FLUIDS

Fluids are the substances that can flow. Therefore liquids and gases both
are fluids.

Ideal Fluid

Characteristics of an ideal fluid are :

(i) Ideal fluid is incompressible.

(ii) Ideal fluid is non-viscous.
 FLUID MECHANICS

FLUID STATICS FLUID DYNAMICS

Study of fluids at rest (with respect Study of fluid in motion (with

to container) is called fluid statics respect to container) is called fluid
or hydrostatics. dynamics or hydrodynamics.
Pressure

Pressure is defined as the magnitude of the normal force acting per

unit surface area. 𝐅

𝐅 Scalar
𝐏= ⊥
𝐀 Dimensions : [ML–1T–2]

UNITS 𝐀

SI SYSTEM CGS SYSTEM PRACTICAL UNITS

𝐍 𝐝𝐲𝐧𝐞 atm
bar
𝐦𝟐 𝐜𝐦𝟐
torr

Note 1) 1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 Pa = 760 mm of Hg

2) 1 bar = 105 Pa
3) 1 torr = 1 mm of Hg = 133 Pa.
Types of Pressure

Atmospheric pressure Gauge pressure Absolute pressure

The force exerted by the Excess pressure over Sum of the atmospheric
atmospheric column on the atmospheric and gauge pressure is
unit cross- sectional area pressure. called absolute pressure.
at mean sea level is
called atmospheric
pressure.
Device used to measure Device used to measure
it, is barometer. it, is manometer.

𝐏𝐚𝐭𝐦 = 760 mm of Hg 𝐏𝐠𝐚𝐮𝐠𝐞 = 𝐏𝐚𝐛𝐬 − 𝐏𝐚𝐭𝐦 𝐏𝐚𝐛𝐬 = 𝐏𝐚𝐭𝐦 + 𝐏𝐠𝐚𝐮𝐠𝐞

Variation of Pressure

CASE 01 When container of fluid is at rest

(a) Horizontal variations

Pressure is same at horizontal level if container is at rest or moving with

constant velocity.
(b) Vertical variations

P1 A

h
mg
P2 A

m = mass of liquid element

A = Area of cross - section
of liquid element
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE Find the volume of air bubble when it reaches at point B starting from point
A (Isothermal process).
Given P0 = 1 atm = 10 m of H2O column
10 m B
10 m V0
A
Effective Gravity
CASE 02 When container of fluid is moving with constant acceleration.
EXAMPLE A container is completely filled with liquid of density (). and its moving with
constant acceleration a0. Find pressure at marked points

A 
r
D
2L

B C

L
EXAMPLE 3
1 H
H1 D 4
A
H3
H2
B 2 C

L
EXAMPLE A tube is accelerated in rightward direction with constant acceleration of g/4.
Find the height of liquid in right and left arm in static condition.

H H H1
H2
 

2H 2H
EXAMPLE Find the minimum acceleration of L shaped tube so that liquid does not spill
out.

L/2
EXAMPLE What volume of liquid of density 𝟐𝛒 is poured into the left arm so that 50% of
liquid from left arm shifted to right arm (Area of cross-section of tube = A)

H H

2H

(b) What volume of liquid of density 𝟐𝛒 is poured into the left arm so that
half of the horizontal level is field with the liquid of density 2.
Variation of Pressure due to rotation of fluid

 (constant)
EXAMPLE Find (a) P2–P1 (b) P3 – P1 (c) P2 – P3  (constant)
L/2

1 2  3

L L
EXAMPLE Find the height of liquid in left and right arm when rotating about the given

𝐠
axis with 𝛚 = 𝐠
𝟐𝐇 𝛚=
𝟐𝐇
Initial (Rest)

H2
H H
H1
 

2H H/2 3H/2
EXAMPLE Find the height of liquid in left and right arm when rotating about the given

𝐠
axis with 𝛚 = 𝐠
𝟒𝐇 𝛚=
𝟒𝐇
Initial (Rest)

H2
H H
H1
 

2H H 2H
Free surface of the liquid

Free surface of liquid at rest (static condition) is always perpendicular to the

direction of effective gravity 𝐠 𝐞𝐟𝐟
Horizontally Accelerated Container
EXAMPLE Liquid is rotating with constant ‘’ angular velocity. Find the equation of
surface of liquid in xy plane take origin at lowest point of free surface.

𝛚 (𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭)
Rotating Container
EXAMPLE A cubical container of side ‘L’ is completely filled with a liquid with its top
open. It is now slowly accelerated till it reaches an acceleration ‘a0’. Find the
volume of liquid spill out from the container if
(a) a0 = g/3
(b) a0 = g/2
(c) a0 = 2g

L
L
EXAMPLE A cubical container of side ‘L’ is completely filled with a liquid with its top
open. It is now slowly accelerated till it reaches an acceleration ‘a0’. Find the
volume of liquid spill out from the container if
(a) a0 = g/3
(b) a0 = g/2
(c) a0 = 2g

L
L
Pascal’s law

If the pressure in an enclosed fluid is changed at a particular point, the

change is transmitted to every point of the fluid and to the walls of the
container without being diminished in magnitude.
Hydraulic system

𝐅𝟐
𝐅𝟏

𝐀𝟏
𝐀𝟐
EXAMPLE In given hydraulic system find the minimum force required to lift the car?
𝑭𝟏
Car = 500kg

A1 = 0.1 𝑚2
A2 = 100 𝑚2
Force exerted by liquid on the wall of the container

h 

b
L
Second law of thermodynamics

It is impossible for any system to undergoes a process in which it absorbs

heat from the reservoir at a single temperature and convert the heat
completely into the mechanical work with the system ending in the same
state at which it begins (cyclic process)
EXAMPLE Find force on P0 free surface f
(a) Side wall cdef
(b) Side wall abcd e 2H

(c) Side wall abfe
c H
d
b

L
a
L
EXAMPLE Find force on the semicircular portion of the container
Buoyant Force

When an object is immersed partially or completely in a fluid then

resultant force applied by fluid on the body is called buoyant force
Archimedes Principle

The Net force exerted by a liquid due to pressure difference on an object

submerged partially or completely in that liquid is equal to weight of
displace liquid.
FB = Weight of disp. Liquid
FB = 𝝆𝑳𝒗𝑺𝒈
Vs = Disp. volume
Force applied by object on the liquid is also equal to the buoyant force in
magnitude according to Newton’s 3rd law.

Buoyant force does not depend on mass and density of object. It only
depends on submerged volume of object and density of liquid.
Reading of Spring Balance
 The reading of spring balance in air is R1 = 100 gm and reading of weighing
EXAMPLE
machine with beaker and liquid is R2 = 200 gm. Now block is completely
immersed in liquid as shown. Such that R2=75 N Find:-
(i) Reading of spring balance
(ii) Buoyancy force (Fb)

Solution
Buoyant force is equal to apparent weight of displaced liquid in the frame
in which fluid is static.

𝐅Ԧ𝐁 = −𝛒𝐋 𝐕𝐒 𝐠 𝐞𝐟𝐟

EXAMPLE A body is immersed in 3-different as shown find the
(a) Net buoyant force (Fb)
(b) Force applied by liquid (1) on the body
(c) Force applied by liquid (2) on the body
(d) Force applied by liquid (3) on the body H
1
Neglect atmospheric pressure ‘P0’ H1
2 H2

3 H3
EXAMPLE Find the density of body if body is in equilibrium.


H/3

 2H/3
EXAMPLE A body of density ‘’ is released from rest from a height ‘H’ over a liquid of
density ‘2’. Find the depth till it sinks in the liquid.
(Neglect any energy losses and size of body)
If a body floats in a fluid, the weight of the body is equal to the weight of
liquid displaced (Buoyant Force)
EXAMPLE Find the density of body if volume of body submerged inside the fluid as
shown. Total volume of body is V.
EXAMPLE Find,
(a) Density of body
(b) Minimum mass to be kept over block to completely sink in liquid.
EXAMPLE An ice cube of side 10 cm is floating in water with one of its sides
perpendicular to the water surface. Find,
(a) Volume of ice cube submerged inside water.
(b) Height of ice cube submerged inside water.
EXAMPLE Initially the given block is in equilibrium with string in tight condition. At an
instant string is cut and container is accelerated towards right. In which
directions given blocks will move.
Centre of Buoyancy
It is the effective point of application of a buoyant force.
It is the centre of displaced liquid in uniform gravitational field.
During the torque analysis to calculate the torque of buoyant force we can
assume buoyant force is acting at centre of buoyancy.
Centre of Buoyancy (COB)

COM FB = 𝝆V𝝆g Buoyant force act on centre of Buoyancy

(COB)
COB
𝝈𝐕𝐠 COB :- Centre of mass of displaced liquid

𝝆
Equilibrium of Floating Objects

Case:1 Stable Equilibrium

Centre of buoyancy above centre of mass

Case:2 Unstable Equilibrium

Centre of buoyancy below centre of mass

Centre of Buoyancy (COB)

COM FB = 𝝆V𝝆g Buoyant force act on centre of Buoyancy

(COB)
COB
𝝈𝐕𝐠 COB :- Centre of mass of displaced liquid

𝝆
Equilibrium of Floating Objects

Case:1 Stable Equilibrium

Centre of buoyancy above centre of mass

Case:2 Unstable Equilibrium

Centre of buoyancy below centre of mass

 A solid hemisphere of radius R and is hanging inside a liquid of density  by
EXAMPLE
means of a string as shown in the figure. Find force, due to the liquid acting
on the curved portion (Neglect atmosphere pressure)
/////

Solution
H 𝜌

R
//////////////////
 Ideal Fluid

Characteristics of an ideal fluid are :

(i) Fluid flow is steady.
(ii) Fluid flow is irrotational.
(iii) Fluid is incompressible.
(iv) Fluid is non-viscous.
 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW
1. Steady Flow

Steady flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid velocity at a
point do not change with time.

Fluid particle may have a different velocity at some other point.

In steady flow all the particles passing through a given point follow the
same path and hence a unique line of flow. This line or path is called a
streamline.

These are the curves drawn into space tangent to which at any point gives
the direction of velocity at that point.

Density of streamlines at any point is proportional to the magnitude of

velocity at that point.

Two streamlines do not cress each other. At a point there cannot be 2

direction of velocity.
Fluid Dynamics

STREAMLINE

Streamline in the flowing fluid are the representation of fluid particles

motion.

These are hypothetical lines representing fluid flow.

Tangent to streamline will give direction of velocity of the fluid particle

passing through that point.

Two streamlines can never intersect.

2. Laminar flow
3. Turbulent flow

It is an irregular flow in which the particles move in zig-zag.

3. Turbulent flow
 Equation of continuity

The continuity equation is the mathematical expression of the law of

conservation of mass in fluid dynamics.
Δt, Δm1
𝚫𝐦𝟏 𝚫𝐦𝟐 𝚫 𝐕𝟏 𝛒 𝚫 𝐕𝟐 𝛒 A1 Δt, Δm2
= ⟹ = A2
𝚫𝐭 𝚫𝐭 𝚫𝐭 𝚫𝐭
v1 v2
𝚫𝐕𝟏 𝚫𝐕𝟐 𝐀𝟏 𝚫𝐱 𝟏 𝐀𝟐 𝚫𝐱 𝟐
= ⟹ =
𝚫𝐭 𝚫𝐭 𝚫𝐭 𝚫𝐭 𝚫𝐱 𝟐
𝚫𝐱 𝟏
𝐀𝟏𝐯𝟏 = 𝐀𝟐 𝐯𝟐

𝟏
Av = constant ⟹ v∝
𝐀 Rate of flow = Volume of liquid flowing per second

∆𝐕 m3 litre
𝐐= = 𝐀𝐯 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 Units : or
∆𝐭 sec sec
EXAMPLE An incompressible liquid flows through a horizontal tube as shown in the
following figure. Then find the velocity v of the fluid
1.5m/s

6m/s 3A

Solution

V=?

Ans 10 m/s
 Bernoulli's theorem

P2
2
v2

h2
P1
1
v1

h1
Bernoulli's theorem

Bernoulli's theorem is the mathematical expression of the law of

conservation of energy in fluid dynamics.
According to Bernoulli's theorem the sum of pressure energy, kinetic
energy and potential energy per unit volume remains constant along a
streamline in an ideal fluid flow.
Bernoulli's theorem

According to Bernoulli's theorem

𝟏
𝐏 + 𝛒𝐯 𝟐 + 𝛒𝐠𝐡 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
P1 +𝛒𝐠𝐡𝟏 + 𝛒𝐯𝟏𝟐 = 𝐏𝟐 + 𝛒𝐠𝐡𝟐 + 𝛒𝐯𝟐𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
P 𝐯𝟐
+ + 𝐡 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 (Energy per unit weight)
𝛒𝐠 𝟐𝐠
In the above equation
𝐏
is called the pressure head,
𝛒𝐠

𝐯𝟐
is called the velocity head,
𝟐𝐠

and h is called the gravitational/potential head.

EXAMPLE Find pressure difference across the two ends of a horizontal pipe, if volume
flow rate is ‘Q’ (A1 and A2 are small as compare to H)
A2
A1

H
H
Velocity of Efflux
1 P0

V1
h
H
V2
2
Problems based on different variations

h1

h2
Torricelli’s law of efflux
Velocity of Efflux

Applying Bernoulli's theorem :-

1 2 1 2
P1 +ρgH + ρv1 = P2 + ρg(H − h) + ρv2
2 2
1 1
ρgh = 𝜌𝑣22 − 𝜌𝑣12
2 2
1
ρgh = 𝜌(𝑣22 −𝑣12 )
2
v= 2gh h

H v

(H-h)
Range of Efflux 2(H − h)
R = vt = 2gh
g

R = 2 h(H − h)
Free surface (P0) Range will be maximum
when h = H – h

h Or h = H/2

Rmax = 𝟐 𝐇/𝟐(𝐇 − 𝐇/𝟐) = 𝐇

v

(H-h)

R
Thrust by efflux on container = av2 , where a = area of hole
EXAMPLE M : mass of the piston, A : area of cross section of piston, find velocity of
Efflux Piston
1
h

V=?
2
EXAMPLE We cannot apply Bernoulli equation between point 1 and 2 because this is not
a ideal flow Piston
1
 h

H 3 h
2 V=?
2
EXAMPLE

1
 h

H 2 h
h
4 V=?
EXAMPLE Find
(a) Range
(b) Value of ‘h’ for which range is maximum h
(c) Rmax (maximum range) H

y=H–h
Important Key Point

h
A
H–h
H
B
h
H1 + H 2 = H H1 and H2 heights from top surfaces.

Range will be same if distance of orifices from top surface and bottom surface
will be same.

H/2
H
EXAMPLE At what point be made the hole to get maximum range

(a) H > L
y
(b) H < L
H

L
Thrust force by liquid coming out of the vessel

h
H v
EXAMPLE Mass of container is negligible , find initial acceleration of container

h = H/2
H 
V

Smooth
surface
VISCOSITY
Velocity gradient
VISCOSITY

When there is relative motion layers of fluids, a force opposes the relative
motion. This force is called viscosity force (Internal friction between layers of
fluid). This property of fluid is called viscosity.

Velocity gradient : Change in velocity per unit length in a direction normal to

the flow of the fluid is called velocity gradient.
EXAMPLE Block is moving with constant velocity. Find ‘’ coefficient of viscosity

a t

v0


EXAMPLE Both of the block have same mass and moving with constant velocity = 2 m/s
t (thickness of the oil film) = 2mm, m = 10 kg, area of contact = 5 cm2.
Find  coefficient of viscosity

v = 2m/s
M

2m/s

m
EXAMPLE Find the external torque required to rotate the disc with constant angular
velocity. 
Side view
r

 t

Top view
Stoke’s Law
Stoke’s Law

Stoke showed that if a small sphere of radius r is moving with a velocity v

through a homogeneous stationary medium (liquid or gas), of viscosity ɳ then
the viscous force acting on the sphere is

𝐅𝐯= −𝟔𝛑𝛈𝐫 𝑣Ԧ
Stoke’s Law

Stoke showed that if a small sphere of radius r is moving with a velocity v

through a homogeneous stationary medium (liquid or gas), of viscosity ɳ then
the viscous force acting on the sphere is

Fv = 6πηrv

Fnet
a=
m

mg − Fb + Fv
a=
m
mg − (Fb + 6πηrv)
a=
m
VT → Terminal velocity
∵ Fnet = 0
Fv + Fb = mg
VT
Fv = mg − Fb

6πηrvT = V σ − ρ g
4 3
6πηrvT = πr σ − ρ g
3

2 r2
vT = σ−ρ g
9η

If ρ, σ, η = constant

vT ∝ r 2
 Terminal velocity graphs

Case 1 : When initial velocity of body in medium is zero

Fb
v
Fv

vt

mg
0
time
Fv = 6πηrv

mg − Fb + Fv
a=
m
mg − (Fb + 6πηrv)
a=
m
Case 2 : When initial velocity of body in medium is greater than vt

v Fb
Fv

vT

mg
0 time
Fv = 6πηrv

mg − Fb + Fv
a=
m
mg − (Fb + 6πηrv)
a=
m
EXAMPLE Two identical rain drops are falling in air with 5 cm/s. If both drops are
combined then find out terminal velocity of big drop.

Solution

1
Ans: 5×4 ​cm/s
3
This is a surface phenomenon [Liquid air interface]

Free surface of the liquid behaves like a stretched membrane which try it
to acquire a least surface area possible for a given volume.

For a given volume, surface area of sphere is minimum. That’s why a drop
always acquires spherical shape.
Properties of force due to surface tension

It is always tensile in nature.

It is always ⊥ to the imaginary line and always tangent (parallel) to the

surface.

It is independent of orientation of line.

Some basic steps to solve the problems of surface tension

Define the system

Decide the system boundary line and liquid air interface.

Force due to surface tension act away from system and tangent (parallel)
to the liquid air interface.
EXAMPLE Find maximum mass of needle of length ‘L’ which can be kept on water
surface slowly.
EXAMPLE Find maximum mass of ‘R’ radius disc which can be kept on liquid surface.
EXAMPLE Find maximum mass of a annular disc which can be kept on liquid surface.

R
EXAMPLE Find maximum mass can hang on the wire surface tension (S).

M
EXAMPLE (a) Find force applied by (2) on (1) due to surface tension.
(b) Find net force exerted by (2) on (1).
(c) Find force by cylindrical container on (1) due to surface tension.
ABCD is an imaginary surface. R

B
A

h
C
D