S.

INDEX Page Teacher’s

Date Title of the Experiment
N No. Signature

1 OHM’S LAW 1

2 METER BRIGDGE – SPECIFIC RESISTANCE 4

3 METER BRIDGE – SERIES 7

4 METER BRIDGE – PARALLEL 10

5 POTENTIOMETER E.M.F COMPARISION 13

6 POTENTIOMETER INTERNAL RESISTANCE 16

7 FIGURE OF MERIT 19

8 A.C SONOMETER 22

9 CONCAVE MIRRROR 25

10 CONVEXLENS 28

11 CONVEX MIRRIOR 31

12 CONVEX LENS 34

13 GLASS PRISM 38

14 P.N. JUNCTION DIOGE 41

15 ZENER DIODE 44

16 ACTIVITIES 40‐51
 CHETTINAD VIDYASHRAM

[Link],CHENNAI 28

XII PHYSICS PRACTICALS

EXPERIMENT:1

Aim:

To determine the resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of

potential difference versus current.

Apparatus required:

Battery eliminator, a resistance wire,an ammeter and a voltmeter of appropriate

range,a rheostat and connecting wires.

Theory:

At constant temperature the current flowing through a conductor is directly

proportional to the potential difference across its ends provided the physical
conditions like temperature and dimensions of conductorremains the same.

Potential difference (V) α (I)

Or V=IR

R –resistance of the conductor

V
Formula for the resistance R= is measured in ohms.
I

1
Circuit diagram

Model graph:

Tabular column:

Voltmeter reading Ammeter Reading V

R= Ω
[Link]. (V) volts (I) Amps. I

2
Procedure:

¾ Make the connections as given in the circuit diagram.

¾ Use proper scale of ammeter and voltmeter.
¾ Determine its least current.
¾ Position the rheostat contact, note down ammeter and voltmeter reading
¾ Shift the rheostat contact to a different position and again record the readings of
the ammeter for five different positions.

Result: Resistance per cm of the given wire is --------------------------------Ω/cm.

Precautions:There may be loose connections,

1. Rheostat should have suitable low resistance,

2. Ammeter and voltmeter should be of appropriate range.

Sources of error:

1. Check the circuit for loose connections,

2. Resistance of the circuit may be very high.

3
EXPERIMENT:2

Metre Bridge –Specific resistance

Aim:

To find the resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge and hence determine the
specific resistance of its material.

Apparatus required:

A metre bridge , a wire about 1 metre long specific resistance to be determined, a

resistance box, a jockey,a key, a galvanometer,a battery eliminator,screw gauge and
connecting wires

Theory:

Metre Bridge is the practical design of wheatstone’s bridge when galvanometer shows
zero deflection

R l
=
S 100 − l

Where l is the balancing length at which galvanometer shows zero deflection.

⎛ l ⎞
The value of unknown resistance R is R= ⎜ ⎟× S
⎝ 100 − l ⎠

R× A
We know that specific resistance ρ = in this A is area of cross section and is
l
obtained from the relation therefore

Specific resistance is calculated from the relation ρ = R × r is the radius of the

resistance wire.

4
Circuit diagram

Tabular column:

Unknown
resistance(R) is

[Link]. S(Ω)

Length of the resistance (R) is -------------m

Diameter of the resistance(R) is ---------------mm

Radius of the resistance(R) is ------------------mm

Specific resistance(ρ) of the unknown resistance (R) is given by

= ------------ Ω-m

5
Procedure:

¾ Circuit is connected as shown in circuit diagram.

¾ Check for opposite deflection at both ends of metre bridge wire.
¾ Change the values of resistance in the resistance in the resistance box(say 1 Ω ,
¾ 2 Ω , 3 Ω etc.)
¾ Find the resistance value for which zero deflection in the galvanometer is
obtained close to mid-point of metre bridge wire (say 50cm.)
¾ Fix this value as third reading in the tabular column.
¾ Fix any 2 values of resistances one above and one below the resistance value
corresponding to balancing length close to 50cm.
¾ Determine the balancing length in each case of resistance.
¾ Tabulate the readings and determine the value of unknown resistance(R)
Result:
1. The unknown resistance (R) is -----------------Ω
2. The specific resistance of the given material of the wire is ----------Ωm

Precautions:

1. The ends of the connecting wires should be rubbed and cleaned with sand
paper.
2. To determine balance points lifts the jockey and place it on the new
position;do not slide.
3. Protect sensitive galvanometer by using high resistance in eries with
galvanometer and remove key of high resistance when you approach
closed to balance point.
Sources of error:
1. The metre bridge wire may not be of uniform thickness.
2. The wire might have got heated up due to low current.
3. Screws of the insrruments may be loose.

6
Experiment 3:

Metre Bridge

(Laws of combination –resistances in series)

Aim:

To verify the laws of combination of resistances when they are connected in series using
metre bridge.

Apparatus required:

A metre bridge with jockey, a source of constant E.M.F.,given two

resistances,resistances box, galvanometer, high resistance,connectingwires,etc.

Procedure:

¾ Circuit is connected as shown in circuit diagram

¾ Connect only R1 alone and check deflection at both ends of metre bridge wire.
¾ Change the values of resistance(S) in the resistance box(say 1Ω,2Ω,&3Ω etc.)
¾ Find the resistance value for which null point is close to 50cm.
¾ Fix one value of resistances above and below and the resistance close to null
point 50cm.
¾ Determine the balance point in each case.

¾ Tabulate the readings and calculatethe value of resistance R1 using the relation

Repeat the experiment to calculate the values of R1, R1 and R2 in series.

Result:

The value of unknown resistance

(R1) = -------------Ω

(R2) = --------------Ω

R1 and R2 in series

By experiment = ----------Ω

By theoretical calculations = ---------Ω

7
 Unknown
[Link]. Left gap Balancing length l (100- l )cm resistance
S(Ω) cm

1.

2.

3.

Mean (R1) =

1.

2.

3.

Mean(R2) =

Mean R1 and R2
in series

Circuit diagram

R1 and R2 in series

8
Precautions;

1. The ends of the connecting wires should be rubbed and cleaned with sand paper.
2. Do not drag or slide the jockey while moving it to determine the balance point.
3. Protect the galvanometer by using high resistance in series with galvanometer
and remove key of high resistance when you approach close to balance point.

Sources of error:

1. The metre bridge wire may not be of uniform thickness.

2. The wire might have got heated up due to low current.
3. Screws of the instruments may be loose

9
Experiment 4:

Metre Bridge

(Laws of combination –resistances in parallel)

Aim:

To verify the laws of combination of resistances when they are connected in series using
metre bridge.

Apparatus required:

A metre bridge with jockey, a source of constant E.M.F., given two resistances,
resistances box, galvanometer, high resistance, connectingwires, etc.

Procedure:

¾ Circuit is connected as shown in circuit diagram

¾ Connect only R1 alone and check deflection at both ends of metre bridge wire.
¾ Change the values of resistance(S) in the resistance box(say 1Ω,2Ω,&3Ω etc.)
¾ Find the resistance value for which null point is close to 50cm.
¾ Fix one value of resistances above and below and the resistance close to null
point 50cm.
¾ Determine the balance point in each case.

¾ Tabulate the readings and calculate the value of resistance R1 using the relation

Repeat the experiment to calculate the values of R1, R1 and R2 in parallel.

Result:

The value of unknown resistance

(R1) = -------------Ω

(R2) = --------------Ω

R1 and R2 in parallel

By experiment = ----------Ω By theoretical calculations = ---------Ω

10
 Unknown
[Link]. Left gap Balancing length l (100- l )cm resistance
S(Ω) cm

1.

2.

3.

Mean (R1) =

1.

2.

3.

Mean(R2) =

Mean R1 and R2
in parallel

Circuit diagram

R1 and R2 in parall

11
Precautions;

1. The ends of the connecting wires should be rubbed and cleaned with sand
paper.
2. Do not drag or slide the jockey while moving it to determine the balance
point.
3. Protect the galvanometer by using high resistance in series with
galvanometer and remove key of high resistance when you approach close to
balance point.

Sources of error:

1. The metre bridge wire may not be of uniform thickness

2. The wire might have got heated up
3. Screws of the instruments may be loose.

12
Experiment 5:

Potentiometer –Comparision of EMF

Aim: to compare the EMF’S of the given two primary cells using a potentiometer.

Apparatus required:

Battery eliminator ,primary cells (Lechanche and Daniel cell), galvanometer, double
pole double terminal (DPDT) switch, jockey, connecting wires.

Theory :

If a steady current is maintained by a source of e.m.f. ( ) through a wire of

homogeneous composition and uniform area of cross section the potential drop ‘V’
along the wire is directly proportional to its length.

therefore e.m.f.

Ratio of e.m.f.’s of two given primary cell is given by

l1
ε1 ε 2 = l1 and l 2 are balancing lengths of cells
l2

Procedure:

1. Connect circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Check for opposite deflections in the ends A and B of potentiometer wire.
3. Using DPDT switch include only cell . Adjust the position of jockey on wire
AB to determine balancing length at J1, when galvanometer shows zero
deflection.
4. Now transfer switch of DPDT to include cell , determine the balancing length
at position J2.
5. Repeat experiment (steps 1-4) by shifting contact point of rheostat at 5 different
positions.
6. Record your observations.

13
Circuit diagram:

Balancing length (cm)

[Link].

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

14
Result:

The ratio of e.m.f. of two given cells (Leclanche to Daniel cell) = ----------

Sources of error:

1. Heating of potentiometer wire due to current may introduce some error.

2. EMF of auxiliary battery may not be constant.
3. Potentiometer wire may not be having uniform cross section throughout its
length.

Precautions:

1. Ensure that EMF of auxiliary battery ε is greater than ε1 and ε2 of the cells.
2. Current should not be passed for a long time to avoid any heating
3. Rheostat must have a low resistance (say 20Ω) and should be less than the
resistance of potential wire.
4. Do not press jockey on the wire when determining balancing length.
5. Deflection on the same side may be due to loose connection, or emf of
auxiliary battery may be less than ε1 orε2 or positive and negative terminals
of the cells may be wrongly connected.

15
 Internal resistance of a cell

(Potetiometer)

Experiment 6:

Aim:

To determine the internal resistance of a given primary cell (Daniel cell/Lechlanche cell)
using a potentiometer.

Apparatus required:

A potentiometer, a rheostat, battery eliminator whose emf is greater than emf of the
given primary cell, keys, a resistance box, a jockey, a galvanometer,connecting wires
etc.

Theory:

Resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell to the flow of ions inside the electric cell is
its internal resistance. We know that

16
Circuit diagram

Balancing length (cm)

Internal
(R) resistance(r)
[Link]. ohms
When K2 is When K2 is
open closed

cm

Mean =

17
Procedure:

¾ Connect the components of the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

¾ Close the key K1 and open the key K2 determine the balancing length of the
potentiometer wire.
¾ Introduce resistance 3Ω in resistance box, close key K1 and key K2 and
determine the balancing length.
¾ Let the balancing length be .
¾ Repeat experiment for different values of R say 4Ω, 5Ω, 6Ω etc.
¾ Each time take observation for both open circuit balancing and closed circuit
balancing length
¾ Tabulate the readings and determine the internal resistance using the
appropriate relation.

Result:

The internal resistance of the given cell is foumdto be -------------------Ω

Sources of error :

1. Heating of potentiometer wire due to current may introduce some error.

2. EMF of auxiliary battery may not be constant.
3. Potentiometer wire may not be having uniform cross section throughout its
length.

Precautions:

1. The cell whose ingternal resistance is to be determined, should not be

disturbed during the experiment.
2. A freshly prepared cell should be used. While using Leclanche cell wait
for about a minute between two readings to enable depolarizer(MnO2) to
recover ability to depolarizer.
3. As soon as the readings are taken keys K1 and K2 should be taken out to
avoid too much heating .
4. Do not press jockey on the wire when determining balancing length.
5. Deflection on the same side may be due to to loose connection, or emf
auxiliary battery may be less than ε1 orε2 or positive and negative
terminals of the cells may be wrongly connected.

18
Experiment 7:

Galvanometer resistance and figure of merit

(By half deflection method)
Aim:
To determine galvanometer resistance (G) and hence determine figure of merit.

Apparatus required:
A Weston type galvanometer, a battery eliminator, resistance box, keys,
connectingwires, sand paper, etc.

Theory:
To determine Galvanometer resistance (G)
When the key K1 is closed and key K2 is open the current in the galvanometer Ig is

. . .

If this current produces deflection then

Therefore

If R’ is the parallel combination resistance of G and S then

.

Hence current through circuit when key K2 is closed on introducing resistance S to

get half deflection is

Out of the above currentI the current through galvanometer is

.

Determine the ratio of

.
19
Circuit diagram:

GALVANOMETER RESISTANCE(G)
Deflections /
[Link]. R(Ω) ( ) divisions divisions S(Ω)
(Ω)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean (G) =
FIGURE OF MERIT (k)

E.M.F.(E) Resistance (R) Full scale

[Link]. Volt Ω deflection ( )
(A/div.)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
Mean (k) =
20
 On substituting the values of I and R’ in the relevant places simplify the equation to
obtain the equation
.
.

This will result in the relation

.

From the above expression we can determine the value of figure of merit k which is
defined as the current required per division/deflection.

Procedure:
¾ Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
¾ Insert the plug in the key K1and adjust the value of R to get full deflection
(say 30 divisions) in the galvanometer. Record the value of R and .
¾ Now close the plug key K2 adjust the shunt resistance S to get
half deflection / (say 15 divisions). Note down the value of deflection and
the value of resistance S
¾ Repeat the experiment by taking 28 division, 26 divisions, 24 divisions and 22
divisions as full scale deflection.
¾ Record the observation as detailed in tabular column.
¾ Measure the potential drop at the ends of the battery using an accurate
voltmeter.
Result:
1. Resistance of the galvanometer (G) by half deflection method = Ω
2. Figure of merit of the given galvanometer = amp./div.

Precautions:

1. Value of R should be very large as compared to value of G.

2. Full deflection in the galvanometer should be as large as possible and should be
an even number of division.
3. High resistance ‘R’ should be included first to prevent galvanometer from
excess flow of current.

Sources of error:

1. E.M.F. of the battery may not be constant.

2. Galvanometer divisions may not be equally spaced.

21
Experiment 8:
A.C. SONOMETER

Aim: To determine the frequency of the a.c. mains using sonometer.

Apparatus Required: sonometertable,soft iron wire, an electro magnet with step down
transformer, slotted weights of 0.5 kg each.

Theory: when an alternating current is passed through the coil of an electromagnet it

is temporarily magnetized twice in every cycle. Sonometre wire is pulled and released
twice in every cycle of a.c., this sets sonometer wire into vibrations. The kind of wave
formed is STATIONARY WAVES, at resonance when the length and the tension of
the sonometer wire is adjusted using the knife edges, frequency of a.c. (f) will be half
of the frequency of vibration of the sonometer wire and this frequency
is represented as ( )

frequency of a.c. is

T –tension of the wire measured in newtons

m is the mass per unit length measured in (kg/m)
is the resonating length
Procedure:
Procedure:
¾ Set the sonometer table with pulleys over which soft iron wire is passed through
and stretch the wire by placing a load on the hanger (say 1kg.,1.5kg., etc.)
¾ Support the electromagnet and adjust the position of close to middle of the
sonometer wire.
¾ Switch on the a.c. supply and slide one of the knife edges until the wire starts to
vibrate
¾ Now make finer adjustments until paper rider falls due to maximum amplitude
of vibrations of sonometer wire (resonance condition)
¾ Record the value of resonating length and Tension of the wire,
¾ Repeat experiment 5 times by increasing the load in steps of 0.5 kg .
¾ Note down the readings each time.

22
Diagram:

Tabular column:

Resonating lengt( ) cm
Tension Frequency(f)
[Link]. Load(kg) T= m x g
(N) 1 2 Mean

Hz.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean(f) =

23
Result :

Frequency of a.c. mains usingsonometer(f) = Hz.

Standard value of a.c. mains in india (f0) = Hz.

f − f0
Percentage of error = %
f0

Sources of error:

1. Error may creep in due to rigitidy of the wire.

2. Wire may not be uniform cross section
3. Due to friction in the pulley tension is less than that actually applied

Precautions:

1. The sonometer wire should be of magnetic material.

2. Never leave the wire in stretched condition
3. Start with small distances while finding the resonant length (

24
 SECTION-B

Experiment :9 CONCAVE MIRROR

AIM: To find the values of ‘v’for different values of ‘u’ in case of a concave mirror and
find the focal length.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:A source box with filament lamp, meter scale, mirror
holder,screen,given concave mirror etc.,

THEORY:According to mirror formula

1 1 1
= + here both u and v are negative
f v u

1 1 1
∴ = +
f −v −u

uv
Thus f= -( )image
u+v

Where u-distance of object of from the mirror

v-distance of image from the mirror

f-focal length of the given concave mirror

PROCEDURE:

¾ Determine approximate focal length of given concave mirror by distant

object method.
¾ Fix object distance(u) by placing source box in front of concave mirror.
¾ Adjust screen in front of concave mirror to obtain sharp well defined
image.
¾ Measure image distance (v) from the concave mirror.
¾ Tabulate your observations.
¾ Repeat experiment for seven different positions of object to get
diminished,same size, and magnified image of the object.
¾ Determine the mean focal length from observations of calculations.

25
Appromimate focal length of the given concave mirror by distance object

method = ×10-2m

U-V Method

[Link] u cm v cm uv cm2 u+v cm uv

f= cm
u+v

RAY DIAGRAM

MODEL GRAPH (U-V GRAPH and 1/u -1/v graph

26
RESULT:

Focal length of concave mirror from

Distant object method = ×10-2m

u-v graph = ×10-2m

1/u and 1/v graph = ×10-2m

u-v calculations = ×10-2m

Precautions:
1. Pole of the concave mirror of the image and onject should lie at the same
height.
2. Avoid parallax error while measuring distances.

Sources of error:

1. Mirror may not be uniformly polished to cause regular reflection.

2. Zero of the metre scale might be washed out .

27
Experiment:10

CONVEX LEN

Aim:

To find the focal length of convex lens by plotting graphs between ‘u’ and ‘v’ (or)
between 1/u and 1/v

Apparatus required:

A source box with filament lamp,meterscale,lensholder,screen ,given convex lens etc.

Theory:

1 1 1
According to lens formula = - as u is negative and v positive
f v u

1 1 1 1 1
= − = +
f v −u v u

uv
∴ f=
u+v

Where u-distance of object from the lens

v-distance of image from the lens

f-focal length of the given convex lens.

Procedure:

¾ Determine approximate focal length of given convex lens by distant object

method.
¾ Fix object distance (u) by placing source box in front convex lens.
¾ Adjust screen at the other side of the lens to get well defined image of cross-wire
on the screen.
¾ Measure image distance (V) from the lens.
¾ Record your observations in the tabular column drawn.
¾ Repeat experiment for 7 different positions of object distance to get
diminished,same size and magnified image of the object
¾ Plot ‘u’ vs ‘v’ graph, 1/u -1/v graph. Obtain the focal length from the graph
verify it with focal length obtained from u-v calculations.

28
Focal length of the given convex lens by distant object method = cm

U-V Method

Object Image uv
f=
[Link]. distance distance 1/u 1/v Uv U+v cm u+v
(u) cm (v) cm cm-1 cm-1 Cm2 cm
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Ray diagram:

Model graph:

29
RESULT:

Focal length of given convex lens from

Distant object method = ×10-2m

u-v graph = ×10-2m

1/u and 1/v graph = ×10-2m

u-v calculations = ×10-2m

Precautions:
1. Lens,tips of the image and object should be at the same height.
2. Lenses must be clean

Sources of error:

1. There may be a parallax while measuring distances

2. Uniform intensity of light on cross –wire may be not adequate to form
well defined image on the screen.

30
Experiment 11: Convex Mirror

Aim: To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.

Apparatus : Source box with filament lamp, given convex mirror,convex lens and
mirror holder, screen,metre scale etc.

Theory:

The convex mirror forms virtual object hence to determine its focal length, a convex
lens is introduced between and the position of convex mirror is adjusted such that
reflected rays from the convex mirror retrace its path.

From the ray diagram it is clear that PC= Radius of curvature (R)
f=R/2

Procedure:

¾ Auxillary convex lens (L) is placed at a distance of approximately 1.5 times

rough focal length lens ‘L’

¾ Obtain well defined magnified image on the screen at the other side of lens(L)

¾ Introduce convex mirror between lens and screen

¾ Adjust position of convex mirror to obtain image at the side of O itself.

¾ Mark the positions of object,lens, and convex mirror.

¾ Measure distance (PC) between convex mirror and screen.

¾ This give the radius of curvature of given convex mirror.

¾ Repeat experiment twice by moving source box towards lens.

¾ Record the observations to find the focal length

31
Focal length of given convex lens by distant object method = cm.

Position of Position of
[Link]. mirror from image from Y-X =R F=R/2
source box Source box Cm (cm)
X(cm) Y(cm)

Ray diagram (auxiliary lens)

Covnvex Lens Covnvex Mirror

32
RESULT:

Focal length of given convex mirror using convex lens = ×10-2m

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. Parallax error.
2. Focal length of lens may be small.

PRECAUTION:

1. Convex mirror should be placed close to convex lens.

2. While introducing convex mirror position of screen should not be
disturbed.

33
 CONCAVE LENS

EXPERIMENT :12

AIM: To determine the focal length of given concave lens using convex lens.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Source box with filament lamps, given concave and convex
lens, lens holder,wooden screen, meter scale, etc.

THEORY: As concave lens forms only virtual image when the object is real, we use
convex lens to determine its focal length

a) Combination method: In this method convex lens of lesser focal length than
concave lens is combined such that effective power of combination is convergent
According to power of combination of lenses P= P1+P2 based on this if

F-Focal length of combination, f1-focal length of convex lens,

f=focal length of concave lens
then we have

1 1 1
= +
F f1 f
1 1 1 f1 − F
= − =
f F f Ff1
1

Ff1
f = as f1 < F focal length of concave is –ve.
f1 − F

b. Auxillary lens method

In this method image formed by the convex lens acts as virtual object for concave
lens which forms real image on the screen.
From lens formula
1 1 1 u−v
= − =
f v u uv
uv
therefore f = as u < v , f is negative
u−v

34
Focal length of convex lens by distant object method = cm.

Convex lens focal length( f1 )

[Link] U (cm) V(cm) UV(cm2) U+V(cm) uv

f1 =
u+v
Cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean=

Focal length of combination(F)

[Link] uv
2 F=
U (cm) V(cm) UV(cm ) U+V(cm) u+v
Cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean =

⎛ Ff1 ⎞
Focal length of concave lens = f = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ F − f1 ⎠

Ray Diagram (combination method):

35
PROCEDURE:

[Link] or contact method:

¾ Find approximate focal length of concex lens.

¾ Determine focal length f1 of convex lens by u-v method.
¾ Combine given convex lens determine its focal length (F) by u-v method.
¾ Using the combined focal length F and focal length of convex lens( f1 ) focal
length of concave lens ( f ) is found.

b. Auxiliary or out of contact method:

¾ Find out the rough focal length of convex lens.

¾ Position the lens in front of source box such that well defined image is
formed on the screen.
¾ Note the position of [Link] it be S1. Mark its position.
¾ Introduce concave lens between screen and convex lens.
¾ Adjust position of screen such that new image is formed at S2 and note
this position.
¾ Measure object and image distance from concave lens.
¾ Repeat experiment by changing the position of object at 3 different places.
¾ Record your observations to determine the focal length of concave lens.

RESULT

Focal length of given concave lens

i) By combination method = ×10-2m

ii) By auxillary lens method = ×10-2m

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. Lenses may not be fixed upright.

2. Parallax error

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Focal length of convex lens should be smaller than focal

length of concave mirror.
2. Principal axis should be parallel to base.

36
Focal length of convex lens by distant object method: =cm.

b. Auxillary lens method or out of contact method:

[Link] Distance Distance

between between
concave lens concave lens UV -(V-U) ⎛ uv ⎞
and position and position (cm)2 cm. f = −⎜ ⎟
⎝v−u⎠
S1 (U) cm. S2 (V) cm.

Mean=

RAY DIAGRAM (auxillary lens):

37
EXPERIMENT 13

GLASS PRISM (i –δ curve)

Aim: To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a

graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation.

Apparatus required: A glass prism,drawing board ,a white sheet, drawing pins,a

sharp pencil, protractor, etc.

Theory: A ray of light on passing through prism gets least deviated when
refracted ray is parallel to base of the prism.

The refractive index

µ=
(sin( A + D) / 2)
sin( A / 2)

A - Angle of the prism

D – Angle of minimum deviation.

Procedure

¾ Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing board.

¾ Place the prism and mark its boundary.
¾ Draat normal NI at I
¾ Draw ∠i =350 with normal on [Link] two pins P and Q on
incident ray MI at a separation of 5 cm.
¾ Place prism on its position.
¾ Looking through side AC, fix two more pins Rand S so that they appear
in same line along the incident ray MI
¾ Remove the prism and join RS to form emergent ray
¾ Produce emergent ray RS backwards to meet extended incident ray at Q
¾ Measure the angle between incident ray and emergent ray and this angle
is called angle of deviation(δ)
¾ Repeat experiment for different angle of incidence (400 ,450 , 500 ,550 ,)
¾ Plot the graph between ∠iand∠δ
¾ Minimum angle of deviation is denoted as ∠ D

38
MODEL GRAPH(i-δ)

Angles in degrees

[Link].
∠i ∠δ

1. 35

2. 40

3. 45

4. 50

5. 55

39
Result:

The graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation is drawn and minimum
angle of deviation( D ) is found to be =

Refractive index of the given glass prism µ=

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. Pin pricks may be thick

2. Measurement of angles may be wrong

Precautions

1. Angle of incidence should lie between 300 -600

2. The distance between two pins should be more than 1.5 cm
3. Arrow heads be marked to represent the incident and emergent rays.
4. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.

40
EXPERIMENT 14:

P-N JUNCTION DIODE

Aim:

To draw I-V characteristics of p-n junction in forward bias and reerse bias.

Apparatus:

A p-n junction semi-conductor diode, a 3 volt battery, a 20 volt battery, a mille

ammeter,µAammeter,connecting wires etc.

Theory:

When P section of the diode is connected to positive of battery and N section to negative
terminal of the battery, p-n junction is said to be forward [Link] value of forward
bias voltageat which forward current increases rapidly is called cut in voltage or
threshold voltage.

When the polarity of battery is reversed in the above circuit it is reversed biased.

Procedure:

Forward Biasing

Make circuit diagram as shown. Note Least count and zero error of voltmeter and mille
ammeter. Increase forward bias voltage as as0.1Vreverse ,0.2V,…………..[Link]
down mille ammeter current. Observation and plot V-I graph.

Reverse Bias

Make circuit as shown ,increasereverse biasing voltage in steps of 0.5 Vupto 4V

Note down micro ammeter current.

Record observations and plot V-I graph.

41
Model graph

Forward andReverse biasing

Forward biasing Reverse biasing

[Link].
I(mA) Vvolts I(µA) Vvolts.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Circuit diagram

Forward biasing Reverse biasing

42
Result:

V-I characteristics curve of p-n junction diode in forward and reverse bias are drawn
and the cut in or threshold voltage of the given p-n junction diode is -------------------V.

Precautions:

1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Reverse bias voltage is greater than break down voltage should not be applied.

Sources of error :

1. The junction diode supplied may be faulty.

2. Polarity on diodes may be wrong Polarity on diodes may be wrong.

43
EXPERIMENT 15:

ZENER DIODE

Aim:

To draw the characteristic curve of a Zener diode and to determine their reverses break
down voltage.

Apparatus Required :

A zener diode, mille ammeter, voltmeter a ten volt battery,etc.

Theory:

V
Due to heavily doped p-n junction,zener’s depletion layer is thin. According to E=
l
large field of the junction strips electrons from host atoms by breaking covalent
[Link] to this field ionization there is a large zener current after zener breakdown.

Procedure:

¾ Make circuit as shown in diagram.

¾ Increase voltage in steps of 1V,2V……………..until current starts flowing
through circuit.
¾ At one stage on increasing voltage current increases by large amounts and after
that stage voltage remains constant. This is reversed break down situation (Vz).
¾ Tabulate the readings

Result

The characteristics curves of a zener diode is drawn and from the graph the reverse
break down voltage of given zener diode is ------------------------------volts.

Source of error:

[Link] diode may be faulty.

[Link] and voltmeter may not be in suitable range.

Precautions:

1. All connections should be neat,clean and tight.

2. Using sand paper clean the terminals of the connecting wires.

44
Circuit diagram

Tabular column

[Link] Voltmeter reading Ammeter reading

I(mA)
V(volts)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Model graph

45

CHETTINADVIDYAHRAM,R.A.PURAM,CHENNAI28

CLASSXIIPHYSICSPRACTICALS

ACTIVITIES

SECTIONA

ACTIVITY1

AIM:Tomeasureresistance(carbonresistor),Voltage(AC/DC)andcheckcontinuityofagivencircuitusing
multimeter.

APPARATUSREQUIRED:Multimeter,carbonresistor,transformer,sourceofD.C.voltage,circuitcontaining
simpleelectricaldevices.

TheoryandProcedure:

TOMEASURERESISTANCE

Setthemultimeterinresistancemode,connectthetwoprobesofthemultimetertotwoendsofthe
[Link]downthevalueoftheresistanceasshownbythe[Link]codeofstripAandB
givesfirsttwosignificantfigures,stripcgivesnumberofzerostobeadded,stripDgivesthelimitof
tolerance.


RESULT:Resistanceofthegivencarbonresistor

(a) Byco;lourcoding
(b) Byusingmultimeter

TOMEASURED.C.VOLTAGE

SelecttheknobofthemultimeterinDCvoltagemodeinsuitablerange(say10VDC).Connectthe+veand
–veofmultimeterprobeto+veand–veofD>C>source.Notethereadingshownbythemultimeter.

RESULT:D.C.Voltage(a)MarkedvalueV

(b)MeasuredvalueV  46

TOMEASUREA.C.VOLTAGE

SetthemultimeterinA.C.mode(say10VA.C.)connectthblackprobetotheblackcommonofthe
transformer.Theredprobetotheother[Link]downthevalueofA.C.voltageshownbymultimeter.

MeasuredA.C.Voltage(V)

CONTINUITYTEST

Setthemultimeterintoresistance[Link]thetwoendsoftheprobetothetwopointswherethe
continuityistobetested.Ifthemultimetershows1(infiniteresistance)nocontinuitybetweenthosetwo
pointsandcircuitisbrokenbetweenthosetwo[Link]themultimetershowssignificantvaluesthe
continuityisensured.

RESULT:Continuityisensuredbetweeneverytwopointsofthegivencircuit.

ACTIVITY2

AIM:Tostudythevariationsinpotentialdropwithlengthofawireforasteadycurrent.

APPARATUSREQUIRED:Multimeter,Potentiometer,Voltmeter,Jockey,Batteryeliminatoretc.

CIRCUITDIAGRAM:

 

THEORY:Whentwoendsofthewirearekeptatdifferentpotentialcurrentflowsalongthewire,the
currentcausesfallofpotentialacrosslength,thisfallofpotentialperunitlengthisknownaspotential
gradient(k)andk= V l 

Ifthewirehasuniformthicknessandsamematerialdensitythepotentialgradientwillbesamealongthe
entirelengthandthisisthePRINCIPLEOFPOTENTIOMETER.

PROCEDURE:Arrangethecircuitasshowninthecircuitdiagram,jockeyiskeptat50cm[Link]the
readinginthe[Link]thestepsbykeepingjockeyatpositions150cm,250cm,350cmand450cm
etc.,Notedownthereadingintabularcolumn

TABULARCOLUMN

[Link]. Length࢒(cm) Voltmeterreading(v) ࢜ ࢜

࢑ ൌ ሺ ሻ
࢒ ࢉ࢓
   
   
   
   
   
   
 47

RESULT:Itisobservedthatpotentialdrop(V)increaseswithincreaseinlengthandpotentialdropperunit
lengthisconstant.

PRECAUTIONS:connectionsshouldbeneat,cleanand[Link]shouldbeinsertedonlywhenrecording
observations.

SOURCESOFERROR: Loosecoonectionswillaffecttheresult.Potentiometerwiremaynothave

uniformareaofcrosssection.

ACTIVITY3

AIM:Tomeasuretheresistanceandimpedanceofaninductorwithandwithoutironcore

APPARATUSREQUIRED:D.C.Voltmeter,D.C.ammeter,stepdownvariabletransformer,A.C.Voltmeter,A.C.
ammeter,akey,rheostat,abattery,aninductor,asoftironwhichmaybeinsertedintotheinductorcore.

THEORY:IntheD.C.circuit,ifVisthevoltagedevelopedandIisthecurrentflowingthroughthecircuit
thentheresistanceofcoilwithoutthecoreisgivenby

V
R= 
I

Inthea.c.circuitifVa.c.[Link]voltageacrossthecoilanda.c.currentthroughthecoilwithout
core,thentheimpedanceofthecoilwithoutcoreisgivenby 

Z= V a .c .
y I a .c . 

Whentheironcoreisintroducedinsidethecoil,theimpedanceZ’isgivenby

' '
Z’= V a .c .
y I a .c . 

CIRCUITDIAGRAM

 

48

PROCEDURE:Makeconnectionsasshowninthediagram,insertthepluginkeyandnotethereadingsof
d.c.voltmeterandd.c.ammeterandcalculateresistanceoftheinductorusingtheformula.

Removethepluginkeyandmakeconnectionsaccordingtoa.c.circuitmeasurethea.c.voltmeteranda.c.
ammeterreadings.CalculatetheimpedanceZofinductorwithoutiron[Link]insertsoftironcore
insidethecoreoftheinductorandrepeattheexperiment,usingthevaluesofa.c.voltmeterandammeter
calculatetheimpedanceZ’ofinductorwiththeironcore.Tabulatethereadingsasshown.

RESISTANCEOFINDUCTORCOILWITHOUTIRONCORE(R)›’‡‡“—ƒ–‹‘Š‡”‡Ǥ

[Link]. Voltmeterreading Ammeterreading ࢂ

ࡾൌ ࢹ
(V)volt (I)A ࡵ
   


RESISTANCEOFINDUCTORCOILWITHIRONCORE(R’)

[Link]. Voltmeterreading Ammeterreading ࢂԢ

ࡾԢ ൌ ࢹ
(V’)volts (I’)A ࡵԢ
   


IMPEDANCEOFINDUCTORCOILWITHOUTIRONCORE(Z)

[Link]. Voltmeterreading Ammeterreading ࢂࢇǤࢉǤ

ࢆൌ ࢹ
ሺࢂࢇǤࢉǤ ሻvolts ሺࡵࢇǤࢉǤ ሻ ࡵࢇǤࢉǤ
   


IMPEDANCEOFINDUCTORCOILWITHIRONCORE(Z’)

[Link]. Voltmeterreading Ammeterreading ࢂԢࢇǤࢉǤ

ሺࡵԢࢇǤࢉǤ ሻ ࢆԢ ൌ ࢹ
ሺࢂԢࢇǤࢉǤ ሻvolts ࡵԢࢇǤࢉǤ
   


RESULT:ItisfoundthatresistanceofinductorcoilremainssameforD.C.wheninductorcoiliswithor
withoutironcorewhereasimpedanceofinductorcoilisdifferentforA.C.wheninductorcoiliswithand
withoutironcore.FromtheobservationsitisclearthatR<Z<Z’.

49

SECTIONB

ACTIVITY4

AIM:TostudytheeffectofintensityoflightbyvaryingdistanceofthesourceonanLDR(lightdependent
resistor).

Apparatusrequired:Aor100lightdepedendentresistor,amultimeter,abatteryandasourceoflight
(lampwithbulbsof25,60w,100w,)andakey.

PROCEDURE:

CIRCUITDIAGRAM

 

Connectthecomponentsnasshowninthecircuitdiagram,coverblackpaperonLDR.Notedownthe
resistanceshownbythemultimeter.

NowallowthelighttofallonLDRatdistanceofsay10cm,20cm,30cm,40cm,andnotedownthe
resistanceshownbythemultimeterineachcase.Tabulatetheresultasshownbelow.

TABULARCOLUMN:

[Link]. Distanceofsourceoflight(cm) RES Resistance(k)

  ULT 
  :Ast 
  he 
  dist 
  anc 
einreasestheamountoflightfallingonLDRdecreasesandresistanceoftheLDRincreases.Thusitisa
simplefluxmeter.

ACTIVITY5:

AIM:toidentifyadiode,anLED,atransistor,aresistorandacapacitorfrommixedcollectionofsuch
items.

Apparatusrequired:Diodetransistor,LED,atransistorandIC,aresistor,capacitorandmultimeter.

PROCEDURE:Frommixedcollectionidentifythecomponentwithmaximumnumberoflegsthatismore
thanthreelegs,thiscomponentisINTEGRATEDCIRCUITCHIP(ICCHIP)Componentwiththreelegsis
transistor,andcomponentwith2legscouldbeeithercapacitor,resistorordiode.



50

Toidentifytheabovethreecomponentssetmultimeterinresistancemodeandconnectmultimeterprobe
totwolegsofthecomponents,ifthedeviceconductsonboththesideitisaresistor

ifitconductsonlyinonedirectionthecomponentisdiode.Onconnectingthetwoterminalsifmultimeter
showhighcurrentanddecaystozero,thenthecomponentiscapacitor.

RESULT:Thegivencomponentareidentifiedfromthemixedcollectionandresultsaretabulated.

TABULARCOLUMN:

[Link]. No.ofterminals deviceidentified

1. Morethan3terminals ICCHIP

2. Threeterminals Capacitororresistorordiode

3. Twoterminalshasonly 
unidirectionalflowofcurrent Junctiondiode
4. Twoterminalshassteady 
currentinbothdirections Resistor
5. Initiallyhighcurrentandthen 
decaystozero. capacitor
DIAGRAM:

51