could possess sufficient magnetic
homogeneity for selective image quality.
MAGNETS
MAGNETIC DIPOLE
Small magnet created by the electron spin.
MAGNETIC DOMAIN
Accumulation of many dipoles.
MAGNETS
3 principal types of magnets:
1. Natural - earth
2. Permanent – artificially produced by charging it
in the field of a electromagnet.
3. Electromagnets – consist of wire wrapped around
an iron core.
MAGNETS
INTERACTION OF MATTER WITH MAGNETS
1. DIAMAGNETIC
Materials that are unaffected when brought into a magnetic field.
2. FERROMAGNETIC
Strongly attracted by a magnet.
Alnico – an alloy of aluminum, nickel and cobalt (most useful
magnets produced by ferromagnetic material)
3. PARAMAGNETIC
Materials that are between the classification of diamagnetic and
ferromagnetic.
Slightly attracted to a magnet and loosely influenced by an
external magnetic field.
CONTRAST AGENTS USED IN MRI ARE PARAMAGNETIC
MAGNETS
The SI unit of magnetic field strength is the Tesla, the older
unit is the gauss
1 Tesla = 10,000 gauss
The earth’s magnetic field at the equator is 50 µT
The earth’s magnetic field at the poles is 100 µT
RESISTIVE MAGNETS
Typically coils of wire through which a magnetic field is induced.
ADVANTAGES
They are lighter in weight than permanent magnets.
Capital costs are low.
Does not require cryogens.
DISADVANTAGES
The operational costs of the resistive magnet are quite high due to the field.
large quantities of power required to maintain the magnetic
The maximum field strength in a system of this type is less than 0.3T
due to its excessive power requirements.
Scan times are longer.
The resistive system is relatively safe as the field can be turned off
instantaneously.
However, this type of magnet does create significant stray fringe magnetic
fields.
PERMANENT MAGNETS
The most commonly used magnet.
Alnico alloy that is used to make permanent magnets.
ADVANTAGES
They have open design; children, obese and claustrophobic patients are
scanned with ease.
Interventional and dynamic procedures are possible.
They require no power supply and are therefore low in operating costs.
DISADVANTAGES
They are excessively heavy; only low fixed field-strengths (0.2– 0.3 T) can
be achieved.
Longer scan times are needed, due to lower field strengths.
Cost of the magnet.
Heavy supporting structures.
SUPERCONDUCTING MAGNETS
consist of a coil made of a niobium-titanium (Nb-Ti) alloy
ADVANTAGES
It gives high magnetic field strengths (0.5–3 T) with low power requirements.
Low operating costs.
Resistance virtually eliminated, there is no longer a mechanism to dissipate
current, therefore no additional power input is required to maintain the high
magnetic field strength.
Advanced applications are possible and optimum image quality is
obtained.
DISADVANTAGES
There is a high capital cost.
Fringe fields are significant, so shielding is necessary.
The tunnel design renders it unsuitable for large or claustrophobic patients.
Interventional and dynamic studies are also difficult.
SUPERCONDUCTOR MAGNETS
Special cooling agents called liquid cryogens are use to
produce low temperature (4 K).
The electromagnetic coils are placed in an insulated chamber
called dewar or cryostat (contains helium).
The liquid helium is the surrounded by another dewar (liquid
nitrogen).
The process of bringing the superconducting magnets to the
necessary temperature is called ramping.
Quenching refers to a magnet’s sudden loss of superconductivity
with subsequent breakdown of the magnetic field.
DEWAR
• High insulated bottle
2 chamber of Dewar
Outer chamber-contain liquid
Nitrogen
Inner chamber-contains liquid
Helium
SUPERCONDUCTOR MAGNETS
Quenching is the process whereby there is a sudden loss of
absolute zero of temperature in the magnet coils so that they
cease to be superconducting and become resistive.
This results in helium escaping from the cryogen bath extremely
rapidly.
MRI PLANE
MRI
The principles of MRI are based on the fact that
nuclei of certain elements have a magnetic moment.
This means that if a sample of atoms of one of
these elements were placed in a magnetic field, its
nuclei would tend to line up with the field.
The precession in MRI is due to the angular
momentum.
Rotation of an object around the direction of a
force acting on that object - Precession
MRI
MRI uses the signal from the
nuclei hydrogen atoms for
image generation.
The proton possesses spin, an
intrinsic property of nearly all
particles.
1. Angular momentum
2. Magnetic moment
The proton spin always has
the same magnitude
precisely because it is a
fundamental property of
particles. Spin is simply
there all the time.
MRI
MRI
Fringe field
That portion of the magnetic field extending away from
the confines of the magnet that cannot be used for
imaging but can affect nearby equipment or personnel .
Radiofrequency (RF) pulse
A short burst of radio waves. If the radio waves are of
the appropriate frequency, they can give energy to
nuclei that are within a magnetic field by the process of
magnetic resonance. The length of the pulse determines
the amount of energy given to the nuclei.
MRI
Medical magnetic resonance (MR) imaging uses the
signal from the nuclei of hydrogen atoms (1H) for
image generation.
The hydrogen nucleus is the MR active nucleus
used in clinical MRI.
It used because it is
1. very abundant in the human body and
2. its single proton gives a large magnetic moment.
MRI
Nuclei with an odd number of protons are said to be MR active.
They act like tiny bar magnets.
There are many types of elements that are MR active. They all have
odd mass numbers.
They are:
1. Hydrogen 1,
2. Carbon 13,
3. Fluorine 19,
4. Phosphorous 31,
5. Nitrogen 15,
6. Oxygen 17,
7. Sodium 23.
MRI
Protons and neutrons spin about their own axes
within the nucleus.
The direction of spin is random so that some
particles spin clockwise, and others anticlockwise.
When a nucleus has an even mass number the
spins cancel each other out so the nucleus has no
net spin.
When a nucleus has an odd mass number, the
spins do not cancel each other out and the nucleus
spins.
MRI
The Larmor or precession frequency is the rate at which spins
wobble when placed in a magnetic field. – DIRECTLY
PROPORTIONAL TO THE STRENGHT OF THE APPLIED
MAGNETIC FIELD (B0).
It is the frequency at which the nucleus will absorb energy
that will cause it to change its alignment.
The Larmor frequency is directly proportional to the strength
(B0) of the magnetic field and is given by the
MRI
Larmor equation: ω0=γ0 x B0
ω0 is the Larmor frequency in megahertz [MHz]
γ0 the gyromagnetic ratio, the unit is megahertz/tesla (MHz/T)
B0 the strength of the magnetic field in tesla [T]. – static external
magnetic field
Protons have a gyromagnetic ratio of γ=42.58 MHz/T
MRI
B0 - the main magnetic
field measured in tesla
MRI
The component of the net magnetization vector parallel to
the magnetic field is called the longitudinal magnetization.
The component perpendicular to the magnetic field is called
the transverse magnetization.
It is the rotating transverse magnetization that gives rise
to the MR signal in the receiver coil
Net Magnetization Vector (NMV) – magnetic moment of
hydrogen
The interaction of the NMV with the B0 is the basis of
MRI.
The unit of B0 is tesla (1 tesla=10,000 gauss).
Resonance occurs when the net magnetization vector is
perturbed from its equilibrium orientation.
MRI
With no external
magnetic field present,
the protons spins and
rotate in their axis in
random direction.
MRI
In the presence of an
external magnetic
field, protons spins
and align themselves
parallel and anti
parallel to the main
magnetic field (BO)
and produces
longitudinal
magnetization.
MRI
RF tips the
magnetization vector by
exactly 90 degrees
causing the entire
longitudinal
magnetization to flip
over and rotate into
transverse
magnetization.
It is the transverse
magnetization that
emits MR signal from
the receiver coil.
MRI
A 180 degree RF pulse reorients the magnetization vector in a direction
opposite to the equilibrium orientation, but still parallel to the external
magnetic field.
A 90 degree RF pulse reorients the magnetization vector into the plane
perpendicular to the external magnetic field.
Excitation – the application of an RF pulse that causes resonance to occur.
Free induction decay - After a 90 degree RF pulse, longitudinal magnetization
is converted to transverse magnetization, which then precesses at the Larmor
frequency about the external magnetic field.
This rotation gives rise to the free induction decay (FID) signal.
Loss of signal due to relaxation
FID signals can be detected as an oscillating voltage, at the Larmor frequency
(fL), in a receiver coil placed around the sample.
FID signals are detected digitized, stored in a computer and— through use of
Fourier analysis—transformed into MR images.
MRI
Relaxation – the process by which the NMV loses its energy
or return of excited nuclei to their normal unexcited state by
the release of energy.
Relaxation occurs in recovery of magnetization in the
longitudinal plane and decay of magnetization in the
transverse plane.
Relaxation Time is the measure of the rate at which nuclei,
after stimulation release their extra energy.
Resonance – Process of energy absorption by an object
that is tuned to absorb energy of a specific energy only.
Recovery – Increase amount of magnetization in the
longitudinal plane.
Decay – Decrease amount of magnetization in the
transverse plane.
T1
T1 relaxation is also called longitudinal or spin-lattice relaxation.
T1 relaxation Protons placed into a strong magnetic field produce a
net magnetization (M) parallel to the magnetic-field axis.
The time required for precessing spins to align with the external
magnetic field (B0) to 63% of the maximum possible strength.
Dependent on the strength of the external magnetic field (B0) and
the internal motion of the molecules.
The nuclei return to their ground state by releasing their energy to
the surroundings.
The time it takes for the excited spins to recover and be available
for the next excitation.
T1 times are a few hundred milliseconds
Short TR → strong T1 weighting
Long TR → low T1 weighting
T1
T1
Tissues with a short T1 appear bright because they regain
most of their longitudinal magnetization during the TR
interval and thus produce a stronger MR signal.
Tissues with a long T1 appear dark because they do not
regain much of their longitudinal magnetization during the
TR interval and thus produce a weaker MR signal.
T1 is long in small molecules such as water and in large
molecules such as proteins.
T1 is short in fats and in intermediate-sized molecules.
T1
SHORT T1
In T1 weighted images, tissues with short T1
relaxation times such as fat, are bright (high
signal), because they recover most of their
longitudinal magnetization during the TR
Therefore more magnetization is available to be
flipped into the transverse plane by the next RF
pulse.
LONG T1
Tissues with long T1 relaxation times such as water,
are dark (low signal) because they do not recover
much of their longitudinal magnetization during the
TR
Therefore less magnetization is available to be
flipped into the transverse plane by the next RF
pulse.
T1 weighted images best demonstrate anatomy
but also show pathology if used after contrast
enhancement.
T2
T2 relaxation/decay - After a 90 degree pulse, the
transverse magnetization vector rotates at the Larmor
frequency in a plane perpendicular to the external
magnetic field.
T2 relaxation is called transverse or spin-spin relaxation.
The time required after precessing spins have aligned at
an angle to the external magnetic field (B0) to lose 63%
of their coherence or alignment with each other.
Transverse relaxation differs from longitudinal relaxation in
that the spins do not dissipate energy to their surroundings
but instead exchange energy with each other.
T2*
The loss of the MR signal due to T2* effects is called free induction decay (FID).
T2* effects can be avoided by using spin echo sequences.
T2 denotes the process of energy transfer between spins, while
T2* refers to the effects of additional field inhomogeneities contributing to
dephasing.
Decay of transverse magnetization caused by both spin dephasing, owing to
inhomogeneities in the main magnetic field, and T2 is called T2*.
Determines how quickly an MR signal fades after excitation.
T2 times are typically tens of milliseconds
Short TE → low T2 weighting
Long TE → strong T2 weighting
Tissues with a short T2 appear dark on T2-weighted images,
Tissues with a long T2 appear bright on T2-weighted images
T2
Liquids generally
have long T2 times,
large molecules and
solids generally have
short T2 times.
T2
SHORT T2
Tissues with a short T2 decay time such as fat are
dark (low signal)
Because they lose most of their coherent transverse
magnetization during the TE period.
LONG T2
Tissues with a long T2 decay time such as water are
bright (high signal), because they retain most of
their transverse coherence during the TE period.
T2 weighted images best demonstrate pathology
as most pathology has an increased water content
and is therefore bright on T2 weighted images.
T1 AND T2
T1 VS T2
SPIN ECHO SEQUENCE (SE)
S tandard MRI pulse sequence that can provide T1 -
, T2-, or proton density-weighted images.
Most widely used pulse sequence in routine
clinical MR imaging.
It consists of an excitation pulse with a flip angle of
exactly 90° which is followed by a 180° RF pulse
for refocusing the spins after dephasing caused by
T2* effects has occurred.
SPIN ECHO SEQUENCE (SE)
PROTON SPIN DENSITY
Uses a Long TR (Repetition Time),
It is the quantity of resonating spins in a tissue.
Expressed as a percentage of the proton density of
water and determines the MR signal strength
sometimes called image brightness.
Proton density images have relatively low contrast.
TR (REPETITION TIME)
Time interval between pulse sequences.
The TR is the length of time from one 90° RF pulse to the
next 90° RF pulse.
The time from the application of one RF pulse to the
application of the next RF pulse and is measured in ms.
Is the interval between two successive excitations of the
same slice.
TR determines the amount of T1 relaxation that has
occurred.
It is usually between 300 – 3,000 milliseconds
The longest of the MRI parameters used to describe the
sequence.
TR (REPETITION TIME)
a tissue with a short T1
regains most of its
longitudinal
magnetization during
the TR interval and
hence produces a large
MR signal after the next
excitation pulse.
a tissue with a long T1
gives only a small signal.
TE (ECHO TIME)
Time between a 90° pulse and the echo during a
spin-echo pulse sequence.
Time from the application of the RF pulse to the
peak of the signal incued in a coil and is also
measured in ms.
is the interval between application of the
excitation pulse and collection of the MR signal.
TE determines the amount of T2 that has occurred.
It is usually between 10 – 100 milliseconds
TE (ECHO TIME)
a tissue with a short T2
rapidly loses signal and
becomes dark
a tissue with a long T2
retains its brighter signal
for a longer time.
The echo time determines
the influence of T2 on
image contrast.
T2 is in the range of
several hundred
milliseconds and therefore
much shorter than T1.
TI (INVERSION TIME)
Time between 180° pulse and 90° inversion
pulse.
It is usually between 200 – 2,000 milliseconds
Inversion recovery (IR) sequences are typically used
for T1-weighted or fat suppressed imaging but they
can also be used to acquire T2-weighted images.
TI (INVERSION TIME)
PARTIAL FLIP ANGLE IMAGING
Is a technique that can be used to minimize
saturation and obtain an adequate MR signal
despite a very short repetition time.
SPIN ECHO SEQUENCE
use a slice-selective 90° RF pulse for excitation,
after which transverse magnetization decays with
T2*,
STIR (SHORT TI INVERSION RECOVERY)
Sequences are widely used for fat suppression
because they reliably eliminate the signal from
fat at all magnetic field strengths.
Typically used for T1-weighted or fat suppressed
imaging
A standard STIR sequence inverts the longitudinal
magnetization of both fat and water by delivery of
the 180° pulse, which is followed by a TI of some
hundred milliseconds
FLAIR (FLUID-ATTENUATED INVERSION RECOVERY)
Is an inversion recovery technique that differs from STIR
in that very long TI values (typically about 2000 msec)
are used.
There is nearly complete suppression of the signal from
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) while there is excellent
detection of signals from brain tissue, tumors, edema,
and fat.
FLAIR sequences a very useful for detecting lesions with
a poor contrast to surrounding brain tissue.
This sequence is primarily used in neuroradiologic
imaging because it completely suppresses the signal
from cerebrospinal fluid
ECHO PLANAR IMAGING (EPI)
Fast pulse sequence that can be used to create
magnetic resonance images within a few seconds.
A gradient echo technique that uses an ultrafast
Frequency-encoding gradient to generate a series
(train) of up to 128 gradient echoes.
EPI thus enables single-shot acquisition of an
image in less than 100 msec.
GRADIENT ECHO SEQUENCES
Are also known as gradient-recalled echo or fast-field echo (FFE)
sequences.
As suggested by the name, GRE sequences employ the gradient coils
for producing an echo rather than pairs of RF pulses.
Faster imaging is possible compared with SE and IR sequences,
which is the most important advantage of GRE imaging.
Fast pulse sequence that is often used with three-dimensional
imaging to generate TI-weighted images.
As a result, GRE sequences are less frequently troubled by
motion artifacts and are thus preferred whenever a short scan
time is desirable.
Gradient echo images are more sensitive to external magnetic field
imperfections.
FAST SPIN ECHO SEQUENCE (FSE)
Also known as turbo spin echo or RARE.
This technique shortens scan time by generating up
to 16 echoes with a series of 180° pulses.
FSE sequences have the same image quality as
conventional SE sequences and are nearly as fast as
GRE sequences.
GATING
Technique of synchronizing MR imaging with the
respiratory or cardiac cycle.
Organizing the data so that the information used to
construct the image comes from the same point in
the cycle of a repeating motion, such as a
heartbeat. The moving object is "frozen" at that
phase of its motion, reducing image blurring.
IMAGE FORMATION
The most commonly used pulse sequences in clinical imaging
are SE, inversion re-covery (IR), and gradient recalled echo
(GRE).
T1-weighted images are obtained with a short TR (less than
600 milliseconds) to emphasize T1 differences and a short TE
(less than 20 milliseconds) to minimize T2 differences.
T2-weighted images are obtained with a long TR (more than
2,000 milliseconds) to minimize T1 differences, because all
tissues exhibit full relaxation, and a long TE (more than 60
milliseconds) to emphasize T2 differences.
Proton density-weighted images are obtained with a long
TR (more than 2,000 milliseconds) to minimize T1 differences
and a short TE (less than 20 milliseconds) to minimize T2
differences.
IMAGE FORMATION
Contrast agent that reduce T1 more than T2
produce hyperintensity on T1 weighted
images and are called positive contrast
agent.
Contrast agent that reduce T2 more than T1
produced hypointensity on T2-weighted
images and are called negative contrast
agent.
IMAGE FORMATION
Parameters TE TR
T1 WEIGHTED SHORT SHORT
T2 WEIGHTED LONG LONG
PROTON DENSITY SHORT LONG
WEIGHTED
MRI ARTIFACTS
Motion artifacts
caused by respiration, the beating heart, and
peristalsis.
Motion artifacts degrade an MR image in the form
of blurring or discrete ghosts.
Flow-related artifacts are caused by flowing blood
as well as the flow of CSF and occur in the phase-
encoding direction
Flow artifacts are typically seen as ghosts,
MRI ARTIFACTS
MRI ARTIFACTS
Aliasing or phase wrapping
also known as phase wraparound or foldover
artifact), which is caused by phase encoding errors.
Wraparound artifacts occur whenever the
dimensions of an object exceed the defined field
of view (FOV).
MRI ARTIFACTS
Truncation artifacts
are also termed ringing, Gibb’s, or spectral
leakage artifacts and arise as a consequence of
using the Fourier transform to reconstruct an MR
image.
Bright or dark lines that are seen parallel and
adjacent to borders of abrupt intensity change, as
when going from bright CSF to dark spinal cord on
a T2-weighted image.
MRI ARTIFACTS
Magic angle artifact
primarily affects structures with parallel fibers such
as tendons and ligaments.
MRI ARTIFACTS
Zipper artifact
looks like a line of alternately bright and dark
pixels running through the image in the phase-
encoding or frequency-encoding direction.
Also called RF artifact
Chemical shift artifact
Spatial misregistration between fat and water
signals
MRI ARTIFACTS
Crisscross artifact
Also called herringbone artifact.
Artifact caused by a data processing or
reconstruction error.
Can usually be eliminated by reconstructing the
image again.
FIELD HOMOGENEITY
To obtain the most homogeneous magnetic field, the magnet
must be finely tuned (“shimming”), either passively, using
movable pieces of metal, or actively, using small
electromagnetic coils distributed within the magnet.
Shim coil
Function: Produce a homogeneous magnetic
field
Location: inside aperture of main magnet
GRADIENT COILS
Magnetic gradients are used to code the spatial
location of the MR signal and are essential for
generating MR images.
MR systems have magnetic-field gradients in the x, y
and z orientations.
Axial gradients (z) are produced using Helmholtz coils.
Gradients which change the main field as a function of
x or y distance are normally produced by saddle coils.
Gradient strengths range up to 60 mT/m (6 G/cm).
GRADIENTS
GRADIENTS
Z gradient
Alters the magnetic field strength along the Z (long axis of the
magnet)
Selects axial slices
Y gradient
Alters the magnetic field along the Y (vertical) axis of the magnet.
Selects coronal slices
X gradient
Alters the magnetic field along the X (horizontal) axis of the magnet.
Selects sagittal slices
Magnetic Isocenter
Center point of the axis of all three gradients and the bore of the
magnet.
GRADIENTS
GRADIENTS
GRADIENTS
RF COILS
RF is electromagnetic radiation with frequencies in the
range of approximately 1 MHz to 10 GHz.
The RF coils is also called send and receive coils.
It acts as antennas to produce and detect radio
waves.
Transmitter coils are used to send in RF pulses.
Surface coils are placed on the area to be imaged.
Antenna - device for transmitting or receiving radio
waves.
RF COILS
In general, an RF coil should be as close as possible
to the anatomy being imaged and surround the
target organ.
The nearer the coil can be placed to the organ
under examination, the better the resulting signal.
RF coils can be used either to transmit RF and
receive the MR signal or to act as receiver coils only.
RF COILS
MRI SHIELDING
The magnetic flux lines from the main magnetic field
can extend out to a large distance from the magnet.
The peripheral magnetic field is called the fringe field
and can affect magnetically sensitive devices.
Magnetic shielding usually consists of steel plates or
layers of sheet metal placed around the MR magnet.
MR imaging units also require RF shielding to prevent
RF signals from entering or escaping to the outside
world.
The RF shielding is a faraday cage, which consists of
copper sheet metal or screen lining the MR imager or
room.
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO
The relationship between the MR signal and the
amount of image noise present.
END OF LECTURE
