Political science-Ill

Module-3
~ 1111 Mechanl■ •• ~ i(
Dispute Redressal Mechanisms In International Relations (IR) encompass a range of
processes and Institutions aimed at resolving conflicts and disputes between states In
a peaceful manner. These mechanisms are vital for maintaining international peace,
stabillty, and cooperation. One key aspect of dispute redressal in IR Is the promotion
of peaceful settlement of disputes, which Is often outlined In International
agreements, treaties, and the charters of International organizations llke the United
Nations (UN).

8 [Link]\ m1111tdDl1~
Peaceful settlement of disputes refers to resolving conflicts between states without
resorting to violence or coercion. It Is based on the principles of International law,
diplomacy, and negotiation. Various mechanisms and methods are employed to
achieve peaceful resolution, Including negotiation, mediation, concillation, arbitration,
and judicial settlement.

~ PYiiiis VI~ the UN~

Chapter VI of the United Nations Charter outlines the provisions related to the
peaceful settlement of disputes between states. It emphasizes the principle of
resolving conflicts through diplomatic means and peaceful negotiations rather than
resorting to force or aggression.

• ~~gotiatlqn:
,Definition. Negotiation Is a voluntary, non-binding process where parties In a dispute
engage in discussions to reach a mutually acceptable agreement.

Process:

• Pre-Negotiation Phase: Parties assess their interests, objectives, and positions,

often facllltated by diplomats or mediators.

• Negotiation Phase: Direct talks between parties where they exchange

proposals, concessions, and counteroffers to find common ground.
 • Agreement Phase: If successful, parties formalize the agreement through a
written contract or treaty.

Example: The negotiation of the Paris Agreement on climate change In 2015 Involved
extensive talks between 196 parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), resulting In a historic accord to combat climate change.

• Mediation:
Peflnttk>n: Mediation Is a facilitated negotiation process where a neutral third party
assists disputing parties in reaching a voluntary agreement.

Process:

• Introduction: The mediator establishes ground rules and explains the mediation
process.

• Communication: Parties share their perspectives, interests, and concerns In a

structured environment.

• Problem-SoMng: The mediator helps parties explore options, generate

solutions. and overcome obstacles to agreement.

• Agreement: If successful, parties reach a mutually acceptable settlement, often

documented in a written agreement.

Example: The mediation efforts by the United Nations In the Yemeni peace process,
where mediators facilitated talks between the Yemeni government and Houthi rebels
to negotiate a ceasefire and political transition.

• Conciliation:
Definition: Conciliation is a non-adversarial dispute resolution process where a neutral
third party assists parties In reaching a settlement by proposing solutions and
f acllitatlng communication.

Process:

• Initiation: Parties agree to conciliation and appoint a neutral conciliator or panel.

• Information Exchange: Parties present their positions, interests, and desired

outcomes to the conciliator.

• Recommendation Phase: The conciliator proposes non-binding

 recommendations or settlements based on the parties' Interests and legal
prlnclples.

• Acceptance or Rejection: Parties consider the recommendations and decide

whether to accept, reject, or modify them.

Example: The Oslo Accords In 1993, where Norwegian diplomats facilitated talks
between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), leadlng to mutual
recognition and a framework for Palestlnlan self-governance.

• Arbitration:
~ nltlon: Arbitration Is a formal dispute resolution process where parties submit
their dispute to one or more Impartial arbitrators who render a binding decision,
called an award, based on evidence and arguments presented.

Process:

• Arbitrator Selection: Parties agree on arbitrators or appoint them according to

predetermined rules.

• Pleadings: Parties present their case, including written submissions, evidence,

and legal arguments.

• Hearing: Arbitrators conduct a hearing where parties present oral arguments,

examine witnesses, and present evidence.

• Decision: Arbitrators deliberate and Issue an award, which Is final and binding
on the parties.

Example: The Permanent Court of Arbitration's ruling In the Philippines v. China

arbitration case In 2016, which clarified maritime rights In the South China Sea and
affirmed the Philippines' claims under the United Nations Convention on the Law of
the Sea (UNCLOS).

* Judicial Settlement:
Definition: Judicial settlement Involves resolving disputes through adjudication by an
Impartial court or tribunal, such as the International Court of Justice (ICJ), based on
applicable International law and legal principles.
»rocess:

• Jurisdiction: Parties voluntarily submit to the court's Jurisdiction or agree to Its

authority through treaties or conventions.

• Pleadings: Parties present their case through written submissions, Including

legal arguments and evidence.

• Hearing: The court conducts oral hearings where parties present arguments
and respond to questions from Judges.

• Judgment: The court renders a Judgment based on Its Interpretation of

International law and applicable treaties, which Is binding on the parties.

:><ample: The ICJ's judgment In the Case Concerning Mllltary and Paramllltary
~ctlvltles In and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States) In 1986, where the
:ourt ruled In favor of Nicaragua and held the United States liable for mllltary
ntervention and unlawful use of force.

S FY,ctlqna of the ICJ In ~ • 1.\ttl 1• • lL .L.

* lnterpretatlon of Treaties and Conventions:

• The ICJ Interprets treaties and conventions between states when disputes
arise regarding the meaning or application of specific provisions.

• This function helps darlfy legal obligations and promotes consistency In

International treaty Interpretation.

• f'pplication of Customary International Law:

• The ICJ applies customary International law In Its judgments, providing

authoritative Interpretations of customary practices and norms among states.

• This function contributes to the development and codification of customary

International law.

• Compulsory Jurisdiction:

• While states must consent to the ICJ's jurisdiction in specific cases, some
treaties and conventions provide for compulsory jurisdiction, requiring parties
to submit certain types of disputes to the Court.

• This function enhances the ICJ's role as a central Institution for resolving legal
 disputes between states.

• Amlcus Curiae Participation:

• The ICJ allows for amlcus curiae c•tnend of the court; participation, where non-
state entitles or International organizations can provide legal opinions or
expertise to assist the Court In Its deliberations.

• This function promotes lncluslvlty and allows for diverse perspectives to be

considered In ICJ proceedings.

• Judicial Settlement of International Disputes:

• As a Judicial body, the ICJ engages In the settlement of International disputes

through legal analysis, evidence examination, and reasoned Judgments based
on applicable International law.

• This function contributes to the stability of International relations by offering a

structured and Impartial mechanism for resolving conflicts.

l!l ►1?2 Qf Jbl 1CJ In Pl•CIN $ltlllnWJt af Pi ••

• Promotion of Diplomacy:

• The ICJ's role extends beyond legal adjudication to promote diplomatic dialogue
and negotiations between states.

• By providing a legal framework for disputes, the ICJ encourages states to engage
In diplomatic efforts to resolve conflicts peacefully.

• Prevention of Armed Conflict·

• Through Its legal rulings and Interpretations, the ICJ contributes to preventing
armed conflict by clarifying rights, obligations, and limitations under International
law.

• Its decisions can deter states from resorting to force and encourage diplomatic
solutions.

• Human Rights Protection:

• The ICJ's role Includes adjudicating cases related to human rights violations.
ensuring accountability for states and promoting respect for fundamental rights
and freedoms.
• This role aligns with the broader objective of maintaining peace and security by
addressing Issues that can lead to tensions and conflicts.

• Dispute Resolution Mechanism:

• The ICJ serves as a formal dispute resolution mechanism that offers a structured
process for states to present their arguments, evidence, and legal positions.

• Its role In providing a forum for resolving disputes contributes to maintaining

stability and order In International relations.

• Advisory Function for International Law Development:

• Apart from Its adjudicatory role, the ICJ's advisory opinions contribute to the
development and clarification of International law.

• States, lnternatlonal organizations, and legal scholars rely on these opinions to

understand legal principles and address emerging challenges In International
relations.

8 tsss\m
• Nicaragua v. United States (1986):

• i3ackground: Nicaragua brought a case against the United States to the ICJ,
alleging U.S. Intervention In Its Internal affairs, Including support for anti·
government forces.

• ICJ Judgment: The ICJ ruled In favor of Nicaragua, holding the United States
responsible for military Intervention and unlawful use of force, and ordered
reparations to Nicaragua.

• Significance: The case established the principle of non-Intervention In the

Internal affairs of states and reaffirmed the ICJ's role In holding states
accountable for vlolatlons of International law.

• Certain Expenses of the United Nations (1962):

• Background: The UN sought an advisory opinion from the ICJ on the legallty of
assessing member states for expenses related to peacekeeping operations.

• JCJ Opinion: The ICJ concluded that the UN had the authority to assess
member states for such expenses, emphasizing the organization's financial
 autonomy.

• S6gnlftcance: The advisory opinion darifled the UN's legal framework for
funding peacekeeping operations and contributed to the organization's
effectiveness In conflict resolution.

Kaslklll/Sedudu Island (Botswana/Namibia):

• Background: Botswana and Namibia disputed sovereignty over

Kaslklll/Sedudu Island In the Chobe River, leading to tensions between the two
countries.

• )cJ Judgment: The ICJ settled the dispute, affirming Botswana's sovereignty
over the Island based on hlstorlcal and legal factors.

• Slgntflcance: The case demonstrated the ICJ's role In resolving territorial

disputes and promoting peaceful retatlons between states through legal
adjudication.

~ lJN P91ce ~••ADI 0p1. [Link]

JN Peacekeeping Operations (PKOs) are deployed by the United Nations to hetp
countries torn by conflict create conditions for lasting peace. These operations
Involve military, police, and clvlllan personnet from various countries working together
under UN leadership.

* Principles of UN Peacekeeping Operations:

• Consent of Parties - PKOs operate with the consent of the parties Involved,
Including the host country and other parties to the conflict. This ensures the
mission's legitimacy and cooperation from al stakeholders.

• ~mpartlaltty: Peacekeepers must remain neutral and Impartial, not favoring any
side of the conflict. This Impartiality builds trust and credlblllty, essential for
effective peacekeeping.

• Non-Use of Force, Except In Self-Defense: Peacekeepers use force only In self-

defense or to protect clvlllans under Imminent threat. The primary goal Is to
promote peace through dlalogue and deterrence rather than mlltary action.

• Defense of Mandate: PKOs focus on fulfilling their mandate as defined by the UN

Security Council. This mandate can Include tasks such as monitoring ceasefires,
 protecting civilians, and supporting political processes.

• primacy of Poltlcal Sotutions: Peacekeeping operations prioritize political solutions

to conflicts. This Involves supporting peace negotiations, facilitating dialogue
between conflicting parties, and promoting reconciliation.

* Functioning of UN Peacekeeping Operations

• planning and Mandate Oevek>pnent The process starts with the UN Security
Council authorizing a peacekeeping mission and defining Its mandate. This
mandate outlines the mission's objectives, scope of operations, and rules of
engagement.

• Conflict Monltortng and Reporting: Peacekeepers monitor the situation on the

ground, Including ceasefire violations, human rights abuses, and political
developments. They report these findings to UN headquarters and relevant
authorities.

• protection of Ctvllans One of the primary responslbilltles of PKOs Is to protect

clvlllans under threat. Thls can Involve estabUshlng safe zones, providing
humanitarian aid, and Intervening to prevent violence against civilians.

• Capacity Building and Training: Peacekeepers may provide training and capaclty-
bulldlng support to local security forces, government Institutions, and civil society
organizations. This helps strengthen local capabilities for peace and security.

• Coordination and Colaboratk>n UN Peacekeeping Operations collaborate with

host governments, regional organizations. humanitarian agencies, and other
stakeholders. This coordination ensures a comprehensive approach to
peacebulldlng and conflict resolution.

p, IJnlted ~lltlaiW U11la:n In the . . . Ible d Soulh Sudan (l»MSSJ

UNMISS was established In July 2011, following South Sudan's
Independence from Sudan. The mission was deployed In response to a
political and security crisis In South Sudan, with the primary goal of
consolldatlng peace, protecting clvlllans, and supporting the country's
transition to stability and development.

* Principles
• Consent of Parties: It functions with the consent of the South
Sudanese government, ensuring legitimacy and cooperation In Its
operations.

• Impartiality: UNMISS remains Impartial In Its dealings with all parties

involved In the conflict, ensuring fairness and trust In Its actions.

• Non-Use of Force, Except In Self-Defense: The mission employs force

only In self-defense or In defense of Its mandate, prioritizing peaceful
solutions and dialogue.

• Defense of Mandate: Protecting civilians is a central mandate, along

with supporting the peace process, Including political dialogue and
reconciliation efforts.

* Case Studies:
• Ctvlllan Protection: UNMISS has established Protection of Civilians
(PoC) sites, providing safe havens for civilians during periods of
conflict. This has Involved deploying peacekeepers to deter violence
and coordinating humanitarian aid delivery.

• Support for Peace Process: The mission has facilitated peace

negotiations and the Implementation of peace agreements, such as
the Revitalized Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict In South
Sudan (R-ARCSS}, by providing logistical support, mediation, and
monitoring.

• Humanitarian Assistance: UNMISS has collaborated with humanitarian

agencies to deliver aid, Including food, shelter, and medical services, to
affected populations, particularly In areas with limited access due to
conflict.

• Disarmament and Demobilization: The mission has supported efforts

to disarm and reintegrate former combatants Into society,
contributing to stability and reducing the potential for violence.
• Rule of Law: UNMISS has worked on strengthening Institutions,
promoting the rule of law, and supporting justice and reconciliation
processes, lncludlng through capacity building and training Initiatives.

* Critical Appraisal:
• Challenges with Consent: Maintaining consent amid fluctuating
political dynamics and conflict situations has been a challenge,
Impacting the mission's ability to operate effectively.

• Limited Resources: Resource constraints. Including funding and

personnel, have at times hindered the mission's capacity to fully
Implement Its mandate, especially In remote or volatile areas.

• Complex Conflict Dynamics: South Sudan's complex conflict dynamics,

Including ethnic tensions and regional rivalries, have posed challenges
to peacekeeping efforts and conflict resolution.

• Protection Mandate Balance: Balancing the protection of civilians with

other aspects of the mandate, such as supporting political processes
and development, has required continual adaptation and prioritization.

• ~ransltlon to Peacebulldlng: As the situation evolves, UNMISS Is

transitioning from primarily peacekeeping to more comprehensive
peacebuildlng efforts, necessitating adjustments In strategies,
resources, and partnerships.

! iJnlted Nllbr,a Mt 11an for the Al--lebn In W1111m Slhlrl

IMtQ§_QJ
MINURSO was established In 1991 followlng a ceasefire agreement between Morocco
and the Pollsarlo Front, which sought Independence for Westem Sahara. The mission
aimed to organize a referendum for the people of Western Sahara to choose
between Independence and Integration with Morocco.

• Principle~
• frri~rtlfftty: The mission remains ImpartlaI In f acllltatlng the Western Sahara
 referendum process, ensuring fairness and neutrality In Its actions.

• t«,n-Use of Force: MINURSO uses force only In self-defense or to protect Its

mandate, prioritizing peaceful means to resolve conflicts and disputes.

• Support for Political Process~It supports the political process for self-determination
In Western Sahara, lndudlng facilitating negotiations and consultations between
parties.

• Maintaining Ceasefire: A crucial aspect of MINURSO's mandate Is to monitor and

maintain the ceasefire between the Morcx:can government and the Pollsarlo Front.

• Case Studies:

• Ceasefire Monitoring: MINURSO has been Instrumental In monitoring and

reporting ceasefire violations, hefptng to prevent escalation of hostilities and
maintaining stability In the region.

• Referendum Support: The mission has supported the referendum process for self-
determination In Western Sahara, although challenges such as disagreements
over voter eligibility criteria and the political status of the region have delayed Its
completion.

• Humanttanan Assistance· Whtie not a primary humanitarian mission, MINURSO

has facilitated humanitarian aid detlvery In the region during crises or natural
disasters, cooperating with humanitarian agencies and local authorities.

• CommlM'llty Engagement MINURSO engages with local communities, Including

tribal leaders and clvil society representatives, to bulld trust, promote dialogue,
and address concerns related to the peace process and security.

• Critical Appraisal:

• ~eferendum Chalenges. Delays and obstacles In the referendum process,

Including disagreements over voter eligibility criteria and the political status of
Western Sahara, have posed challenges to MINURSO's mandate
Implementation and overall effectiveness.

• Security Risks: Security risks In the region, lndudlng smuggling activities,

transnational threats, and potential terrorist activities, have Impacted the
mission's operations and safety, requiring robust security measures and
cooperation with local authorities.
 • Poltical Senstttvtties: The political status of Western Sahara and International
dynamics, including regional interests and diplomatic pressures, have
sometimes complicated MINURSO's work, necessitating careful navigation and
diplomatic engagement

• ftesource Constra6nts: Like many UN peacekeeping missions, MINURSO has

faced resource constraints, Including funding limitations and logistical
challenges, which can affect Its capacity to fully carry out Its mandate and
respond to evolving security and humanitarian needs.

• local Enga_ge,nent: Balancing engagement with local stakeholders, Including

trlbal leaders, civil society groups, and refugee communities, while maintaining
Impartiality and adherence to the mandate has been an ongoing challenge for
MINURSO, requiring effective communication strategies and conflict-sensitive
approaches.

S ~StablzlltlonlA111cnlnHlltl(MINUSJ~
MINUSTAH was established in 2004 in response to a political and security crisis in
Haiti. The mission aimed to restore and maintain a secure and stable environment,
support democratic governance, and promote human rights and rule of law.

• Principles:

• Consent of Parties: It operated with the consent of the Haitian government,

ensuring legitimacy and cooperation in Its efforts.

• lmpartlaftty: MINUSTAH remained impartial in Its support for stability, democracy,

and rule of law In Haiti, fostering trust and credibility.

• Protection of Ctvtlans: One of Its primary tasks was to protect clvillans under
Imminent threat of physical violence, Including during periods of political unrest or
natural disasters.

• Rule of Law: The mission supported efforts to strengthen the rule of law, including
police and justice sector reform, to enhance governance and accountability.

• Case Studies:

• post-Earthquake Assistance: MINUSTAH played a significant role In providing

humanitarian assistance and supporting recovery efforts after the devastating
earthquake In Haiti In 2010. This Involved coordinating International aid,
 facilitating search and rescue operations, and assisting in rebuilding
infrastructure and communities.

• Security Sector Reform: The mission worked dosely with Haitian authorities
and international partners to reform the security sector, lnduding the Haitian
National Police (HNP), to improve professionalism, effectiveness, and
accountability, contributing to overall security and stability.

• Election S. apport: MINUSTAH supported electoral processes and democratic

governance in Haiti by providing security during elections, supporting voter
education and registration, and fostering a conducive environment for free
and fair elections, enhancing democratic institutions and processes.

• Disaster Response: Beyond the earthquake, MINUSTAH responded to other

natural disasters and crises in Haiti, such as hurricanes and cholera outbreaks.
by coordinating humanitarian aid, medical assistance, and disaster risk
reduction efforts, demonstrating resilience and adaptability in crisis
management.

* Critical Appraisal:

~- Gang Violence and Or~ed Crime:

• Persistent gang violence and organized crime posed significant challenges to

security.

• Efforts were made to dismantle criminal networks and improve community

policing strategies.

2. ,\rmed Groups and

_ Security
_ Threats:

• Security threats from armed groups and factions required robust responses and
collaboration with Haitian security forces.

• The flow of Illicit arms and weapons contributed to security risks.

3. Law Enforcement and Justice Sector Reform:

• Support for law enforcement and justice sector reform aimed to enhance
accountability and access to [Link].

• Challenges such as limited resources and Institutional capacity hindered progress

In these areas.
 4. Com mu nity E ~ t and Co, tflct Res
okJ tion:
mo ting dia log ue wer e ess ent ial for
• Engaging with local com mu niti es and pro
ting con flict s.
addressing und erly ing grie van ces and pre ven
nism s wer e sup por ted to mit iga te
• Com mu nity -ba sed con flict resokJtlon me cha
ten sion s.

5. f>er:$i!!ent Cha l1n g1s:

and pol itica l lnstabHlty con tinu ed to
• Structural Issues, socio-economic disparities,
und erm ine sec urit y effo rts.
Hai ti rem ain ed a com ple x and ong oin g
• Ach ievi ng lasting security and sta blllt y In
challenge.

the UN Chlrt9r and Co l dve I lalh>dl d s,11t1m1

IC
! Ch 1l(tp VI d
pf Di1su11:
VII of the UN Cha rter dea ls wit h •Act ion with Res pec t to Thr eat s to the Peace,
Chapter
ach es of the Pea ce, and Act s of Agg res sion : It out line s the pro visi ons for the
Bre
urit y Cou ncil to take coll ectl ve mea sur es to ma inta in or res tore lnte ma tlon al
Sec
incl ude dip lom atic effo rts, eco nom ic
peace and security. These measures can
ess ary. The Sec urit y Cou ncil has the
sanctions, and even mili tary act ion If nec
to det erm ine the exis ten ce of any thre at to pea ce, bre ach of pea ce, or act
aut hor ity
agg ress ion, and It can rec om me nd or tak e act ion s to add res s the se
of
of disp ute s und er Cha pte r VII prim aril y
[Link] me tho ds of set tlem ent
Include:

• ~ me••=•= This Invo lves using dlpk>matJc ch a~ to

reso lve disputes
age In negotiations, med iatio n, or other
pea cefu lly. The Sec urit y Cou ncil may eng
dipl oma tic effo rts to enc oura ge part ies to
settte thei r diffe ren ces.

eco nom ic sanctions on stat es or

ose
• Eco, IOff lk sanc tion S: The Sec urity Council can Imp
enti tles to pressure them Into com pfyt ng
with Its reso futio ns. San ctio ns can ind ude
trad e restrictions, financial measures, and arm s
emb arg oes .

s the Sec urit y Cou ncil to aut hor ize

• Mll tay actton: As a last reso rt. Chapter VII alow
iona l pea ce and security. This can lnd ude
mUltary [Link] to mai ntai n or rest ore Inte rnat
pea cek eep ing operations. enforcement
actions, or eve n collective military
Inte rven tion s.
measure
• Sanctions ~ : Eco nom ic sanctions are a common coercive
 under Chapter VII. The Se<lllty Council can impose sanctions to pressure states or
entitles to comply wtth Its resolutions. These sanctions can target trade, finance, arms
sales, travet restrictions. and more. Notable examples Include sanctions against North
Korea and Iran.

• Peacekeeptng Ope,lltioos: Chapter VII also empowers the Security Council to establish
peacekeeping missions. These missions deploy military, police, and civilian personnel
to conflict zones to monitor ceasefires. f adlitate negotiations. protect clvlllans, and
support political transitions. Examples lndude UN missions In Kosovo and Liberia.

• £, 1forcema 1t Acttons: The Security Cotrol can take enforcement actions. such as
authorizing military Intervention to restore peace and security. This can Include
Interventions In civil wars, like In Libya In 2011, where the Council authorized military
action to protect cMllans.

The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) Is often regarded as a global enforcement
agency due to Its mandate to maintain International peace and security. Its primary
responsibilltles Include:

• ,-.Cek11ptng The UNSC can authorize peacekeeping mlssions to help countries In

conflict achieve peace agreements. maintain ceasefires, and f adlitate political
transitions.

• C0t tflct r8101ution: It plays a key role In resolving conflicts by mediating between
parties, Issuing resolutions, and dep6oytng peacebullding efforts.

• E,tforc••••t Ktk>na The UNSC has the authority to use coercive measures, lnciudlng
economic sanctions and military force, to enforce Its decisions and maintain global
security.

• SanctiOf w: The UNSC can Impose sanctions on states or entitles that pose a threat to
International peace. aiming to compet compliance with Its resolutions and promote
peacefu resolutions to disputes.

• Mllttai;.y 1nterw1 ttion: In cases of serious threats to International peace. the UNSC can
authorize mllltary Intervention. This can Include peace enforcement operations. such
as the Intervention In Bosnia and Herzegovina In the 1990s. aimed at stopping armed
conflicts and protecting vulnerable populations.

• Olplomatic Meclabon: The UNSC plays a role In diplomatic mediation and conflict
resolution. It can facilitate negotiations between conflicting parties, Issue resolutions
calling for peaceful settlements. and support peacebuidlng efforts through diplomatic
channels.
However, the effectiveness of the UNSC as a global enforcement agency can be hindered by
various factors, Including geopolitical Interests, the use of veto power by the Permanent
Members, and challenges In Implementing Its decisions on the ground.

! liii,c:1' "VelO art P.5 • an [Link] to UNSC"s [Link],■ iNJ

The Permanent Members of the UN Security Council (P-5) - China, France, Russla, the United
Kingdom, and the United States - hold the power of veto, which alows each of them to block
any substantive resolution, Including those related to enforcement actions or sanctions. The
exercise of veto power can be a significant obstacle to the effectiveness of the UNSC for
several reasons:

• Stllemata When one or more P-5 members vet.o a resolution, It can lead to
diplomatic stalemates and hinder the Ccu,clrs ability to take decisive action In critical
situations.

• Geopoltkal lnt•ests. P-5 members may use their veto power to protect their national
Interests or allies, even If It contradicts the broader goal of maintaining International
peace and security.

• Ladt of conMWSa:The veto power can prevent the Council from reaching a
consensus on Important Issues, making It challenging to address urgent threats or
conflicts effectively.

• Pet caption of unfaim 111 The veto system Is often attlclzed for giving
disproportionate power to a few states and creating perceptions of unfairness in
decision-making within the UNSC.

• Selective Pl1onties: P-5 members may prioritize their national Interests over collective
security goals. leading to selective use of the veto. This can undermine the credibility
and effectiveness of the UNSC in addressing global chalenges.

g - - PIMCaA I I [Link] --,sn N anJ ...... ~ [Link]

The "Uniting for Peace" resolution. adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1950 (Resolution
3nA). provides a mechanism for the General Assembly to take action when the Security
Council Is unable to [Link] its responsi>lfities due to a deadlock caused by the veto power of
the Permanent Members. Under this resolution. if the SeaJrlty Council falls to act In cases
where there ls a threat to International peace and security. the General Assembly can
convene an emergency special session and recommend collective measures. including the
use of force if necessary..Reforms of the UNSC have been a topic of ongoing debate within
the UN system. Key areas of discussion include:

• Expanseon of membashlp Calls for expanding the SeaJrity Council to Include more
permanent and non-permanent members to better reflect the current geopolitical
J landscape.
L
• ~ of Y9to pow•: Proposals to limit or modify the use of veto power by the
Permanent Members to prevent Its abuse and ensure more effective decision-making.

• Enhanced roll d regk)nll orgarilatkll • Advoe&r:-1 for doser collaboration between

the UNSC and regional organizations In conflict prevention. peacekeeping, and
enforcement actions.

• ' l ' r ~ and ac:countabMlty: Efforts to Increase transparency In the Counclrs

dedsion-maldng processes and enhance Its accountability to the broader UN
membership and the global community.

• Regional Represeruaon Some reform proposals advocate fCK Increased

representation of regional powers on the Security ax.d, beUevtng that thls would
enhance the Council's legltlmacy and effectiveness In addressing regional conflicts
and security chalenges.