Earth Science 2nd Quarter

Magmatism
Internal Heat of the Earth
Residual Heat
 Gravitational energy left from the formation of earth.
Radiogenic Heat
 Radioactive decay.
Primordial Heat
 Heat lost by the earth.
3 Processes of Heat Transfer
Conduction
 Governs the thermal conditions in almost entire solid portion of the earth.
Convection
 Transfer of heat by the movement of mass.
Radiation
 The process of heat exchange between the sun and the earth.
Magma
 is a molten rock material caused by partial melting.
 Magma is found at the magma chamber.
 Lava is found at the surface.
Magmatism
 Occurs along plate boundaries.
 hot mantle rocks penetrates the crust and becomes magma.
How is Magma Formed?
 Partial Melting is the process where different minerals and rocks are melted.
Increase in Temperature
 Conduction in Mantle is called “Heat Transfer”
  Convergent boundaries where tectonic plates are crashing.
Decrease of Pressure
 Rocks remain solid when exposed to high pressure.
 During convection rocks move upward.
 Loses pressure when on surface, Decompression Melting.
 Occurs on Mid Ocean Ridges.
Adding Volatiles
 Volatiles are substances that evaporate easily and can exists in gaseous form in earth’s
surface.
 Water and CO2 are examples of volatiles, when added to hot rocks partial melting
occurs.
 Flux melting occurs when volatiles are added in hot rocks that are near its melting
point that will trigger partial melting in the subduction zone.
 Subduction zone is where the earth’s tectonic plates dive back in the earth’s mantle.

VOLCANOES
 Geological formation of molten rocks, where ash and gases escapes below Earth’s
surface.
Parts of Volcano
 Crater - Bowl shaped opening.
o Volcanic Bombs - Release of viscous fragments of lava.
o Lava Flow - Movement of molten rocks.
o Pyroclastic Flow - Fast moving currents of gases.
o Ash Cloud - Fine volcanic ash.
 Main Vents - Magma, volcanic ash, and gas are expelled during eruption.
 Secondary Vents - Smaller openings.
 Magma Chamber - Where magma is stored.
Eruption
 Geological event where hot molten rocks and gases are expelled from a volcano.
Types of Eruption
 Explosive Eruption - Violent and sudden eruptions.
o Ex. Mt. St. Helens, Mt. Vesuvius
 Effusive Eruption - Steady flow and low-viscosity lava onto Earth’s surface.
o Ex. Kilauea, Mauna Loa
Kinds of Volcanoes
 Shield Volcano - Gently sloping sides.
 Strato Volcano - Steep, conical shape volcano.
 Cinder Cone Volcano - Smallest type of volcano.
 Lava Dome - Formed by slow eruption of highly viscous lava.
Various Types of Materials Formed During Eruption
 Lava Flow - Forms during effusive eruption
o Ex. Pahoehoe - smooth surface, A, A - Jagged edges
 Obsidian - Shiny igneous rocks.
 Pyroclastic Debris - Composed of fragmental materials.
o Lapili - Marble-sized rock fragments.
o Volcanic Ash - Fine particles.
o Tuff - Volcanic debris are compacted and cemented together.
o Pumice - Volcanic glass that has a frothy texture.
o Bombs - Partially melted rock fragments.
o Blocks - Pre-existing solid pieces of rocks.
 Pyroclastic Flows
o Ignimbrite - Composed of pumice.
o Lahar - Mixed pyroclastic debris and water.
Tectonic Plates - Different pieces of rocks.
Elastic Rebound Theory
 When the stress exceeds the fault slips causing ground shaking.
 Harry Fielding Reid in 1906 in San Francisco
Earthquakes
 Sudden release of energy from the Earth’s surface.
Faulting - Process where rock breaks and moves along fractures.
Parts of an Earthquake
 Fault - Fracture where rock slides past each other.
 Focus - Also known as the hypocenter where an earthquake originates.
 Epicenter - Above the hypocenter of an earthquake.
 Seismic Waves - Wave of energy generated by an earthquake.
Causes of Earthquake
 Non-Volcanic Activity
o Large landslide
o Meteorite Impact
o Underground nuclear bomb test
o Fault Slippage
o Isostatic Rebound
o Human Activities
 Volcanic Activity
o Movement of magma underneath a volcano
o Explosion of a volcano
Seismic Waves
 Waves of energy that travels through the Earth’s layers.
 Types of Waves
o Body Waves - Travel through Earth’s interior at an amazing speed that
originated from the epicenter.
  P-Wave - Also known as primary waves, fastest wave 6-7km/s, travels
through liquid outer-core.
 S-Wave - Also known as secondary waves, 3.5km/s hence coming in
second in seismographs, moves up and down, moves through solid.
o Surface Waves - Travels along the Earth’s Surface.
 Rayleigh Waves - Rolling motion, elliptical motion both vertically and
horizontally, named after the British physicist Lord Rayleigh.
 Love Waves - Side to side perpendicular, named after British
mathematician Augustus Edward Hough Love.
Seismograph
 Instrument that detects and records ground motion.
Seismogram
 Graph that records ground motion over time and a specific location.
Magnitude
 Relative size of energy.
Intensity
 Amount of damage.
Triangulation
 Is a method used to determine the location of an object or point by measuring angles
from known points at either end of a fixed baseline.

DEFORMATION
Change of rock of it’s size, formation, and location.
Structural Geology
 Study of rock deformation.
Stress
 Force acting on a material that causes strain.
Types of Stress
  Uniform Stress (Isotropic Stress) - Stress from all directions or also referred as
pressure.
 Confining Stress - Due to weight of overlying layers in the Earth’s crust.
 Differential Stress - Unequally in different directions.
Types of Differential Stress
 Tensional - Stress that pulls rock layers apart causing them to be stretched.
 Compressional - Stress that squeezes or pushes rocks together.
 Shear - Forces applied parallel but in the opposite direction.

Continental Drift Theory

 Alfred Wegener - A german meteorologist, introduced the continental drift theory in
his book, The Origin of Continents and Ocean.
The Fit of Continental Shorelines
 Distribution of Glacial Sediments
o Glacial Striations and Till: The presence of these features in now-tropical or
temperate regions suggests that glaciers must have been present there in the
past.
 Paleoclimate
o As we observed today, the equatorial region has a tropical climate
characterized by conditions that favor lush vegetation such as abundant
rainfall and ward temperature.
Distribution of Fossils
 Fit of the Continents
o Continental fit was visualized by Alfred Wegener, stating that some continents,
such as South America and Africa, fit together.
 Fossil Evidence
o To support his theory, Wegener and one of his colleagues, Alexander du Toit, a
South African geologist, gathered evidence.
o They found convincing fossils of similar plants and animals on different
continents, suggesting that at one point, they shared the same landmass
Evidence of Continental Drift Through Rock Distribution
 Key Observations in Rock Distribution
o Wegener’s Observation: Rock formations on opposite sides of the Atlantic
Ocean are similar.
o Significance of Similar Rock Layers: Rock types, ages, and layering sequences
across continents are aligned.
 Implications of Rock Distribution Patterns
o The matching rock formations across continents provide strong evidence for
the theory of plate tectonics, which explains how Earth’s crust is divided into
moving plates.
o Wegener’s observations help scientists reconstruct the positions of ancient
landmasses and understand Earth’s dynamic history.
o Continental drift and plate tectonics explain how some mountain ranges
formed through the collision and separation of tectonic plates.

Seafloor Spreading
 Wegener's theory of Pangaea was initially rejected due to the lack of a plausible
explanation for its breakup.
 World War II prompted the development of advanced seafloor study technologies,
revealing data that strongly supported Wegener's continental drift theory.
*An oceanographer deals with chemical, physical biological, geological properties of the
ocean and it's plate tectonics.
*A Sonar is a device that uses sound waves to detect objects.
Different types of Sonar
Searchlight sonar
 The searchlight Sonar is designed to display underwater information in a 360 degree
view around the vessel.
Scanning Sonar
 The scanning Sonar emits ultrasonic waves all around the ship for 360 degrees
simultaneously and can detect and display the returning echoes instantly.
Sector scanning Sonar
  The principle is the same as the searchlight Sonar, but the sector scanning Sonar
searches in 45-degree steps.
History of Seafloor Spreading
 Since Wegener’s Continental Drift Theory lacked evidence, more scientists started to
study it.
 1950’s-1960’s Scientist used Echo Sounding to map ocean ridges or submarine
mountain chains in the North Atlantic Ocean anf Pacific Ocean.
Harry Hammond Hess
 He is an American geologist who conducted echo-sounding surveys on the ocean floor.
 He published “The History of Ocean Basins”
 He found out that magma oozed up from Earth’s interior along mid-oceanic ridges and
this eventually solidified and formed a new seafloor.
How does the Earth's Magnetic Field in Basalt Rocks supports the Seafloor Spreading Theory?
 Basalts contain magnetic minerals that record the magnetic field at the time of their
formation. A magnetometer measures the magnetic field of these rocks.
 If a rock's magnetic field matches the current field, a strong (positive) anomaly is
detected; if different, a weak (negative) anomaly is found.

Ecosystem
 An ecosystem environment is a community of organisms and their physical
environment that interact with each other.
 An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals, and other organisms, as well
as weather and landscapes, work together to form a bubble of life.
Ecosystem services
 Refers to the direct and indirect contributions of ecosystem to human survival and
quality of life
Supporting Services
 Supporting services are the foundation of ecosystems, and are the natural processes
that allow other ecosystem services to occur. They are the backbone of all ecosystem
services, and without them, other services would not be possible.
o Water Cycle - Regulates weather patterns and makes water available for all living
organisms
 o Soil Formation - Influences human well-being because many provisioning services
depend on soil fertility.
o Nutrient Cycling - Maintains concentrations of nutrients like nitrogen and
phosphorus in different parts of ecosystems.

Provisioning Services
 Provisioning services in an ecosystem are the tangible resources and goods that we
obtain from ecosystems.
 A regulating service is the benefit provided by ecosystem processes that moderate
natural phenomena.
Cultural Services
 are the non-material benefits that people obtain from ecosystems through recreation,
tourism, intellectual development, spiritual enrichment, reflection and creative and
aesthetic experiences.

Human activities, Waste, and Waste Management

 Most human activities generate some form of waste byproduct or residual in a solid,
liquid or gaseous state. Waste generation starts with simple processes such as living,
eating and breathing.
 Solid waste: Generally made up of objects/particles that accumulates on the site
where they are produced.
Source of waste
 According to the National Solid Waste Management Commission, a single Metro
Manila resident generates 0.70 kg of solid waste, which is more than twice higher
than the global average of 0.3 kg per person per day.
Municipal waste
 are material that no longer want because they are broken, spoiled, or no longer
useful.
 This type of waste comes from industrial, commercial establishments, institutions, and
some industrial sources.
 Metal Waste: Cans, aluminum foil, scrap metal
 Food Waste: Leftover food, food scraps, and spoiled food
 Plastic Waste: plastic bottles, bags, and wrappers
Agricultural waste
 is a common form of waste derived from farming and poultry. Most agricultural waste
is organic and is used for soil-enhancing activities.
 Too much agricultural waste in the form of fertilizers is deposited into bodies of
water, which can cause eutrophication
 Fruit and Vegetable Waste: Peels, cores, and other scraps
 Crop Residues: Leaves and Plant Debris
 Manure: Cow, pig, and chicken manure, which can be used as fertilizer
Industrial waste
 waste comes from industrial sources other than mining. If they are classified as
hazardous, disposal requires special landfills for their isolation and treatment.
 This type of waste comes from the agricultural activities, factories, mills, and mining
operations to name a few and has been rendered useless.
 Oil Waste: Used motor oils and lubricants
 Plastic Waste: scrap plastic materials, packaging, and defective products.
 Construction Debris: concrete, bricks, wood, metal, and glass.
Mining waste
 refers to the byproducts and materials that are discarded or left over after the
extraction and processing of minerals and metals from the earth.
 Mining waste in three ways
o Removing large amount of rocks to extract valuable ores
o Grinding and sorting of materials
o Water Mining
 Waste Rock: This refers to rocks that are removed during the mining process.
 Overburden: The layer of soil and rock removed to access the ore beneath.
 Dust: Mining activities, especially drilling, blasting, and transportation, generate
significant amounts of dust and particulate matter.
Methods of Waste Disposal
Landfill:
 The every deposit of fresh garbage is covered with a layer of soil to prevent it from
blowing around.
Incineration:
 During incineration, the waste material being treated is converted into gas, particles,
and heat.
Mulch and compost method
 Mulch the method of allowing the natural process of decomposition to transform
organic materials into humus-like material called compost.
Source reduction:
 Refers to the method of designing, manufacturing, purchasing, using, and reusing
materials so that the amount of waste or its toxicity is reduced.
Recycling:
 Recycling is the method of collecting throwaway materials and turning them into
useful products.
The resource cycle
 A resourece cycle is the process involving the transformation of a raw material into a
usable or consumable product and its disposal. It starts with extraction of resources
and raw materials through mining, cultivating, and/or harvesting The extracted
materials are then processed, transported, and manufactured into new products to be
delivered to or purchased by consumers.
Waste management
 refers to the collection, transportation, treatment, and disposal of waste materials
generated by human activity. It aims to reduce the harmful impact of waste on the
environment, human health, and wildlife while promoting sustainability.
Waste management hierarchy of options:
 The waste management hierarchy is a conceptual framework designed to guide and
rank waste management decisions at both the individual and organisational level.