DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Hydraulics and Irrigation Engineering

Course Code: CE4533

BCE193011
BCE193005 6/6/23 PROJ-2 (Mini CEP)
BCE193025
BCE193039

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 Table of Contents
Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. iv
1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Background ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2. Aim of Project ......................................................................................................................... 3
2. Canal ............................................................................................................................................... 3
2.1. Requirements of a Best Canal Design.................................................................................... 3
2.2. Types of Canal ........................................................................................................................ 3
2.2.1. Based on the nature of source of supply ......................................................................... 4
2.2.2. Based on their functions .................................................................................................. 4
2.2.3. Based on Discharge and Relative Importance ................................................................ 5
2.2.4. Based on Financial Output .............................................................................................. 6
2.2.5. Based on their alignment................................................................................................. 6
3. Various canal design theories ......................................................................................................... 7
3.1. Kennedy's Silt Theory ............................................................................................................. 7
3.1.1. Assumptions regarding Kennedy’s Silt Theory .............................................................. 7
3.1.2. Limitations of Kennedy’s Silt Theory............................................................................. 7
3.2. Lacey's Canal Design Theory ................................................................................................. 8
3.2.1. Drawbacks of Lacey's theory .......................................................................................... 8
4. Study Area ...................................................................................................................................... 9
5. Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 10
5.1. Selected path ......................................................................................................................... 10
5.2. Elevation at different five points........................................................................................... 11
5.3. Profiling ................................................................................................................................ 12
6. Design calculations ....................................................................................................................... 13
6.1. Unlined Canal on Alluvial Soil ............................................................................................. 13
6.2. Unlined Canal on Alluvial Soil ............................................................................................. 13
7. Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 15
8. References ..................................................................................................................................... 16

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 Table of Figures
Figure 1: Irrigation Canal ...................................................................................................... 2
Figure 2:Eddies force according to Kennedy's silt theory....................................................... 7
Figure 3: Study area .............................................................................................................. 9
Figure 4: Canal Path ............................................................................................................ 10
Figure 5: Elevation points ................................................................................................... 11

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 Abstract

The sreport presents the design process of an unlined canal on alluvial soil, utilizing data
collected from Google Earth Pro and AutoCAD software. The design of the canal involves
careful consideration of the contour plan and elevation from point A to point B, while taking
into account the physical features of the terrain. The selection of the canal path is based on the
elevation in the contour plan, ensuring efficient water flow and drainage. Google Earth Pro is
employed as a valuable tool for data collection, providing accurate topographical information.
AutoCAD is utilized for generating detailed drawings and visual representations of the canal
design. The design process aims to create an effective and sustainable unlined canal system
that meets the requirements of the project area. The results of this study contribute to the
understanding of designing unlined canals on alluvial soil, highlighting the importance of
accurate data collection and precise mapping techniques.

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1. Introduction
1.1. Background

Canals have played a significant role in the development and progress of civilizations
throughout history. These man-made waterways have been utilized for various purposes, such
as transportation, irrigation, and water supply (2023). Their construction and design have
evolved over time, influenced by technological advancements, engineering principles, and the
specific requirements of each region.

Water distribution networks ensures the reliable supply of potable water to communities.
The design of these networks involves complex optimization problems due to various factors
such as network topology, demand patterns, hydraulic constraints, and cost considerations
(Montesinos et al., 1999). As a result, the design process of water distribution networks has
been a subject of extensive research and development.

In the field of civil engineering, the design and construction of canals play role in the
efficient management of water resources, irrigation systems, and transportation networks.
Canals serve as vital infrastructure, facilitating the movement of water for irrigation, drainage,
and navigation purposes. The design of a canal involves multiple considerations, including the
topography of the region, the volume of water to be transported, the intended purpose of the
canal, and the environmental impact it may have on the surrounding areas. Each canal design
is unique, tailored to the specific requirements and challenges faced by its creators. By studying
these designs in a comparative framework, it becomes possible to identify best practices,
innovations, and lessons learned from past canal projects. The success of a canal project relies
on the careful planning, design, and construction processes, which require comprehensive
analysis and evaluation to ensure optimal performance.

Traditionally, canal design has been a complex and labor-intensive task, relying heavily on
manual calculations and engineering judgment. However, with the advent of computer-aided
design (CAD) tools and advanced computational techniques, engineers and researchers have
been empowered to perform more accurate, efficient, and comparative analysis of different
canal design alternatives.

The concept of comparative study in canal design entails the evaluation of multiple design
options to identify the most appropriate configuration that satisfies predefined criteria and

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objectives. This comparative analysis involves assessing various parameters such as water flow
characteristics, hydraulic efficiency, cost-effectiveness, environmental impact, and social
considerations. By employing computer-aided techniques, engineers can simulate and analyze
these parameters for different design scenarios, allowing for more informed decision-making
in the planning and design phases of canal projects.

Figure 1: Irrigation Canal

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1.2. Aim of the Project

The project may involve analyzing and evaluating factors such as cross-sectional shape,
slope, lining materials, bed and bank protection, water flow management, sedimentation
control, and overall system performance. By assessing and comparing these design aspects, the
project aims to provide recommendations or guidelines for optimizing canal design in terms of
functionality, sustainability, and economic viability.

2. Canal

A canal is an artificial waterway. The word "canal" originates from the Old French word
channel, which means “channel.” Sometimes it is also known as navigation. In ancient time, A
canal is used to connect waterfalls with the intention of shortening routes. Now it is constructed
to allow the passage of boats or ships inland or to convey water for irrigation, human-made
strip of water used for irrigation or boat access to a more significant body of water.

2.1. Requirements of a Best Canal Design

A good canal design stands out by fulfilling several important requirements. It starts with
clearly defining the canal's purpose and function, followed by hydraulic considerations to
determine dimensions and slope for efficient water conveyance. The alignment and layout
should minimize costs and promote smooth water flow. The capacity and cross-sectional shape
should match the expected water flow, while seepage control measures minimize water losses.
Structures and control features ensure effective management of water flow and safety. Safety
and environmental considerations minimize risks and impacts on ecosystems. Maintenance and
operation provisions facilitate easy upkeep, and cost-effectiveness is prioritized without
compromising functionality. Integrating these requirements results in a well-designed canal
system that optimizes functionality, durability, and sustainability.

2.2. Types of Canal

Based on various considerations, canals are classified as follows:-

1. Classification of canals based on the nature of the source of supply

2. Classification of canals based on their function

3. Classification of canals based on discharge and relative importance

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 4. Classification of canals based on financial output

5. Classification of canals based on their alignment

2.2.1. Based on the nature of source of supply

1. Permanent canal
2. Inundation canal

[Link]. Permanent Canal

A permanent canal is the one which has the availability of water throughout the year. A
permanent canal is also known as a perennial canal. It is provided with permanent regulations
and distribution works. A permanent canal is generally directed from a permanent source of
water supply.
[Link]. Inundation canal

An inundation canal is a type of canal which gets its supply of water only when the rivers
or the reservoirs are flooded. An inundation canal is not provided with any kind of headworks
to divert the river water to the canal. However, a canal head regulator is provided for controlling
the discharge in the canal.
2.2.2. Based on their functions

Based on its functions, canals are further classified as:

1. Feeder canal
2. Carrier canal

[Link]. Feeder Canal

A feeder canal is constructed to feed two or more canals or their branches. Direct irrigation
is not done from a feeder canal. An example of a feeder canal is the Indira Gandhi feeder canal.
It is 216 km long, which takes off from Harika barrage across river Sutlej (Punjab) and feeds
Indira Gandhi canal.
[Link]. Carrier Canal

A carrier canal serves the purpose of feeder canal as well as it also provides the water for
direct irrigation. It is hence a multipurpose canal. The Upper Chenab canal in west Punjab,
Pakistan is one of the examples of carrier canal.

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2.2.3. Based on Discharge and Relative Importance

Based on discharge and relative importance, canals are further classified as:
1. Main canal
2. Branch canal
3. Major distributary
4. Minor distributary
5. Watercourse

[Link]. Main Canal

It is the principal canal of the network of canals. It is directly connected to the source of
water i.e. the river or the reservoir. It carries a heavy discharge, directly from the source of
water and supplies the water to major distributaries and the branch canals connected to it. The
main canal is not used for direct irrigation.
[Link]. Branch Canal

The branch canal is the one which is connected to the main canal. It receives the water
supply from the main canal. Like the main canal, the branch canal does not carry out direct
irrigation but acts as a feeder canal for major distributaries and minor distributaries as well.
The branch canals usually carry a discharge of over 5 cumecs.
[Link]. Major Distributary

In the canal network, the major distributaries take off from the branch canals or from the
main canals too. It carries a discharge ranging from 0.25 cumecs to 5 cumecs respectively. The
major distributaries are also used for direct irrigation. They supply the water through outlets to
watercourses.
[Link]. Minor Distributary

These are usually connected to the major distributaries of the branch canals. The canals
which carry a discharge of less than 0.25 cumecs are referred to as the minor distributaries or
minors. Minor distributaries supply water to the watercourses.
[Link]. Water Course

It is a small channel, also known as a field channel, which is connected to the minor
distributary on one side and the field on the other side. Field channels are the one which directly

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supplies water to the field. These channels are owned, constructed, controlled and maintained
by the cultivators.
2.2.4. Based on Financial Output

Based on the financial output, canals are further classified as:

1. Productive canal
2. Protective canal

[Link]. Productive Canal

Productive canals are the types of canals which generates a certain revenue to the nation
when it is fully developed. The generated revenue will help to cover up the cost of construction,
cost of maintenance, and its running cost respectively.
[Link]. Protective Canal

These are constructed to provide relief in the form of the supply of water during the time
of famine. When there is a shortage of water, these canals provide sufficient water to the
affected area and also have a storage of water which can be utilized in future.
2.2.5. Based on their alignment

Based on their alignment, canals are further classified as:

1. Contour canal
2. Ridge canal
3. Side slope canal

[Link]. Contour Canal

A contour canal is a type of canal aligned nearly parallel to the contour of the area.
[Link]. Ridge Canal

A ridge canal is also known as a watershed canal. This canal is the one which is aligned
along the watershed.
[Link]. Side Slope Canal

It is the one which is aligned at the right angles to the contours of the country

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3. Various canal design theories
3.1. Kennedy's Silt Theory

RG Kennedy investigated canals systems for twenty years and come up with a Kennedy's
silt theory. The theory says that, the silt carried by flowing water in a channel is kept in
suspension by the eddy current rising to the surface. The vertical component of the eddy current
tries to move sediment up whereas sediment weight tries to bring it down. Therefore, if
adequate velocity available to create eddies so as to keep the sediment just in suspension silting
will be prevented.

Figure 2:Eddies force according to Kennedy's silt theory

3.1.1. Assumptions regarding Kennedy’s Silt Theory

 The eddy current is generated because of friction between flowing water and the
roughness of the canal bed.

 The quality of the suspended silt is proportional to bed width.

 The theory is applicable to those channels which are flowing through the bed
consisting of sandy silt or same grade of silt.

3.1.2. Limitations of Kennedy’s Silt Theory

 Trial and error method used for the canal design using Kennedy’s Silt Theory.

 There is no equation for bed slope assessment, so the equation developed by Kutter
used to compute bed slope.

 The ratio of channel width (B) to its depth (D) has no significance in Kennedy’s Silt
Theory.

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  There is not perfect definition for salt grade and salt charge.

 Complex phenomenon of silt transportation is not fully accounted and only critical
velocity ratio (m) concept is considered sufficient.

3.2. Lacey's Canal Design Theory

This is an improved version of Kennedy’s theory. Lacey proposed that there were 3 types
of regimes - True, Initial and final regimes. As per Lacey’s theory a true regime channel can
be achieved only if the below conditions are satisfied (Ideal conditions).
 Channel has a constant discharge

 The channel is on coherent alluvial soil which is a loose soil that can be easily scoured
as it is deposited.

The 2 other regimes are described below:

1. Initial regime: it is the type of regime that appears having ideal conditions but not so
because the width of the canal keeps on varying.

2. Final Regime: As water keeps flowing, depth, perimeter, slope keeps varying which
forms a final stable regime.

Lacey’s theory would be applicable to the final regime/true regime only. Similar to Kennedy,
Lacey also introduced another term called silt factor.

3.2.1. Drawbacks of Lacey's theory

 Equations are empirical.

 A single factor, f is not adequate to define the silt characteristics.

 Silt grade and silt charge are not differentiated.

 The concentration of silt is not included.

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4. Study Area

We have used Google Earth Pro to locate the point A and point B . The canal will initiate
from the point A which is a Head Marala and we will select a path for a canal from this A point
to B considering the physical features. The most appropriate way to avoid the physicals features
is to pass the canal with the road side till point B.

Figure 3: Study area

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5. Methodology

For the design of canal for the selected area from point A to B, different necessary data was
required and all the calculations are being done accordingly for both lined and unlined etc.

5.1. Selected path

The Total length of the canal is 31.10 Km. We will take the elevation after each 6 km
distance to draw the profile of the canal line.

Figure 4: Canal Path

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5.2. Elevation at different five points

Points Distances (Km) Elevations (m)

A 0 245

1 6.22 256

2 6.22 256

3 6.22 254

4 6.22 239

B 6.22 239

Figure 5: Elevation points

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5.3. Profiling

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6. Design calculations

6.1. Unlined Canal on Alluvial Soil

Data Step-1
Reg No's (11+5+25+39)/10 -
Discharge 158 cumecs Assume (D) 6 m
Critical velocity
Rugosity 0.015 - 1.72 m/s
(Vo)
C.V.R 1 - A=Q/V & m=1 91.93 m2
Bottom width(m)
Bed Slope 0.0002 - 9.32 m
B
P = (2 √2 * D ) +
Side slope 1 1 26.29 m
B
Vertical
Horizonal (h) R 3.496 m
(v)
Step-2 Dimesnions
V= C √RS
Chezy's
77.67 - Bottom width(m) 9.32 m
Const
Mean V 1.993 m/s Depth D (m) 6 m
C.V.R
1.012 -
(V/Vo)

6.2. Unlined Canal on Alluvial Soil

Data
Reg No's (11+5+25+39)/10
Discharge 158 cumecs
Rugosity coefficient 0.018
Bed Slope 0.0002
Side Slope 1.5 1
Horizontal (h) Vertical (v)
Permissible velocity 1.75 m/s

Step 1
Sec. Area (A) BD+1.925D2 Equation 1
Wetted Perimeter (P) B+3.85D Equation 2
Area (A) from Q=AV 90.29 m2
R (using Manning’s eq) 3.32 m
P 27.16 m

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Here; using equation 1 equation 2 to find the values of B and D.
114.29 = BD+1.925D2 Equation 1
34.38 = B+3.85D Equation 2
1.925D2 - 34.38D + 114.29 = 0

From the above quadratic equation, the roots we have calculated are as follow:

D1 4.42 m
D2 13.44 m
B1 10.16 m
B2 -24.60 m

Here we will select the minimum value of depth and maximum value of the width, Because,
if we select the maximum value of depth then the width will be less and the flow in the canal
will be super-critical. To avoid this, we will increase the width and decrease the depth of the
canal.

Cross Section
D 4.42 m
B 10.16 m

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7. Conclusion

The choice between a lined and unlined canal design depends on various factors and
considerations. While a lined canal offers advantages such as reduced seepage losses, lower
frictional losses, improved maintenance, and enhanced longevity, it's essential to evaluate the
specific project requirements and constraints. Factors such as construction costs, availability
of lining materials, environmental impact, and the characteristics of the surrounding soil should
be taken into account. Additionally, the potential benefits of an unlined canal, such as natural
groundwater recharge and ecological considerations, may also influence the decision-making
process.
Ultimately, the selection of a canal design should be based on a comprehensive analysis of
all relevant factors, aiming to achieve the optimal balance between efficiency, sustainability,
cost-effectiveness, and long-term viability.

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8. References

1. (2023). [Link]. [Link]

[Link]

2. Chahar, B. R., & Basu, S. (2009). Optimal design of curved bed trapezoidal canal
sections. 162(3), 233–240. [Link]

3. Flynn, L. E., & Marino, M. (1987). Canal Design: Optimal Cross‐Sections.

[Link]

4. Chang, H. Y. (1980). Stable Alluvial Canal Design. 106(5), 873–891.

[Link]

5. Umare, M., & Thankare, S. B. Comparative study of canal design. Journal of river
engineering.

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