EMBRYOLOGY

CHIKOPA,S.E
GAMETOGENESIS
• Gametogenesis is the conversion of germ cells into male and female
gametes
• Primordial Germ Cells (PGCs) are formed in the epiblast during WK 2
& move to the wall of yolk sac
• PGCs migrate to developing gonads and arrive by end of WK 5
• PGCs increase in number by mitosis during migration and when they
arrive at gonads
• In preparation for fertilization, germs cells undergo gametogenesis
which include meiosis to reduce the number of chromosomes and
cytodifferentiation to complete their maturation
Oogenesis
• Is the process whereby oogonia differentiate into mature oocytes
• Maturation of oocytes begins before birth
• PGCs arrive in the ovaries & differentiate into oogonia
• Oogonia populate the ovary through mitotic division
• Oogonia enter meiosis 1 & undergo DNA replication to form primary
oocytes
• All primary oocytes are formed by 5th month of fetal life
• No oogonia are present at birth
• Primary oocytes remain dormant in prophase of meiosis from 5th
month of fetal life until puberty
-after puberty 5-15 begin maturation with each ovarian cycle ,but
usually 1 reaches full maturity
• During the ovarian cycle, the primary oocyte complete meiosis I to
form 2 daughter cells : the secondary oocyte (23,2N) and the first
polar body
• The secondary oocyte promptly begins meiosis II but is arrested in
metaphase of meiosis II about 3hrs before ovulation
• The secondary oocyte remains arrested in metaphase of meiosis II
until fertilization occurs
• At fertilization , the secondary oocyte completes meiosis to form
mature oocyte(23,1N)
Approximate number of oocytes
Primary oocytes
@ 5 months of fetal life ~ 7million primary ooctes are present
@ birth ~ 2million primary oocytes are present
@ puberty ~ 40 000 primary oocytes are present
-NB reduction in number is due to degeneration

Secondary oocytes
12 secondary oocytes are ovulated per year
Number can be reduced in women who ???
Human ovum released after ovulution
Spermatogenesis-male gametogenesis
• Maturation of Sperm Begins at Puberty
• Spermatogenesis is classically divided into three phases:
A. Spermatocytogenesis
1. PGCs (46, 2N) from the wall of the yolk sac arrive in the testes at
week 6 and remain dormant until puberty.
-At puberty, primordial germ cells differentiate into type A
spermatogonia (46, 2N).
2. Type A spermatogonia undergo mitosis to provide a continuous
supply of stem cells throughout the reproductive life of the male. Some
type A spermatogonia differentiate into type B spermatogonia (46, 2N).
B. Meiosis
1. Type B spermatogonia enter meiosis I and undergo DNA replication
to form primary spermatocytes (46, 4N).
2. Primary spermatocytes complete meiosis I to form secondary
spermatocytes (23, 2N).
3. Secondary spermatocytes complete meiosis II to form four
spermatids (23, 1N).
C. Spermiogenesis
1. Spermatids undergo a postmeiotic series of morphological changes
to form sperm (23, 1N).
These changes include; formation of the acrosome, condensation of
the nucleus, and formation of head, neck, and tail.
The total time of sperm formation (from spermatogonia to
spermatozoa) is about 64 days.
2. Newly ejaculated sperm are incapable of fertilization until they
undergo capacitation, which occurs in the female reproductive tract
and involves the unmasking of sperm glycosyltransferases and the
removal of adherent plasma proteins coating the surface of the sperm.
Mature human sperm
Clinicals
• What causes Down’s syndrome ?
• Causes of infertility in males and in females
1. True or False
a) the radius is the most commonly fractured bone in
the human body
b) the olecranon forms the prominence of the elbow
c) rotator cuff muscles have common nerve supply
d) the deltoid muscle flexes, extends and abducts the
shoulder joint
e) the lattismus dorsi is attached to the lateral lip of the
bicipital groove
2) Concerning the brachial plexus;
a) it is formed from anterior rami of C5-T1
b) the anterior divisions of the upper and middle
trunks unite to form the lateral cord
c) its branches carry sensory , motor and autonomic
nerves to the upper limb
d) its cords are enclosed within the axillary sheath
e) The musculocutaneous nerve is a branch from its
lateral cord
3) True or False
a) Oogenesis begins at puberty
b) at ovulation , the secondary oocyte completes meiosis to form
mature oocyte
c) Primary spermatocytes differentiates into spermatozoa through a
process called spermiogenesis
d) newly made sperm may fertilise the ovum
e) Untreated STIs may cause infertility
FERTILISATION
• Fertilization occurs in the ampulla of the uterine tube and includes
three phases.
Phase 1: Sperm penetration of corona radiata
-involves the action of both sperm and uterine tube mucosal enzymes.
Phase 2: Sperm binding and penetration of the zona pellucida
-Sperm binding occurs through the interaction of sperm
glycosyltransferases and ZP3 receptors located on the zona pellucida.
-Sperm binding triggers the acrosome reaction, which entails the
fusion of the outer acrosomal membrane and sperm cell membrane,
resulting in the release of acrosomal enzymes
• Penetration of the zona pellucida requires acrosomal enzymes,
specifically acrosin.
-Sperm contact with the cell membrane of a secondary oocyte triggers
the zona/cortical reaction, which entails the release of cortical
granules (lysosomes) from the oocyte cytoplasm.
-This reaction changes the secondary oocyte cell membrane inactivates
sperm receptors on the zona pellucida.
-These changes are called the polyspermy block, which renders the
secondary oocyte cell membrane impermeable to other sperm.
Phase 3: Fusion of sperm and oocyte cell membranes occurs with
subsequent breakdown of both membranes at the fusion area.
-the entire sperm (except the cell membrane) enters the cytoplasm of
the secondary oocyte arrested in metaphase of meiosis II.
-The sperm nuclear contents and the centriole pair persist, but the
sperm mitochondria and tail degenerate.
-The sperm nucleus becomes the male pronucleus.
-Since all sperm mitochondria degenerate, all mitochondria within the
zygote
are of maternal origin (i.e., all mitochondrial DNA is of maternal origin).
-The secondary oocyte completes meiosis II, forming a mature ovum
and a second polar body.
-The nucleus of the mature ovum is now called the female pronucleus.
-Male and female pronuclei fuse, forming a zygote (a new cell whose
genotype is a combination of maternal and paternal chromosomes).
• The life span of a zygote is only a few hours because its existence
terminates when the first cleavage division occurs.
Scanning electron micrograph of sperm binding to the zona pellucida.
• The three phases of oocyte penetration.
-In phase 1, spermatozoa pass through the corona radiata barrier;
- in phase 2, one or more spermatozoa penetrate the zona pellucida;
-in phase 3, one spermatozoon penetrates the oocyte membrane while
losing its own plasma membrane.
Inset. Normal spermatocyte with acrosomal head cap.
CLEAVAGE AND BLASTOCYST FORMATION
• Cleavage is a series of mitotic divisions of the zygote
• The process of cleavage eventually forms a blastula consisting of cells
called blastomeres.
• A cluster of blastomeres (16–32 blastomeres) forms a morula
• Blastocyst formation involves fluid secreted within the morula that
forms the blastocyst cavity.
-The conceptus is now called a blastocyst.
• The inner cell mass of the blastocyst is called the embryoblast
(becomes the embryo).
• The outer cell mass of the blastocyst is called the trophoblast
(becomes the fetal portion of the placenta).
• Zona pellucida degeneration occurs by day 4 after conception.
• The zona pellucida must degenerate for implantation to occur.
IMPLANTATION
• The blastocyst usually implants within the posterior superior wall of
the uterus by day 7 after fertilization.
• Implantation occurs in the functional layer of the endometrium
during the progestational (secretory) phase of the menstrual cycle.
• The trophoblast proliferates and differentiates into the
cytotrophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast.
• Failure of implantation may involve immune rejection
CLINICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• Ectopic tubal pregnancy (ETP)
-ETP occurs when the blastocyst implants within the uterine tube due to
delayed transport.
- The ampulla of the uterine tube is the most common site of an ectopic
pregnancy.
- The rectouterine pouch (pouch of Douglas) is a common site for an ectopic
abdominal pregnancy.
-ETP is most commonly seen in women with endometriosis or pelvic
inflammatory disease.
-ETP leads to uterine tube rupture and hemorrhage if surgical intervention
(i.e., salpingectomy) is not performed.
5. ETP presents with abnormal uterine bleeding, unilateral pelvic pain, and a
massive first-trimester bleed.
FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYOBLAST- WEEK 2

• During this period, the embryoblast differentiates into two distinct

cellular layers:
- Epiblast & hypoblast
• The epiblast and hypoblast together form a flat, ovoid-shaped disk
known as the bilaminar embryonic disk
FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF THE TROPHOBLAST-WEEK
• Trophoblast form two zones syncytiotrophoblast and
cytotrophoblast.
• The syncytiotrophoblast is the outer multinucleated zone of the
trophoblast where no mitosis occurs (i.e., it arises from the
cytotrophoblast)
• During this period, the syncytiotrophoblast continues its invasion of
the endometrium
• The cytotrophoblast is mitotically active as new cytotrophoblastic
cells migrate into the syncytiotrophoblast, thereby fueling the growth
of the syncytiotrophoblast.
Embryonic Period (Weeks 3–8)
• By the end of the embryonic period, all major organ systems begin
development, although functionality may be minimal.
• During the embryonic period, the uteroplacental circulation cannot
satisfy the increasing nutritional needs of the rapidly developing
embryo, so development of the cardiovascular system is essential.
• By the end of week 8, the embryo has a distinct human appearance.
FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF THE
EMBRYOBLAST
• Gastrulation is the process that establishes the three definitive germ
layers of the embryo namely;ectoderm,mesoderm& endoderm
forming a trilaminar embryonic disk by day 21 of development.
• These three germ layers give rise to all the tissues and organs of the
adult.
• Gastrulation is heralded by the formation of the primitive streak and
is caused by a proliferation of epiblast cells. The primitive streak
consists of the primitive groove, primitive node, and primitive pit.
• The ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm of the trilaminar
embryonic disk are all derived from the epiblast
• DERIVATIVES OF GERM LAYERS