Areal Differentiation (AD)

 Areal differentiation is a concept of human geography in which

more emphasis is placed on the study of the specificity/uniqueness of a
geographical area rather than on the standardization of geographical
phenomena for making geographical models.
 he concept of Areal differentiation (AD) later evolved into regional
geography.

Why is the study of Areal Differentiation(AD) important in geography?

 Since environment, topography, culture, language, human
activities, human needs, etc. are not the same everywhere on earth, it is
not prudent or appropriate to make standard models/theories for the
study/development of all geographical areas. Therefore, it is necessary to
study separately for different geographical areas.
 For example, a plain area development/study model may not be
suitable for a hilly area development/study model. The development
strategy of the plains can be made only after proper study of the plains.
 The main purpose of developing the concept of Areal
Differentiation (AD) was to give importance to regional geography and
also not to standardize geographical thought/study.
The first technical word " Areal Differentiation" was mentioned
by Hartshorne in his book " Nature of geography (1939)".

As per Richard Hartshorne regarding Areal Differentiation(AD),

 Geography is the science of studying Areal Differentiation (AD).
 In Areal Differentiation (AD), emphasis is given to the division of
Earth's surface into several homogeneous regions based on the
uniformity of different spatial variables.
 Division of the earth's surface is done because each geographical
area has its own uniqueness which is different from other
geographical areas.
 The study of the uniqueness and variances (from other
homogeneous regions) of these homogeneous regions is called Areal
Differentiation(AD).

Three principles are used in areal differentiation.

 On the basis of the uniqueness and uniformity of the geographical

area, a geographical area is divided. For example, on the basis of relief
variables, we can divide the surface of the earth into plains, mountains,
plateaus, etc.
 On the basis of the geographical features of the area, we find out
the generic principle of geographical characteristics of the region.
 Field studies include the study of various geographical phenomena
and parameters. When we compare the parameters (parameters) of one
place with another place, we compare the parameters (parameters) with
proximity, we do not compare the parameters (parameters) exactly the
same as we do in maths. For example, if we are comparing the rainfall
variable; Location "A" receives 90 mm of rainfall annually and Location
"B" receives 100 mm of rainfall annually, then we will consider both the
places as the same rainfall region.
The following are the main characteristics of Areal
differentiation(AD):
 Areal differentiation(AD) supports the study of a regional approach in
geography.
 Areal differentiation helps in finding a suitable development plan at
the regional level by giving importance to the study of geographical
phenomena at the regional level.
 For example, each region should have its own development model and
it will be based on the need and availability of resources in that area. All this
is possible through the study of Areal differentiation in geography.
Criticism of Areal Differentiation(AD):

 Areal differentiation emphasizes the study of the region, but the

boundaries of the region are not fixed. Demarcation of the boundaries of the
area is a problem.
 In the era of globalization, boundaries have lost their meaning, as no
real boundaries of region exist.
 The boundaries of language, belief, and cultural region keep changing
with time.
 Women empowerment is difficult to do, as every sector has different
beliefs about women.
 Schaefer criticized both regional differentiation (AD) and
exceptionalism in geography. He argued that regional differentiation (AD)
has made geography a complex subject. He supported the system view of
geography. A common model should be developed in geography so that it can
be applied everywhere.

Despite criticism study of areal differentiation is very important in geography. The

reasons for the study are the following:

 Areal differentiation is against the generalization of the model, hence

it gives more importance to the regional approach.
 It is useful for solving and making development models at the regional
levels, such as:
 Hill area development
 Tribal area development
 Coastal area development
 Backward area development
 In India, nowadays we are planning to develop 100 smart cities, the
same model cant be applied in all smart cities because each city has there
own importance. Examples:
 Varanasi smart city: it is a religious city, so importance should
be given to:
 Ganga Ghat development
 Classical Music development
 Varanasi Sari industries
 Temple, Streat cleanliness
 Communication, connectivity Security of foreign tourists,
etc
 Kanpur smart city: In is an industrial center city, importance
should be given to:
 Textile & leather industries
  Hight transport facilities are needed to easy movement
of goods
 Need water conservation for the textile & leather
industry
 Water treatment plants are needed to avoid water
pollution from the textile and leather industry.
 Areal differentiation can help to reduce the social disparity through
regional planning

QUANTITATIVE REVOLUTION IN GEOGRAPHY

Concept of Quantitative Revolution in geography:

From the late 1950s to the late 1960s, the use of computers, statistical and
mathematical tools, maps, and the laws of physics increased to analyze human and
natural phenomena, these phases or time periods were referred to Quantitative
Revolution in geography. The main objective of using these tools is to identify
mappable patterns for various human and natural activities.

For example,
Creating models for optimal location of industries using computers, maps, and laws
of physics.
Creating mappable patterns of landslide zones or earthquake zones.

The quantitative revolution came in geography to modernize the learning process in

geography and make use of geography in human development activities.

During the 1950s, there was a crisis in geography because of the following reasons:


 Earlier, geography provided a limited scope of learning as the study of
geography was limited only to the description of the earth's surface. The big
question was, now we had studied the earth's surface, what will be next?
what should be taught in geography?
 In 1948, Harward University closed down its geography department
due to the limited scope of study in geography.
 The importance of geography was being questioned.
 Geography was merely descriptive in nature and the use of statistics,
data, mathematics, etc were nearly absent.
 Most of the geographical theories were borrowed from other subjects.
For example, the Malthusian theory of population is borrowed from an essay
written by an English cleric, Thomas Robert Malthus. Nebular Hypothesis
theory of the origin and formation of the solar system was taken from a
philosophical subject.
 Because of the above reasons, the use of statistical and mathematical
techniques, maps, computers, and physics law in geography increased to
 make geography more objective, use of these techniques in geography is
collectively known as the " Quantitative Revolution" in geography.


 The following image explains the tools used in the quantitative revolution.

The Quantitative Revolution has created a race to create geographic models for
each human activity, such as industrial models to find the optimal location of
industry, focusing on locating industries where the cost of production is low and
profits are maximized.
Some basic assumptions are usually made while making the model; the following
are basic assumptions -


 Man is considered a rational element who always tries to maximize
profit.
 Man has infinite knowledge and every human has the same
knowledge; there is no word like subjective decisions.
 The geographical area is an isotropic surface means there is no such
physical barrier as mountains and oceans.
 There is no place for some individual and social values in a model like
culture, belief, custom, attitude, traditions, choice, religious values, and
social values

Basis of the Quantitative Revolutions

The following geographical approaches are the basis of the quantitative revolution:
 Positivism
 Functionalism
 Schaefer views
Methods used in Quantitative Revolutions
 Spatial and Location analysis
 System analysis
Models developed under Quantitative revolution:
The following are some geographical models which come into importance during
the quantitative revolution;


 Christaller model of central-place theory
 Weber's industrial location theory
 Von Thunen crop intensity model
 Rank size rule and Primate city concept
 The gravity model of Migration

Merits of Quantitative Revolution Methods:

The following are some merits of Quantitative revolutions:

 Techniques of Quantitative revolution are rational and are based on
empirical observations that are verifiable.
 It made geography easy and bring it closer to science and was
implementable in the real world.
 It reduces the ambiguity of observation as it does not accommodate
the subjective nature of observation ( as it does not provide the importance
of human and social values ).

Criticism of Quantitative revolution:

The following are some criticism of the quantitative revolution:

.The quantitative revolution reduces the scope of geography to only spatial

analysis and spatial geography.
 Quantitative revolution creates a false sense of objectivity of human
decision, but in the real world, there is the subjective decision as human
knowledge and preference vary from human to human.
 The decision of man is not always a profit motive as human decisions
get also affected by affection, love, and other individual values.
 The quantitative revolution supports capitalist views.
 Criticism from social school- it was felt that geography led by QR was
unable to solve the problem of society like inequality,racism.hence laws
developed were of limited practical significance.
 Criticism from welfare geography-Normative laws ignores
ineqalitites ,which is the root cause of problems in the society,so making QR
should have include inequalities
 Regional Synthesis(क्षेत्रीय संश्लेषण)
In Areal Differentiation(AD), we give importance to the study of regions in
geography. The region should be studied in geography, it was emphasized in Areal
differentiation (AD). In regional synthesis, importance is given to the "process of
studying the region", which describes how the region should be studied.

In one line:

Regional Synthesis =study(spatial, temporal, human)

In regional synthesis, dividing the geographic components, concepts, and processes

related to a geographic event or geographic region into separate parts, comparing
it to a geological time scale [present, 100 years ago, 1000 years ago, millions of
years ago] and emphasis is placed on the study by synthesizing of related concepts,
components, and processes; This type of study in geography comes under regional
synthesis.

For example,

From a regional synthesis point of view, the geographical study of volcanic activity
includes,

 the spatial distribution of current volcanic activity, as well as how

volcanic activities occur on geographic time scales (present, 100 years ago,
1000 years ago, millions of years).
 It also emphasizes the study of how volcanic activity affects and how it
affects other geological phenomena.

The geographical study of the Himalayan region from the point of view of regional
synthesis includes the following:

 To identify the various components of the natural and cultural

landscape of the Himalayan region.
 Geographical distribution of events.
 Comparing all events on a geological time scale.
 synthesizing all related components

In this type of geographical study, the emphasis is on regional synthesis

The following diagram explains the summary of regional synthesis:

n American Geographer, J. L Berry explained the regional synthesis through the
geographical matrix.
As per Berry, geographical region or phenomenon should be studied from three
perspectives:
 Spatial point of view
 Temporal point of view
 The human point of view

In Geographical Matrix, there are three dimensions:

 1st dimension[ rows] represents attributes.

 2nd dimension [Columns] represents locations.
 3rd dimension represents Time.

In the matrix, each cell has a geographical fact.

The following diagram shows the basic features of the Berry geographical matrix of
the Delhi NCR Region (in this matrix we considered Mathura location as part of
the Delhi NCR region).
As per Berry's geographical matrix, there are ten approaches to doing regional
analysis for a particular region, and the same are listed below:

 By comparing two cells within a row, we get the spatial variation of

geographic features. In the above geographic matrix, the first geographic
feature is temperature. The temperature of New Delhi is X1 while the
temperature of Old Delhi is Y1.
 Within the same column, different cells show localized geographic
features. In the above geographic matrix, the New Delhi localized regional
analysis variables are temperature, rainfall, and humidity.
 The spatial variation can be studied by comparing the two lines.
 Regional differentiation can be studied by comparing two columns.
 Study of sub-matrix.
 By comparing a row over time, we get to know the spatial variation of
that place. Example Comparing the present temperature of New Delhi with
the temperature of 100 years ago will give us an idea of how the temperature
of New Delhi is changing over time.
 We can get the sequence occupancy of a particular location by
comparing the same column over time.
 Comparing a row with another row in the time dimension
 Comparing a column with other columns in the time dimension.
 Comparing and studying sub-matrices in the time dimension
What is the importance of regional synthesis at present?

 The rise of global temperature or climate change is not a sudden

phenomenon and it is not uniform worldwide. By using regional synthesis
one can easily get a trend of temperature rise region-wise over time.
 It helps to study of sequence occupancy of the region.
 Regional synthesis helps to analyze regional inequality within and
with another region by comparing economic variables and also tells us what
the state of regional inequality was over time.
Dichotomy(विरोधाभास) and Dualism(द्वैतवाद ) in Geography
The literal meaning of dualism is two opposite views/aspects of the same
subject. Dichotomy happened when two views emerged on the same subject.

Dualism is one of the main characteristics of geography which was introduced from
the beginning.

There are five dichotomies and dualisms in geography:

1. Contemporary vs Historical geography
2. Physical vs Human geography
3. Deterministic approach vs possibilistic approach
4. Regional vs System approach
5. Functional vs formal approach
Contemporary vs Historical geography:
Some geographers emphasized the importance of historical geography, as it deals
with the geographical features of the past. The geographical features of the past
need study in geography for the following reasons:
 Every geographical area must have passed through some historical
features before attaining its present features. And we get a lot of information
from the study of historical-geographical features. For examples,
 We get information about the physical and cultural landscape features
of past and present through historical geography.
 Through historical geography, we come to know that earlier human
settlement was unplanned but over time we needed planned human
settlement and today human settlements are more planned than before.
 Past disaster data like submergence and emergence of islands,
tsunami, earthquake destruction, etc. help us a lot in future planning and
prevention of natural disasters.
 Geographical areas develop over time, for example, mountains or
areas of high relief change into areas of low relief and finally into areas
without relief features such as peneplain, Pediplain, etc.
Some geographers emphasized the importance of studying contemporary
geography, as the needs of the people have evolved and earlier the needs of the
people did not match the present needs. Geographers consider studying historical
data a waste of energy and time.
The study of contemporary geography is important for the following reasons:
 Due to climate change, there is a need for sustainable planning and
sustainable planning is a contemporary environmental issue.
 Solid waste management, plastics, pollution are contemporary issues.
 Due to technological advances, man can now create artificial
environments, artificial minerals, and much more.
 Therefore geographers should lay more emphasis on the study of
contemporary geography.
Physical vs Human geography
Earlier geographers used to emphasize the study of physical geography. The school
of thought on physical geography emphasized the study of geography as a separate
entity where the influence of man is neglected.
 Under physical geography, we study the physical features of the
earth.
 The study of landform [geomorphology], climate [climatology],
vegetation, mountain formation, etc. comes under physical geography.

Human geography ideology emphasized the role of humans, culture, language,

society, etc. in geography. under this:
 In human geography, human activities are an integral part of
geography. And laid more emphasis on the study of the interrelationship
between man and the environment.
 In physical geography, man is considered as a passive element, but in
human geography, man is active, passive, or both. The same applies to the
environment, nature can be active, passive, or both.
 Under this, we study cultural geography, language, demography,
economic growth and development, model theory related to industry and
economic development, social studies.
Deterministic approach vs possibilistic approach

 The deterministic approach of geography considered man to be a
passive element in nature and nature determines the actions and behavior of
man. Man does what nature wants.
 The possibilism approach in geography, however, is an opposite view
of determinism and considers man as an active element in nature and that
the environment can be changed by human activities. Humans can change
the environment by their actions.
For the deterministic approach of geography, please refer to the following page:
 Environmental Determinism
 Determinism in Human Geography

For the Possibilistic approach, please refer to the following page:

 Possibilism in Geography

Regional vs System approach

In regional geography of thought emphasized the study of geography region-wise.
In the system approach, more emphasized on laid to study the earth as a whole
rather a region because everything on the earth are interrelated and if we study the
earth as a whole then it will give the meaning full data.
For more please refer to the following page:
 Areal Differentiation
 Regional Synthesis
 SYSTEM ANALYSIS IN GEOGRAPHY
Functional vs formal approach
Regional geography also has dualism and dichotomy in the division of geographic
space. What should be the basis of regional geography, functional or formal?
Formal fields are delimited on the basis of a single variable or well-defined
variables and the area of the formal field is fixed. For example, nation, state,
district, etc. are examples of the formal region.
Functional areas are demarcated based on the influence surrounding the central
point. The area of a functional area is not fixed, for example, a language area, a
cultural area, a city area, etc.

Determinism (नियतिवाद) in human geography:

 Determinism in human geography, I will say, is the first and oldest
perspective in human geography.
 Determinism is one of three perspectives in geography that explains
the relationship between the environment and humans. The other two are
Neo-determinism and Possibilism.
As per determinism,
 The natural environment is supreme and it controls every sphere of
human activities.
 Activities of humans, human settlements types and patterns, cultural
development, food habits, cultural habits, etc are determined by Nature.
 Humans act as passive agents and the environment acts as the active
agent.

In India, we say that our destiny is written( determined) by God, and we cannot
change it. Everything in life is already scripted by God.
The following are the central ideas of determinism:
 The activities of humans are the result or product of the physical
environment. Examples are:
 The potato crop is grown in the cold season and the paddy crop
grows in the rainy season in north India the paddy crop is grown all
year in some parts of West Bengal. Agriculture practices are
determined by the physical environment.
 In Arab Countries, thawb dresses are used to protect
themselves from extreme heat and dust.
 In India, Rajasthani people wear a turban to protect themselves
from extreme sunlight.
 Environment controls human action. Human action is not supreme,
the environment decides what people should do. Examples are:
 After floods, droughts, tsunamis, etc., people move to a safer places.
 Climate change is also environmental control over human
activities, and due to climate change, changes are now visible in the
way people develop.
 The difference in human behaviors can be explained by the difference
in natural environments. Examples are:
 Peoples eat rice in hilly areas as they need more energy to
climb hills and rice is easily available in the hilly region.
 Plain area peoples eat wheat as they need low energy & wheat
can be easily grown in the plains region.
 Tribal people worship plants, animals, rivers, etc, as their
livelihood is dependent on the forest.
Geographical thought in Support of Determinism:
The following geographer supported the determinism philosophy:

 Darwin gave the theory of "survival of the fittest" in which nature

chooses the fittest organisms.

 Aristotle: According to the ideas of Aristotle
 People from cold climate zone: Brave and powerful but weak-
minded.
  People from hot climate zone are physically weak and timid but
sharp in intelligence.
 The Roman geographer Strabo pointed out that slopes, relief, climate,
etc., acted on the part of nature to shape human actions.
 Al-Masoodi: Gay and humorous people are found in Syria's water-rich
areas. People are irritable in dry areas
 Carl Ritter: narrow eyelids of Turkish people were the effect of the
desert on humans.
 Humboldt: The mode of life of mountainous people is different from
plain areas.

Criticism of Determinism in geography:


 Spate Criticized determinism though he pointed out that
environments themselves are meaningless without a man. The human also
shapes the environment.
 In deterministic, man is regarded as a passive element, this is not
true. A man by his efforts can create his own environment. For example,
nowadays paddy crops are also growing in drought areas by providing
irrigation facilities.
 Ratzel said that two ethnic groups in the same location may have
different living standards.
 The same environment has a different meaning for different people
based on family background, culture, knowledge, etc.
 People living in mountain passes are robbers, it is an
overgeneralization statement of determinism. It is not true.

Environmental Determinism:
Environmental determinism is one of three approaches to human geography (the
others being probabilism and neo-determinism) that explain the relationship
between humans and the environment.


The surrounding environment is the main deciding factor in human behavior,
and differences in human behavior stem from differences in its environment.
 Surrounding physical factors like climate, relief, landforms, etc.
determine the patterns of human culture, cultural development, social
development, and human settlement.
American geographer, Ms. Ellen Churchill Semple in her
book " Influences of Geographical Environment"
mentioned environmental Determinism.
Ms. Ellen Churchill Semple's views on environmental determinism:

 Man is the product of the environment.

 The habitat types of humans are determined by the prevailing
environmental conditions around them. For example, slanted roofs are
preferred in their homes by people living in areas with heavy rainfall
and snowfall. Similarly, people living in flood-affected areas prefer to
build houses in high-altitude areas.
 Human activities and habits are determined by the
environment.
  People who live in Mediterranean regions are enthusiastic, happy, and
simple
 The people who live in the mountains are:
 brave and courageous
 simple and honest
 But they are conservative and being conservative, they do not
innovate.
 Generally, the people living in the mountain passes are robbers.
 People of the plain area:
 Liberals are innovative, progressive, and quick to adopt new
ideas.
 clever and they fool others but cowards
Another American Geographer, Huntington mentioned
Environmental Determinism in his book " The Principles
of Human Geography".
Huntington's Views on environmental determinism:
 Human Behavior is decided by the climate of a particular region.
 Variation in Civilization supremacy is also bound by climate.
 Variation in climate leads to variation in the culture.
 Religion and racial character are the product of climate.
 A 20-degree temperature is an ideal climate condition for high mental
and physical productivity.
 Northeast USA, UK, and northwest Europe are the best
climates for innovation and living. The industrial revolution started in
this region.
 Ancient civilizations developed in the fertile river valley with favorable
climates. For examples :
 Indus valley civilization flourished on the banks of the Indus
river.
 Mesopotamia Civilization flourished on the banks of the Nile
river.
 Chineses Civilization flourished on the banks of the Yellow
River.
 The attacker attitude of Mongolians developed due to the harsh
climate and scarcity of resources in Mangole.
 People who live in hot, humid, and harsh climates are:
 lazy, incompetent, timid, suspicious
Views of other geographers and scholars on environmental determinism:

 Al-Jahiz ( from East Africa), believed that the dark skin of Africans is
the result of the prevalent black basalt rocks in the region.
 An Arab Geographer, Ibn Khaldun believed that the dark skin of
people living in Sub-Saharan Africa is caused by the prevalent hot climate in
the region.
 Friedrich Ratzel also supported the theory of Darwin's Origin of
Species. He believed that cultural evolution is largely determined by the
environment. Friedrich Ratzel has considered the father of determinism
thought in geography.
Criticism of Environmental Determinism:
 Environmental determinism considered humans as passive animals
but human is not the passive animal, human can create and change the
natural environment. The following way human changes the natural
environment:
 Dam building
  River linking
 Artificial Raining
 Green Revolution
 Hydroculture, Soilless farming
 Greenhouse Agriculture
 The environment is the only deciding factor of human culture/behavior
as environment determinism is believed but the same is not true. There can
be two ethnic/ race groups in the same location and the same climate. For
example, despite having nearly the same climate and environmental
conditions in northeastern India, the region is home to many ethnic groups.
 The same Environment has a different meaning to different people, it
is up to people how they are using it. Examples:
 The locations and Climate of Israel & Jordan are the same, but
Israel is more developed due to innovation and people's attitudes
whereas Jordan is lacking in development.
 Natural and mineral resources are lacking in Japan, however,
they are developed.
 Africa is full of rich natural resources, however, they are poor.
Neo Determinism( Stop and Go Determinism)

 The concept of Neo-determinism in geography is one of three major

approaches in geography (the others being determinism and possibilism)
that explain human and environmental relationships.
 As, neither environmental determinism nor possibilism has been able
to explain the relationship between humans and the environment correctly,
hence the concept of neo-determinism emerged in geography.
 Neo-determinism is also called "Stop and go determinism" because it
believes that if human activities (pollution) cause long-term damage to the
environment then such activities should be stopped otherwise humans can
do everything that the environment allows us to do.
An Australian geographer, Griffith Taylor, was the first to propound the concept of
neo-determinism.
Griffith Taylor's views on Neo-determinism:
Not all human activity is completely controlled by the environment as
environmental determinism believes, nor is all human activity completely
free from the laws of the environment as possibilism believes.

This is the [middle way] concept between determinism and the

possibilism concept.

Human beings can change the environment through various innovations

and activities or can do all those things that are not naturally possible in
the environment. For example:

 Today, by providing the facility of human irrigation and

fertilizer, man is cultivating in barren land and even in summer.
 Nowadays due to innovation, farming has become possible
without the use of soil.
But there is a limit to changing the environment by humans or humans
cannot go against everything in the environment. The activities of man
should be according to the laws of the environment, otherwise, the
environment also forces man to stop and adjust his activities. Examples
are:

 Climate change: The wrong activities [polluting] of human

beings are harming the environment. But polluting the
environment has a limit. Through climate change, nature is forcing
humans to correct their actions toward the environment.
 In Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan, agricultural productivity
has decreased in these areas due to wrong farming practices. A
decrease in productivity is also an environmental indicator.
 Jakarta [the capital of Indonesia] is now submerging in the
sea due to the over-exploitation of groundwater.
 The water crisis in many cities of the world is due to
excessive exploitation of groundwater and non-conservation of
water, the water crisis in Chennai is the latest example of this.
 The recent Kerala floods are the result of the over-
exploitation of the Western Ghats.
The environment acts as a controller of traffic. It stops and informs us
when we do wrong. Man can speed up, slow down, or stop the
development program of the country, following the environmental rules,
but he cannot go against the plan of the environment.

 What will be the path of development of any country, largely

decides the physical environment there.
 In the long run, a nature plan is the best plan; And the best
way is to follow natural law in the development program.
 Nature is not an absolute dictator, nature is neutral, prudent
people follow nature's plan and move forward.
Question:

Write short explanatory notes on Neo-determinism: (UPSC 2010, 10

marks)

Answer.

Neo-determinism is a philosophical concept that emerged in response to

Environmental determinism.
Neo-determinism suggests that while many events and outcomes in the
universe may be determined by prior causes or natural laws, there are
still many chances to influence these outcomes by human actions.

Here are some short explanatory notes on Neo-determinism:

Rejection of Absolute Determinism:

Neo-determinism rejects the idea of absolute determinism, which posits
that every event is preordained and predictable based on the initial
conditions of the universe. Instead, it acknowledges the existence of
indeterminacy in some phenomena.
Technology as a Modifier:
Neo-determinists argued that while environmental factors like climate,
topography, and resources played a role in shaping societies, technology
could modify or overcome these environmental constraints to a large
extent. This was seen as a departure from early environmental
determinism.

Criticism:
Critics argued that neo-determinism failed to account for human agency,
innovation, and adaptation in response to environmental challenges
Neo-determinism still places a heavy emphasis on physical environmental
factors such as climate, topography, and resources as the primary drivers
of human behavior and societal development. Critics argue that this
narrow focus ignores the complex interplay of social, cultural, economic,
and political factors in shaping geographical outcomes.
Replacement by Possibilism:
Neo-determinism was gradually replaced by the theory of possibilism, which asserts
that while the environment sets certain constraints, humans have the ability to
adapt and make choices, creating a range of possibilities within a given geographic
context.

In modern geography, the focus has shifted towards more holistic and
interdisciplinary approaches that consider not only physical factors but also the
dynamic interplay of social, cultural, economic, and political elements in
understanding geographic patterns and processes.

Discuss the relevance of “stop and go determinism “ in the present-day context.

(UPSC 2016, 15 marks)

Answer.

"Stop and go determinism" is a concept introduced by geographer Griffith Taylor in

the mid-20th century.

It refers to a theory that suggests that certain regions or areas may experience
periods of rapid economic growth (the "go" phase) followed by stagnation or decline
(the "stop" phase); this is happens primarily due to factors like technological
change, economic cycles, or environmental hazards ( pollutions, cyclones).

The following are the relevances of "Stop and go determinism" in the present-day
context:

Environmental Factors:
Regions that rely heavily on resource-intensive industries may experience high
growth [ go phase]; and also face decline [ stop phase] due to environmental
concerns like pollution and resource depletion. We often hear the news regarding
the closing of industries in Germany, the USA, and China due to high pollution.

Economic Cycles:
Economic cycles, characterized by periods of expansion followed by recession or
stagnation, are still relevant today. The concept of "stop and go determinism" can
be applied to understand how regions and cities may experience economic booms
during periods of growth, followed by economic setbacks during downturns. This
remains a key consideration for regional economic planning.

Technological Change:
Regions that are early adopters or hubs for emerging technologies often experience
rapid growth ("go" phase), while others struggle to keep up or adapt, leading to
stagnation ("stop" phase). Understanding this dynamic is crucial for economic
development strategies.

Globalization:
In the case of globalization "Stop and go determinism" is very much relevant.
Earlier, the USA and other European countries were benefiting the globalization
[ Go phase], and now they are not getting the same benefits [ stop phase].

Urbanization and Migration:

The movement of people from rural to urban areas continues worldwide.
Understanding how urban centers go through growth and stagnation cycles can
inform urban planning, infrastructure development, and resource allocation.

Innovation and Entrepreneurship: Today, innovation and entrepreneurship are key

drivers of economic growth. Regions that foster innovation ecosystems can
experience sustained growth, while others may struggle to generate economic
momentum.

In summary, "stop and go determinism" remains relevant in the present-day

context, especially when analyzing regional economic development.
What are the criticisms of Neo Determinism?

Here are some of the key criticisms of neo-determinism in geography:

Overemphasis on Environmental Factors:

Neo-determinism still places a heavy emphasis on physical environmental factors
such as climate, topography, and resources as the primary drivers of human
behavior and societal development.
It was also criticized that Neo-determinism ignores the complex interplay of social,
cultural, economic, and political factors in shaping human-environmental relations.

Neglect of Human Innovation:

Neo-determinism neglects the role of human technology and innovation in
responding to environmental challenges [ like pollution and resource depletion].
It fails to account for the capacity of individuals and societies to adapt, make
choices, and modify their environments to suit their needs.

Failure to Explain Regional Diversity:

Neo-determinism failed to explain the diversity of societies and cultures within
similar environmental settings. It does not account for why different groups of
people facing similar environmental conditions can have vastly different social,
economic, and cultural outcomes.
Inaccuracy in Predictions:
The deterministic nature of neo-determinism often led to inaccurate predictions
about the future development of regions. It failed to foresee how regions could
overcome environmental constraints through technological advancements, policy
changes, or shifts in economic focus.

As a result of these criticisms, neo-determinism has largely fallen out of favor within
the field of geography. Modern geography adopts more holistic, interdisciplinary,
and nuanced approaches that consider a broader range of factors influencing
geographical phenomena, including the dynamic interplay of social, cultural,
economic, and political forces.

RADICALISM IN GEOGRAPHY

The ideology of Radical Geography is somewhat similar to the ideology of Karl

Marx. During the 1970s, radical geography emerged. The following reasons were
responsible for the development of radicalism in geography:

 The geographers were very dissatisfied with the quantitative
revolution because it used inhuman methods in geography, due to which the
development of radical geography took place.
 Positivism, Schaefer's thought, and quantitative approach supported
rational and merit-based activities in geography that promote profit-making
and capitalism in society. As a result, some places and some people develop
more, and as a result, social inequality, regional disparity, gender
discrimination, and caste discrimination increase.
 During the 1960s, the Vietnam War and discrimination against black
people in the United States were the immediate reasons for the development
of radical geography.
 Socioeconomic inequality in capitalist countries such as the United
States resulted in the rise of radicalism in geography.

In 1969, human geography professor Richard Peet and economic geography

professor David Harvey in his magazine wrote many articles about the support of
radicalism in geography which resulted in the development of radical geography.
he following are some philosophical features of radical geography:

 It supports labor values and is against independent and merit-based
approaches.
 It believes only in economic class in society and it does not promote
the importance of religion, morality, culture, and individual choice in
geography.
 It supports equal opportunities and treatment of women in the home,
workplace, religious place, and political system.
 It supports the participation of women in geography
 It opposes colonialism and quantitative revolution.
 It supports welfare geography and human geography.
 It opposes the growth of profit motive.
 It supports socialism
 It rejects theories such as white supremacy in America and racial and
climate supremacy in Europe.
Criticism of Radical Geography
The following are the main criticisms of radical geography:
 The philosophical basis of radical geography is against the line of
geography.
 It is less flexible and very hard to implement.
 It supports the Marxism philosophy and the Marxism philosophy was
not succeeded in USSR.
 BEHAVIOURALISM AND MENTAL MAP IN GEOGRAPHY

Why did behaviorism develop in geography?

In the 1970s, in geography, there was considerable
dissatisfaction against the quantitative revolution and the
positivism approach to geography, which led to the development
of behaviorism in geography.
Following are the main reasons for the development of
behaviorism:
As the quantitative revolution and positivism approaches hold that
human decisions are always profit-maximizers, but in reality, human
decisions are not always profit-maximizer but only satisfying .
According to Wolpert's study, the optimum agricultural practice is
not practiced by Swedish farmers, although despite having very
fertile and productive land, they were satisfied with 60%
productivity.
 Indian farmers also used excess fertilizer which
reduces the long-term productivity of the land. Their
decision gives immediate satisfaction.
 From the above two examples, we can say that man's
decision is not always to maximize profit, but only to satisfy
the man.
 Man's judgment is not always objective in nature,
man's judgment is subjective. Human judgments cannot be
determined by quantitative tools.
Since quantitative revolution rejects the role of human values,
beliefs, culture, etc. in decision making; Reality is different, the
contribution of values, culture, and religion in human judgment
can be seen in daily life. for example,
 Going to the temple is purely a religious decision, not a
financial decision.
 Some people like to donate blankets to the needy and
some people like to do Jagran or Hari Katha at home/temple.
So we can say that human decisions cannot be made objective.
Basic Concept of Behaviorism in Geography:
Behaviorism emphasized the inclusion of other factors like ethnicity, age,
profession, knowledge, caste, religion, etc. in addition to economic factors
for the decision-making of human beings.
The following diagram shows the basic concept of behaviorism:
Human judgment is subjective in nature:
In fact, as we know that human behavior is dynamic,
what is liked today may be disliked by the same
person tomorrow. Human judgment is subjective in
nature and it can not be objectified because basic
human decisions are different for each human. Human
behavior or human choice is influenced not only by
benefits, as the quantitative approach assumes, but
also by:
 Pre knowledge
 ethics, morals
 culture, religion
 time or situation
 economic need
For example:
 Some people give more importance to time
than money, some people take expensive flights
to save time, and some travel by passenger train
to save money.
Mind Map in Geography:
Each person has his own perception of the environment and this
experience depends on his moral, pre-knowledge, cultural, social,
economic background, etc. An environmental image, also called a mind
map, is formed in the human brain of each individual.
Everyone has their own mind map for specific actions. For example,
 Every person has a route map from home to the office and
this route map is different in every person's mind. Some people
prefer the short and congested route, and others prefer the longer
route.
 In this way, what work to do throughout the day remains in
the form of a mind map in the mind of every person.
There is a high correlation between a mind map and actual decision-
making. People make decisions based on their mind maps, for example,
the route from the office to home varies from person to person, the choice
is based on their mental map, the same route leads to the office
Geography is an interdisciplinary subject.
Behaviorism Geography considered the subject of
geography as an interdisciplinary one,
Geography = Psychology + Sociology + Science

Man and environment Relations

As per behaviouralism, man and the environment are dynamically interrelated.
The following diagram shows the summed behavioralism.

Behaviouralism in Geography

The following are the main points in human and environmental relations:
 Humans and the environment are dynamically interrelated.
 The environment plays a dual role, the objective environment, and the
behavioral environment.
 In an objective environment, the perception of the environment is
the same for every human being. For example,
 If it rains, everyone will feel that it is raining.
 In the behavioral environment, the perception of the environment is
different for different people. This perception of the environment is based on
individual knowledge, values, culture, and specific needs. For example,
  if it rains outside, the feeling of rain will be different for farmers,
potters, and construction workers.
 For mining in tribal areas,
 Tribals want to conserve the forest because they use it, they
don't want to mine the minerals because it destroys the forest.
 But industrialists give priority to mining, not forest conservation.
 Here the concept of environment is different for tribes and
industrialists.
 Therefore, the environment is acting as a behavioral environment
here.

Support of Behavioralism in geography:

In the support of the behavioral approach, Kirk asserted that:


 In a similar geographical environment, the meaning of the
same information would be different for people of a different culture,
ethnicity, race, and economic background people.
 Each society acts differently to the same piece of information
about the resource, space, and environment.
 For example, for a piece of land on the Indus-Gangetic plain, Jat
Farmer prefers to grow sugarcane in his field while Ahir Farmer
prefers to grow fodder crops for their animal.
Wolpert gives two concepts on the support of behaviouralism

 The satisficers concept, as we already discussed in the first

paragraph of this post.
 He criticized for gravitation migration principle and the same is
true for support of Behaviourailism. He asserted migration largely
depends on personal choice, women rarely want to migrate, and a
parent whose children are in school does not want to migrate, despite
economic opportunities.
Glibber White, in his flood study, asserted that:
 People mark the boundary of the river flood, they believed that the
flood will not cross this boundary.
 Sometimes, because of this pre-knowledge and overconfidence, the
flood does more destruction than aspected.

Criticism of Behavioralism
 This approach is more theoretical and psychological rather than
scientific.
 The model can not be developed using this approach, as it can not be
objectified.
 Some terminology like objective and subjective environment
perception is loosely defined.
 HUMANISM APPROACH IN GEOGRAPHY

Humanism approach to geography

William Kirk was the first geographer who advocated the Humanistic school of
thought in Geography in 1951. However, it was Chinese American geographer, Mr.
Y.F. Tuan who provided a real shape of Humanism approach to geography, which is
why Y.F. Tuan is considered the father of the humanistic school of thought in
Geography.

The following are the main points on Humanism geography:

The humanist school of thought in geography was developed against the

quantitative revolution in geography, the positivist approach, and the local analysis
approach; Because these approaches neglected humanistic values and the role of
religion, ethics, values, personal knowledge, etc. in geography.

As per the Humanistic school of thought, we can not be objectified or quantified

human feelings, values, and culture, so they can not be represented in statistical
tools such as maps, lines, graphs, etc. Human is not a machine, and they can
improve their life through participatory observation, discussions, thinking, and
acting.

As per the humanistic school of thought, geography is the study of the earth as the
home of the human being; the main focus should be the study of peoples' reactions
to the environment rather than the study of the earth.
s per Tuan, humanistic geography is based on four main principles :
  Human awareness
 Human work as an agency
 Human consciousness
 Human creativity
Humans are aware of their environment, they know the weather, climate, soil,
water availability, and other local phenomena. The perfection of awareness of the
environment may vary from person to person, but more or less they are aware of
the environment.

Humans work as an agency, they human take prudent decisions based on their
knowledge.

Human sentiment towards the motherland or family is one type of human

consciousness. It is very helpful to understand the feeling of people, human
consciousness also varies from human to human. It drives toward the actual
meaning of humanities.

Human has creativity, they can change the environment through innovation, and it
is also supported by possibilism, for example, Dubai city is developed in the desert
because of human innovation. Agriculture is also done in rainshadow and deserted
areas through human innovation.
Humans and environments have a very complex relationship. Y F Tuan tried to
explain this complex relation by using five themes. The following are five themes-
 Geographical knowledge
 Territory and place
 Crowding and privacy
 Livelihood and economics
 Religion

Geographical knowledge:
Each people and animal have their own mental map based on their geographical
knowledge of the environment; they take decision in daily life based on a mental
map.
Geographical knowledge is very much necessary for each organism for survival.
For example,
The Mental map of tribal people helps to locate herbs, collect food and timber, and
find water.
Animals in the forest have a mental map, they returned home after day-long
grazing.
Animals know where to hide while raining.
Animals or men fear to go some particular place as they know it is dangerous to go.
Migratory bird such as Siberian cranes has a mental map that helps them to find
the route to migrate.
Territory and place:
Some animals like dogs and tigers defend their territory against intruders. Some
animal such as man becomes sentimental to their birthplace( we all do), and people
are attached to/her birthplace not because of economic reason but because of
sentiment.

Crowding and privacy:

Some people feel more secure in a crowded area, for example, recently in Hong
Kong, large crowded protesters protested in the airport of Hong Kong as they fear
suppression from the Chinese government, and they feel more secure protesting on
CCTV areas in the airport.
Crowding creates more tension in the geographical region.
Privacy also affects the thinking process, alone and stress-free people are more
innovative than stressed full people.

Livelihood and economics:

Humans do some economic and social activities to sustain life. The main purpose of
human activities is for livelihood and social prospects.
Humanism geography differentiates the difference between life-supporting
activities and life-destruction activities. For example, agriculture is life-supporting
activity while making the atomic bomb is life destruction activity while both
activities provide a livelihood.

Religion:
Religion is the way to bind people strongly through belief, faith, and religious
activities. Humanistic geography advocates the awareness of different desires of
human coherence in the line of religion.
In India, the meat business is done by generally Muslim and Jains are generally
traders.

Criticism of the humanistic school of thought in geography


 The humanistic approach in geography does not consider human as
Rational person, however, human is also Rational person.
 It considered humanism as separate geography and supported to
study of physical geography and human geography separately, in reality, the
same is not true, man and the environment are interrelated.
 This method is more subjective in nature like social science.
 We do not know if the humanistic explanation is true because can not
be objectified.
 The humanistic school of thought in geography makes geography a
more complex and subjective subject.

WELFARE APPROACHES IN GEOGRAPHY UPSC

Welfare approaches

The welfare approach in geography was developed against quantitative and

locational analysis. As quantitative and location analysis is similar to the capitalist
policy, it created many social and economic problems, and the welfare approach
is developed to make positive changes for common men, and it deals with
social and economic justice such as:

 Inequality
 Poverty
 Gender discrimination
 Women inferiority
 Crime
 Education and health care facilities.
 Welfare for all
 Environment control & Sustainable planning
For example, the main victim of inflation would be poor people, development
should be focused to reduce inflation to an optimum level.

Approaches in welfare geography

There are two approaches to welfare geography.

 Descriptive approach
 Process-oriented approach

Descriptive approach:
The descriptive approach is used to identify injustice & inequality in a particular
population in a particular area. For example, identifying the beneficiary of toilet
construction, and fertilizer subsidy.

The descriptive approach is based on the following principles, it is shown in the

diagram.

Welfare approaches

 Who?
  Identifying the subgroup of the population to whom should give
preferential treatment or give overburden, for example, for the
welfare of the society, the poor should get the subsidy and the rich
should pay tax.
 What?
 Who gets what, what should be given to the targeted
population? it can be:
 Cloth, Food grains, House
 Water, roads, LPG
 Education, health, social justice, etc
 Where?
 Who gets where it deals with identifying the region of the
target and welfare should be based on the region-specific. Livelihood
and requirements of the different regions are different, for example,
 The city planning model cant be implemented in the
village
 Plain area development is not suited in the hilly area
 Designing houses in the city is not fitted for the village.
 How?
 Who gets how it deals with the process involved in welfare
geography, such as
 Top-down approach
 Bottom to Up approach
 what cost they are going to pay to get a particular
service
 How much they are working to get basic service.
Process-oriented approach:

 It deals with how social and economic injustice existed in society.

 Why the richer segment of the population is getting richer day by day
and the poorer are getting poor day by day.
Contribution of geographers in welfare geography:
The following are:

 Pareto Optimality:
 Poor people can not be sustained or get better without at
expense of rich people. Someone must be compromised for the better
of others.
 Pareto supported the special treatment of poor people for
welfare, for example, a subsidies scheme for the poor.
 Smith & Knox :
 Smith was the first geographer who coined welfare geography,
and he has written a book "welfare geography". He stated that:
 A quantitative tool such as GDP & GNP is not necessarily a
direct measurement of quality of life.
 There should be a qualitative tool such as the happiness index,
HDI (both later developed) to measure the welfare of society
 The main focus in geography should be the focus on the welfare
of people.