1.
Wired LAN
IEEE STANDARDS
•In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a
project, called Project 802, to set standards to enable
intercommunication among equipment from a
variety of manufacturers.
•Project 802 is a way of specifying functions of the
physical layer and the data link layer of major LAN
protocols.
IEEE standard for LANs
IEEE divided the Data link layer into two sublayer :
Upper layer :logical link control (LLC); flow and
error control.
Lower sublayer : Multiple access (MAC); media
access control.
❖Multiple access (MAC) for resolving access to the shared
media.
❖If channel is dedicated ( point to point) we do not need the
(MAC); sublayer.
IEEE standard for LANs
CSMA/CD Token passing
LLC (Logical link control) and MAC (Media Access Control)
In IEEE project 802, flow control , error control, and part of the
framing duties are collected into one sublayer called the logical
link control (LLC )
LLC provides one single data link control for all IEEE LANs.
IEEE project 802 has created a sublayer MAC that defines the
specific access method for each LAN. In contrast to the LLC, MAC
contains a number of distinct modules: each defines the access method
and the framing format specific to the corresponding LAN protocol
For example:
CSMA/CD as media access method for Ethernet LANs.
Token passing method for Token Ring and Token Bus LANs.
Framing is handled in both the LLC and MAC sublayer.
Physical layer
Physical layer is dependent on the implementation
and type of the physical media used.
IEEE define detailed specifications for each LAN
implementation.
For example, although there is only one MAC
sublayer for Standard Ethernet( CSMA/CD), there is
a different physical layer specifications for each
Ethernet implementations.
IEEE 802 Series of LAN Standards
Name Description
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet
IEEE 802.4 Token bus
IEEE 802.5 Token Ring
IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n Wireless LAN
IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth
ETHERNET IEEE 802.3
It is the dominant LAN technology.
First widely used LAN technology
Simpler and cheaper than token LANs
Kept up with speed race: 10, 100, 1000 Mbps
ETHERNET Evolution
The original Ethernet was created in 1976 at Xerox’s
Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). Since then, it
has gone through four generations.
ETHERNET
MAC Sublayer
The MAC sublayer governs the operation of the random
access method
Standard Ethernet uses CSMA/CD with 1-persistent
Ethernet dose not provide any mechanism for
acknowledging received frames( unreliable
medium).
Acknowledgments must be implemented at the higher
layer.
It also frames data received from the upper layer
and passes them to the physical layer.
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) MAC frame
The Ethernet frame contains seven fields:
Preamble:
7bytes (56 bits); Alternating 0s and 1s, used for synchronizing
Start Frame Delimiter (SFD):
10101011 indicates the start of the frame.
Last two bits (11) alerts that the next field is destination address.
preamble and SFD are added at the physical layer
and is not formally part of the frame
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) MAC frame
DA : Destination address:
SA: Source Address:
Length/Type:
Define the upper-layer protocol using the
MAC frame. OR
define the number of bytes in the data filed.
Data: minumum: 46 and maximum : 1500 bytes
CRC: error detection information:CRC-32
Note
Frame length:
Minimum: 64 bytes (512 bits)
Maximum: 1518 bytes (12,144 bits)
Minimum and maximum frame lengths
Minimum frame length restriction (64 bytes) is required for the correct
operation of CSMA/CD.
Min data length =64 - 18 (6+-6+2+4) = 46 bytes
If the upper- layer packet is less than 46 bytes, padding is added to
make up the difference.
Maximum length restriction; two historical reasons:
Memory was very expensive when Ethernet was designed.
Prevents one station from monopolizing the shared medium,
blocking other stations that have data to sent.
Max data length =1518- 18= 1500 bytes.
Ethernet address in hexadecimal notation
Each station (PC or printer) has a network
interface card (NIC) which provides the station with
a 6-byte [48 bits] physical address (MAC adress)
It is written in hexadecimal notation, with a
colon between the bytes.
Unicast and multicast addresses
Source address is always a unicast address – the frames
comes from only one station.
Destination address can be:
unicast: defines only one recipient; one to one
multicast: a group of addresses; one to many
Broadcast: the recipients are all the stations on
the LAN
Note
The least significant bit of the first byte
defines the type of address.
If the bit is 0, the address is unicast;
otherwise, it is multicast.
The broadcast destination address is a
special case of the multicast address in which
all bits are 1s.
Example 1
Define the type of the following destination
addresses: a. [Link] b.
[Link]
c. [Link]
Solution
To find the type of the address, we need to look at the second
hexadecimal digit from the left. If it is even, the address is
unicast. If it is odd, the address is multicast. If all digits are
F’s, the address is broadcast. Therefore, we have the
following:
a. This is a unicast address because A in binary is 1010.
Example 2
Show how the address [Link] is sent out
line.
on
Solutio
n
The address is sent left-to-right, byte by byte; for each
byte, it is sent right-to-left( LSB first), bit by bit, as
shown below:
left-to-right :47→20→1B→2E→08→
EE 47 is 0100 0111 right -to-left
1110 0010
Categories of Standard Ethernet
The Standard Ethernet defines several physical layer implementation,
four of the most common:
Encoding in a Standard Ethernet implementation
All standard implementations use digital signaling( baseband) at
10 Mbps.
At the sender, data are converted to a digital signal using the
Manchester scheme.
At the receiver, the received signal is interpreted as Manchester and
decoded into data.
Uses CSMA/CD with 1-persistent
10Base5:Thick Ethernet (Thicknet)
Uses coaxial cable and Bus topology
With an external transceiver( transmitter/receiver) connected via a tap.
Transceiver is responsible for:
transmitting, receiving and
detecting collisions.
The length of each segment cannot exceed 500 m
If cable > 500 m ,degradation in the signal, using repeaters to
connect multiple “segments” of cable.
No two stations can be separated by more than 2500m( max length of the
bus) and 4 repeaters.
10Base2:Thin Ethernet (Cheapernet)
Uses Bus topology with thinner and more flexible cables.
Transceiver part of a NIC card
The implementation is more cost effective than 10Base5 because:
Thin coaxial cable is less expensive than the thick
tee connections are cheaper than taps
Installation is simpler because thin coaxial cable is very flexible.
The length of each segment under 200 (cannot exceed 185 m) due to the
high level of attenuation
Repeaters are used to connect multiple segments
10 Base-T: Twisted-Pair
Ethernet
Physical star topology
Stations are connected to a hub via two pairs of twisted
cable( one for sending and one for receiving|).
Any collisions happens in the hub
Compared to others, the hub replaces the coaxial cable as
far as a collision is concerned.
Max length = 100 m to minimize attenuation.
10Base-F: Fiber Ethernet
Uses star topology to connect stations to a hub
Stations is connected to the hub by using two
pairs of fiber-optic cables.
Summary of Standard Ethernet
implementations
10Base 5 10Base2 10Base-T 10Base-F
Media Thick coaxial Thin coaxial Two UTP 2 Fiber
cable cable
Maximum 500 m 185 m 100 m 2000 m
length
Topology Bus Bus Star star
Data rate 10Mbps 10Mbps 10Mbps 10Mbps
Line coding Manchester Manchester Manchester Manchester
Backbone Networks
Backbone network allows several LANs to
be connected
No stationis directly connected to the
backbone
It is itself a LAN that uses a LAN protocol
such as Ethernet
We Discuss the two most common :
1. BusBackbone
2. Star Backbone
1Bus Backbone
The topology of the backbone is
a bus.
Backbone itself can use one of
the protocols that support a bus
topology such as 10Base5 or
10Base2
normally used as a distribution
backbone to connect different
buildings in an organization
Example : one that connect
buildings on a campus
2. Star Backbone
Topology is a star : sometimes
called a switched backbone
It is just one switch that connects
the LANs
Mostly used as a distribution
backbone inside a mutifloor
building
Connecting Remote LANs
Another common application for
a backbone network
useful when a company has
several offices with LANs and
needs to connect them
connection can be done through
bridges, sometimes called remote
bridges
connect LANs and point-to-point
networks (leased telephone lines
or ADSL lines)
point-to-point link can use a
protocol such as PPP
Virtual LANs
In a switched LAN, change the
work group mean physical
changes in the network
configuration.
What happens if we need a
virtual connection between
two stations belonging to two
different physical LANs?
Virtual LANs
A network of stations that behave as if they are connected to the
same LAN even though they may actually be physically located
on different segments of a LAN
VLANs are configured through software rather than hardware,
which makes them extremely flexible
the whole idea of VLAN technology : divide a LAN into logical,
instead of physical, segments
a LAN can be divided into several logical LANs called VLANs
each VLAN is a workgroup in the organization.
One of the biggest advantages is that when a station moves from
one group to another, without any hardware reconfiguration.
Virtual LANs
All members belonging to a VLAN can receive
broadcast messages sent to that particular VLAN
stations in a VLAN communicate with one another
as though they belonged to a physical segment
VLAN technology even allows the grouping of
stations connected to different switches in a
VLAN
Virtual LANs Membership
The membership does not depend on the
physical location of the machine, the
membership is assigned using a VLAN
software.
Different attributes of a machine can be
used to assign membership.
These are
1. Port Number
2. MAC Address
3. IP address
4. Multicast IP Address
5. Combination
[Link] Number : Membership can be assigned
according to the port number of the switch to which the
machines connect.
e.g We can define VLAN1 as all machines connecting to ports
1,2,5,6 while stations connected to port numbers 3,4,7
and 8 form VLAN2.
[Link] Address : The VLAN membership can be
specified using the MAC address of machines.
[Link] having MAC address [Link] ,
[Link] And [Link] belong toVLAN1.
[Link] address: Just like MAC addresses ,IP addresses can
be used to specify VLAN membership .
1. E.g. IP addresses [Link],[Link] and
[Link] belong to VLAN1.
[Link] IP Address: Multicasting
creates a group of machines identified
using a single address. This group
address can be used to create a VLAN.
[Link]: VLAN membership can be
assigned using a combination of the
above attributes.
Configuration
In this section we have to see how membership
is assigned i.e. how a VLAN is configured.
There are three ways to configure a VLAN:
1. Manual : In this method the administrator
manually assigns membership to a VLAN
using VLAN S/W.
When a machine is to be moved from one
VLAN to another, the changes are made in
the S/W manually.
2. Automatic : In this method, the membership to
a VLAN is assigned automatically by the S/W
according to some pre-defined criteria specified
by the administrator.
e.g. The Admin may define the VLAN according to
the port numbers. As soon as a machine changes
the port number , it will get assigned to a new
VLAN.
3. Semi-Automatic: This is combination of both
manual and automatic configuration .
Here, initialization is done manually while
migrations are handled automatically.
Communication between switches
A N/W may also contain backbone
switches which connect several switches.
In such cases switches must know the
membership of its machines but also
know the membership of machines
connected to other switches.
This is required because the data has to
be forwarded accordingly.
E.g. If a machine 1 connected to switch 1
and machine 10 connected to switch 2
are in the same VLAN, both switches and
the backbone switch must have this
information.
There are 3 methods to maintain this
information
1. Table Maintenance
2. Frame tagging
3. Time Division Multiplexing
1. Table Maintenance:
Every switch maintains a table which
stores machine identification and
membership information.
The Switch records station membership
whenever the members communicate
in a VLAN.
Switches periodically update their tables
accordingly.
2. Frame Tagging :
This is also called VLAN tagging.
In this method, additional VLAN
identification information is added to a
frame in order to identify which VLAN the
packet belongs to.
Packets moving between switches are
tagged so that the next switch knows the
destination VLAN of the packet.
2. Frame Tagging :
This is also called VLAN tagging.
In this method, additional VLAN
identification information is added to a
frame in order to identify which VLAN the
packet belongs to.
Packets moving between switches are
tagged so that the next switch knows the
destination VLAN of the packet.
