NINTH EDITION

PART 1

Life Sciences
Fundamentals and Practice

PRANAV KUMAR USHA MINA

Life Sciences
Fundamentals and Practice
Part - 1
Ninth edition

PRANAV KUMAR
Former faculty,
Department of Biotechnology,
Jamia Millia Islamia (JMI),
New Delhi, India

USHA MINA
Professor,
School of Environmental Sciences,
Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU),
New Delhi, India

Pathfinder Publication
New Delhi, India
 Pranav Kumar
Former faculty,
Department of Biotechnology,
Jamia Millia Islamia (JMI),
New Delhi, India

Usha Mina
Professor,
School of Environmental Sciences,
Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU),
New Delhi, India

Life Sciences: Fundamentals and Practice

Ninth edition

ISBN: 978-81-956333-4-0 (paperback)

Copyright © 2024 by Pathfinder Publication, all rights reserved.

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 v

Contents
Chapter 1
Biomolecules and Catalysis
1.1 Amino acids and Proteins 2 1.6.2 Z-DNA 64

1.1.1 Absolute configuration 5 1.6.3 Triplex DNA 65

1.1.2 Optical activity 6 1.6.4 G-quadruplex 66

1.1.3 Standard and non-standard amino acids 7 1.6.5 Stability of the dsDNA helix 67

1.1.4 Titration of amino acids 11 1.6.6 DNA denaturation 67

1.1.5 Peptide and polypeptide 17 1.6.7 Quantification of nucleic acids 69

1.1.6 Peptide bond 18 1.6.8 Supercoiled forms of DNA 70

1.1.7 Protein structure 21 1.6.9 DNA: A genetic material 73

1.1.8 Denaturation of proteins 28 1.7 RNA 75

1.1.9 Solubilities of proteins 28 1.7.1 Alkaline hydrolysis of RNA 76

1.1.10 Simple and conjugated proteins 29 1.7.2 RNA World hypothesis 77

1.2 Fibrous and globular proteins 30 1.7.3 RNA as genetic material 77

1.2.1 Collagen 31 1.8 Carbohydrates 78

1.2.2 Elastin 33 1.8.1 Monosaccharides 78

1.2.3 Keratins 34 1.8.2 Epimers 79

1.2.4 Myoglobin 34 1.8.3 Cyclic forms 81

1.2.5 Hemoglobin 36 1.8.4 Derivatives of monosaccharide 83

1.2.6 Behavior of allosteric proteins 42 1.8.5 Disaccharides and glycosidic bond 85

1.3 Protein folding 43 1.8.6 Polysaccharides 86

1.3.1 Molecular chaperones 45 1.8.7 Glycoproteins 89

1.3.2 Amyloid 46 1.8.8 Reducing and non-reducing sugar 89

1.3.3 Ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation 47 1.9 Lipids 90

1.3.4 N-end rule 49 1.9.1 Fatty acids 90

1.4 Protein sequencing and assays 50 1.9.2 Triacylglycerol and Wax 92

1.5 Nucleic acids 56 1.9.3 Phospholipids 93

1.5.1 Nucleotides 56 1.9.4 Glycolipids 94

1.5.2 Chargaff’s rules 60 1.9.5 Steroid 95

1.6 Structure of dsDNA 61 1.9.6 Eicosanoid 95

1.6.1 B-DNA 62 1.9.7 Plasma lipoproteins 98

vi

1.10 Vitamins 98 2.1.17 Warburg effect 188

1.10.1 Water-soluble vitamins 98 2.1.18 Respiratory substrate and respiratory

quotient 188
1.10.2 Fat-soluble vitamins 103
2.2 Glyoxylate cycle 189
1.11 Reactive oxygen species and antioxidants 105
2.3 Pentose phosphate pathway 190
1.12 Enzymes 107
2.4 Entner-Doudoroff pathway 192
1.12.1 Naming and classification of enzymes 108
2.5 Photosynthesis 193
1.12.2 How enzymes operate? 109
2.5.1 Photosynthetic pigments 194
1.12.3 Catalytic strategies 111
2.5.2 Absorption and action spectra 198
1.12.4 Enzyme kinetics 112
2.5.3 Fate of light energy absorbed by
1.12.5 Enzyme inhibition 120
photosynthetic pigments 199
1.12.6 Regulatory enzymes 125
2.5.4 Concept of photosynthetic unit 201
1.12.7 Isozymes 127
2.5.5 Hill reaction 201
1.12.8 Zymogen 128
2.5.6 Oxygenic & Anoxygenic photosynthesis 202
1.12.9 Nucleic acids as catalysts 128
2.5.7 Concept of pigment system 202
1.12.10 Abzyme 129
2.5.8 Photosynthesis in green plants 204
1.12.11 Examples of enzymatic reactions 130
2.5.9 Light reactions 205

2.5.10 Carbon-fixation cycle 214

Chapter 2 2.5.11 Starch and sucrose synthesis 219

2.6 Photorespiration 220

Bioenergetics and Metabolism 2.6.1 C4 cycle 221
2.1 Respiration 158 2.6.2 CAM pathway 224
2.1.1 Aerobic respiration 159
2.7 Carbohydrate metabolism 227
2.1.2 Glycolysis 160
2.7.1 Gluconeogenesis 227
2.1.3 Pyruvate oxidation 165
2.7.2 Glycogen metabolism 231
2.1.4 Citric acid cycle 167
2.8 Lipid metabolism 236
2.1.5 Anaplerotic reaction 170
2.8.1 Synthesis & storage of triacylglycerols 236
2.1.6 Oxidative phosphorylation 171
2.8.2 Biosynthesis of fatty acids 238
2.1.7 Inhibitors of electron transport 175
2.8.3 Fatty acid oxidation 242
2.1.8 Electrochemical proton gradient 176
2.8.4 Biosynthesis of cholesterol 249
2.1.9 Chemiosmotic theory 178
2.8.5 Steroid hormones and Bile acids 250
2.1.10 ATP synthase 179
2.9 Amino acid metabolism 252
2.1.11 Uncoupling agents and ionophores 181
2.9.1 Amino acid synthesis 252
2.1.12 ATP-ADP exchange across the inner
2.9.2 Amino acid catabolism 255
mitochondrial membrane 182
2.9.3 Molecules derived from amino acids 260
2.1.13 Shuttle systems 183

2.1.14 P/O ratio 184

2.10 Nucleotide metabolism 261

2.10.1 Nucleotide synthesis 261

2.1.15 Fermentation 185
2.10.2 Nucleotide degradation 267
2.1.16 Pasteur effect 187
 vii

3.17 Cell adhesion molecules 367

Chapter 3
3.18 Extracellular matrix of animals 369

Cell Structure and Functions 3.19 Plant cell wall 370

3.20 Cell signaling 372

3.1 What is a cell? 274
3.20.1 Signal molecules 372
3.2 Plasma membrane 275
3.20.2 Receptors 373
3.2.1 ABO blood group 285
3.20.3 GPCR and G-proteins 376
3.2.2 Transport across plasma membrane 288
3.20.4 Ion channel-linked receptors 385
3.3 Membrane potential 296
3.20.5 Enzyme-linked receptors 386
3.4 Transport of macromolecules across plasma
membrane 306 3.20.6 Chemotaxis in bacteria 395

3.4.1 Endocytosis 306 3.20.7 Quorum sensing 397

3.4.2 Fate of receptor 311 3.21 Cell Cycle 399

3.4.3 Exocytosis 312 3.21.1 Role of Rb in cell cycle regulation 410

3.5 Ribosomes 313 3.21.2 Role of p53 in cell cycle regulation 411

3.5.1 Protein targeting and translocation 315 3.21.3 Replicative senescence 413

3.6 Endoplasmic reticulum 316 3.22 Mechanics of cell division 414

3.6.1 Transport from cytosol to ER 321 3.22.1 Mitosis 414

3.6.2 Transport from ER to cis–Golgi 326 3.22.2 Meiosis 421

3.22.3 Nondisjunction and aneuploidy 426

3.7 Golgi complex 328

3.7.1 Transport of proteins through cisternae 330 3.23 Apoptosis 429

3.7.2 Transport from the TGN to lysosomes 330 3.24 Cancer 433

3.8 Membrane fusion 332

3.9 Lysosome 334
Chapter 4
3.10 Vacuoles 336
3.11 Mitochondria 336 Prokaryotes and Viruses
3.12 Plastids 340
4.1 Phylogenetic overview 448
3.13 Peroxisome 342
4.2 Structure of bacterial cell 449
3.14 Nucleus 344
4.3 Bacterial genome 461
3.15 Cytoskeleton 348
4.4 Bacterial nutrition 465
3.15.1 Microtubules 348
4.4.1 Culture media 466
3.15.2 Microtubule-based motor proteins: Kinesins
and Dyneins 351 4.4.2 Bacterial growth 468

3.15.3 Cilia and Flagella 352 4.5 Horizontal gene transfer and recombination 471

3.15.4 Centriole 354 4.5.1 Transformation 472

3.15.5 Actin filament 355 4.5.2 Transduction 473

3.15.6 Myosin 358 4.5.3 Conjugation 477

3.15.7 Muscle contraction 359 4.6 Mapping of chromosomal genes 480

3.15.8 Intermediate filaments 363 4.7 Bacterial taxonomy 485

3.16 Cell junctions 364 4.8 General features of bacterial groups 486
viii

4.9 Archaebacteria 488 5.12 Monoclonal antibodies and Hybridoma

technology 577
4.10 Bacterial toxins 490

4.11 Control of microbial growth 491 5.13 T cells and cell-mediated immunity 579

4.12 Viruses 495 5.13.1 Superantigens 592

4.12.1 Bacteriophages (Bacterial virus) 497 5.14 The complement system 592

4.12.2 Life cycle of bacteriophage 498 5.15 Hypersensitivity 596

4.12.3 Plaque assay 501 5.16 Autoimmunity 598

4.12.4 Genetic analysis of phage 504 5.17 Transplantation 598

4.12.5 Animal viruses 507 5.18 Immunodeficiency diseases 601

4.12.6 Plant viruses 517 5.19 Failures of host defense mechanisms 601

4.13 Prions and Viroids 518 5.20 Vaccines 603

4.13.1 Bacterial and viral diseases 520

Chapter 6
Chapter 5 Diversity of Life
Immunology 6.1 Taxonomy 611

5.1 Innate immunity 523 6.1.1 Nomenclature 612

5.2 Adaptive immunity 529 6.1.2 Classification 612

5.3 Cells of the immune system 531 6.1.3 Biological species concept 613

5.3.1 Common lymphoid progenitor 531 6.1.4 Phenetics and cladistics approaches of
classification 614
5.3.2 Common myeloid progenitor 533
6.2 Five-kingdom system 620
5.4 Organs involved in the adaptive immune
response 535 6.3 Protists 622

5.4.1 Primary lymphoid organs 535 6.3.1 Protozoan protists 622

5.4.2 Secondary lymphoid organs/tissues 536 6.3.2 Photosynthetic protists 623

5.5 Antigens 537 6.3.3 Slime mold 624

5.6 Major histocompatibility complex 540 6.3.4 Oomycetes 625

5.6.1 MHC and antigen presentation 542 6.4 Fungi 625

5.6.2 Antigen processing and presentation 543 6.4.1 Mycorrhiza 627

5.7 Immunoglobulins: Structure and function 546 6.4.2 Lichens 628

5.7.1 Basic structure of antibody molecule 546 6.5 Plantae 628

5.7.2 Different classes of antibody 549 6.5.1 Plant life cycle 629

5.7.3 Antigenic determinants on antibodies 551 6.5.2 Algae 631

5.8 Organization and expression of Ig genes 552 6.5.3 Life cycle of land plants 633

5.9 Generation of antibody diversity 558 6.5.4 Bryophytes 634

5.10 B cell maturation and activation 560 6.5.5 Pteridophytes 635

5.11 Kinetics of the antibody response 573 6.5.6 Gymnosperm 638

5.11.1 Humoral immune response 575 6.5.7 Angiosperms 638

 ix

6.6 Animalia 644 7.7.2 Population growth 703

6.7 Animal’s classification 652 7.7.3 Life table 707

6.7.1 Phylum Porifera 652 7.7.4 Population regulation 708

6.7.2 Phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata) 652 7.7.5 Life history 710

6.7.3 Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms) 653 7.8 Community ecology 712

6.7.4 Phylum Aschelminthes 653 7.8.1 Community structure 712

6.7.5 Phylum Annelida 654 7.8.2 Species composition 712

6.7.6 Phylum Mollusca 655 7.8.3 Species diversity 713

6.7.7 Phylum Arthropoda 655 7.8.4 Diversity index 715

6.7.8 Phylum Echinodermata 656 7.8.5 Disturbance and species diversity 717

6.7.9 Phylum Hemichordata 656 7.8.6 Diversity-Stability-Complexity

6.7.10 Phylum Chordata 656 relationships 717

7.8.7 Community gradient and boundaries 719

7.9 Island biogeography 720

Chapter 7
7.10 Ecological interdependence and interactions 721
Ecology 7.11 Lotka-Volterra model 726

7.1 The Environment 665 7.12 Ecological niche 732

7.1.1 Physical environment 665 7.13 Effect of competition 734

7.1.2 Adaptation to the physical environment 670 7.14 Ecological succession 737

7.14.1 Pattern of succession 737

7.2 Shelford’s law of tolerance 672
7.14.2 Types of ecological succession 739
7.3 Ecosystem 673
7.14.3 Mechanism of succession 740
7.3.1 Ecosystem components 673
7.14.4 Models of succession 741
7.3.2 Productivity 674

7.3.3 Energy flow 677 7.15 Biodiversity 743

7.3.4 Food chains 679 7.15.1 Levels of biodiversity 743

7.3.5 Ecological efficiencies 681 7.15.2 Gradients and Magnitude of

biodiversity 743
7.3.6 Ecological pyramid 683
7.15.3 Uses of biodiversity 744
7.3.7 Nutrient cycling 684
7.15.4 Threats to biodiversity 745
7.3.8 Decomposition 686
7.15.5 Extinction of species 747
7.4 Ecosystem services 686
7.15.6 IUCN Red List categories and criteria 748
7.4.1 Control of trophic structure: top-down
7.15.7 Conservation of biodiversity 749
versus bottom-up control 687

7.5 Types of Ecosystems 688 7.16 Behavioural ecology 751

7.16.1 Mating behaviour 755

7.5.1 Aquatic ecosystem 689

7.5.2 Terrestrial ecosystem 695

Index 763
7.6 Biomes 697

7.7 Population ecology 700

7.7.1 Population characteristics 700

1
Biomolecules and Catalysis

Learning objective

1.1 Amino acids and Proteins 1.7 RNA

1.2 Fibrous and globular proteins 1.8 Carbohydrates

1.3 Protein folding 1.9 Lipids

1.4 Protein sequencing and assay 1.10 Vitamins

1.5 Nucleic acids 1.11 Reactive oxygen species and antioxidants

1.6 Structure of dsDNA 1.12 Enzymes

B
iomolecules are carbon-based organic compounds that are produced by living organisms. Most biomolecules
can be regarded as derivatives of hydrocarbons, with hydrogen atoms replaced by a variety of functional
groups that confer specific chemical properties on the molecule. These molecules consist of a relatively small
number of elements. Approximately 25 naturally occurring chemical elements are found in biomolecules, and most
of these elements have a relatively low atomic number. In terms of the percentage of the total number of atoms,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon together makeup over 99% of the mass of most cells. Biomolecules include
both small as well as large molecules. The small biomolecules are low molecular weight (less than 1000) compounds
which include sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, nucleotides, vitamins, hormones, neurotransmitters, primary and
secondary metabolites. Sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, and nucleotides constitute the four major families of
small biomolecules in cells. Each of these small biomolecules is composed of a small set of atoms linked to each
other in a precise configuration through covalent bonds. Large biomolecules which have high molecular weight
are called macromolecules and mostly are polymers of small biomolecules. These macromolecules are proteins,
carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.

Small biomolecules Macromolecules

Sugars Polysaccharides

Amino acids Polypeptides (proteins)

Nucleotides Polynucleotides (nucleic acids)

Nucleic acids and proteins are informational macromolecules. Proteins are polymers of amino acids and constitute
the largest fraction (besides water) of cells. The nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, are polymers of nucleotides. They
store, transmit, and translate genetic information. The polysaccharides, polymers of monosaccharides, have two
primary functions: serving as a storage form of energy and as extracellular structural components.
2
Metabolism

Learning objective

2.1 Respiration 2.6 Photorespiration

2.2 Glyoxylate cycle 2.7 Carbohydrate metabolism

2.3 Pentose phosphate pathway 2.8 Lipid metabolism

2.4 Entner-Doudoroff pathway 2.9 Amino acid metabolism

2.5 Photosynthesis 2.10 Nucleotide metabolism

A
ll cells function as biochemical factories. Within the living cell, biomolecules are constantly being synthesized
and transformed into some other biomolecules. This synthesis and transformation constantly occur through
enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions. More than a thousand chemical reactions take place in a cell.
Most of these chemical reactions do not occur in isolation but are always linked to some other reactions. All the
interconnected chemical reactions occurring within a cell are called metabolism (derived from the Greek word for a
change). Metabolism serves two fundamentally different purposes: 1. Generation of energy to drive vital functions
and 2. Synthesis of biological molecules. The precursor is converted into a product during metabolic processes
through a series of metabolic intermediates called metabolites. Cell metabolism is organized by enzymes. Enzyme-
catalyzed reactions are connected in series so that the product of one reaction becomes the starting material, or
substrate, for the next. The series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions transform substrates into end products through
many specific chemical intermediates constitutes a metabolic pathway. Metabolism is sometimes referred to as
intermediary metabolism. The term intermediary metabolism is often applied to the enzyme-catalyzed reactions
that extract chemical energy from nutrient molecules and use it to synthesize and assemble cell components. The
flow of metabolites through the metabolic pathway has a definite rate and direction. Metabolism is highly organized
and regulated. Metabolic pathways are regulated through control of (1) the amounts of enzymes, (2) their catalytic
activities, and (3) the availability of substrates. In multicellular organisms, the metabolic activities of different tissues
are also regulated and integrated by growth factors and hormones that act from outside the cell.

Starting Enzyme 1 Enzyme 2 Enzyme 3

molecule
A B C D Product
Reaction 1 Reaction 2 Reaction 3

Metabolism consists of energy-yielding and energy-requiring reactions. The oxidation of carbon compounds is
an important source of cellular energy. An energy currency common to all life forms, ATP, links energy-releasing
pathways with energy-requiring pathways. ATP serves as the principal immediate donor of free energy in biological
systems rather than as a long-term storage form of free energy.
3
Cell Structure and functions

Learning objective

3.1 What is a cell? 3.9 Lysosome 3.17 Cell adhesion molecules

3.2 Plasma membrane 3.10 Vacuoles 3.18 Extracellular matrix of animals
3.3 Membrane potential 3.11 Mitochondria 3.19 Plant cell wall
3.4 Transport of macromolecules 3.12 Plastids 3.20 Cell signaling
3.5 Ribosomes 3.13 Peroxisome 3.21 Cell cycle
3.6 Endoplasmic reticulum 3.14 Nucleus 3.22 Mechanics of cell division
3.7 Golgi complex 3.15 Cytoskeleton 3.23 Apoptosis
3.8 Membrane fusion 3.16 Cell junctions 3.24 Cancer

A
great diversity of organisms are present on the Earth. These organisms can be classified into two broad
categories- cellular organisms and non-cellular organisms. Cellular organisms are further subdivided into three
distinct domains of life: bacteria, archaea, and eukarya. Bacteria and archaea are classified as prokaryotes,
characterized by the absence of a nucleus. All eukaryotes belong to domain eukarya which includes protists, fungi,
plants and animals. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes are cellular organisms. Viruses and viroids are non-cellular
organisms because they lack cell or cell-like structure.

Summary Organisms

Based on cellular organization

Non-cellular Cellular

Based on presence
or absence of nucleus

Virus Viroid Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

(Nucleoprotein) (RNA) (Without nucleus) (With nucleus)

DNA virus RNA virus Archaea Eubacteria Unicellular Multicellular

(Protists) (Fungi, Plants, Animals)
4
Prokaryotes and Viruses

Learning objective

4.1 Phylogenetic overview 4.8 General features of important bacterial groups

4.2 Structure of bacterial cell 4.9 Archaebacteria
4.3 Bacterial genome 4.10 Bacterial toxins
4.4 Bacterial nutrition 4.11 Control of microbial growth
4.5 Horizontal gene transfer and recombination 4.12 Viruses
4.6 Mapping of chromosomal genes 4.13 Prions and Viroids
4.7 Bacterial taxonomy

P
rokaryotes (pro means before and karyon means kernel or nucleus) are cellular organisms that include
two domains– Bacteria (sometimes referred to as true bacteria or eubacteria) and archaea (also termed as
archaebacteria or archaeobacteria). The term bacteria or eubacteria refers to those that belong to the domain
Bacteria, and the term archaea is used to refer to those that belong to domain Archaea. The informal name ‘bacteria’
is occasionally used loosely in the literature to refer to all the prokaryotes, and care should be taken to interpret
its meaning in any particular context. Prokaryotic organisms are usually microscopic, single-celled organisms
that have a relatively simple structure – neither nucleus nor unit membrane-bound organelles. Prokaryotes can
be distinguished from eukaryotes in terms of their cell structure and molecular make-up. Prokaryotic cells have a
simpler internal structure than eukaryotic cells. Although many structures are common to both cell types, some
are unique to prokaryotes. Most prokaryotic cells lack extensive, complex internal membrane systems. The major
distinguishing characteristics of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are as follows:

Feature Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

Membrane-bound nucleus Absent Present

DNA complexed with histone Absent Present

Number of chromosomes One (mostly) More than one

Mitosis and meiosis Absent Present

Sterol (in plasma membrane) Absent, except Mycoplasma Present

Ribosome 70S (cytosol) 80S (cytosol)

Unit-mem. bound organelle Absent Present

Cell wall Present in most of prokaryotic cells. In Made up of cellulose in plant and chitin
eubacteria, it is made up of peptidoglycan. in fungi. Absent in animal cells.
5
Immunology
T cell B cell

Learning objective

5.1 Innate immunity 5.11 Kinetics of the antibody response

5.2 Adaptive immunity 5.12 Monoclonal antibodies and Hybridoma technology
5.3 Cells of the immune system 5.13 T cells and cell-mediated immunity
5.4 Organs involved in the adaptive immune response 5.14 The complement system
5.5 Antigens 5.15 Hypersensitivity
5.6 Major histocompatibility complex 5.16 Autoimmunity
5.7 Immunoglobulins: Structure and function 5.17 Transplantation
5.8 Organization and expression of Ig genes 5.18 Immunodeficiency diseases
5.9 Generation of antibody diversity 5.19 Failures of host defense mechanisms
5.10 B cell maturation and activation 5.20 Vaccines

I
mmunology is the science that is concerned with immune response to foreign challenges or simply, study of the
body’s defense against infection. It addresses the questions such as how does the body defend itself against
infection, when an infection does occur, how does the body eliminate the pathogens and how does long-lasting
immunity to many infectious diseases develop? The ability of an organism to resist infections by pathogens or state
of protection against foreign organisms or substances is called immunity (derived from Latin term immunis, meaning
'exempt'). The array of cells, tissues and organs which carry out this activity constitute the immune system. The
immune response is a complex process and is divided into two categories — innate (or native) and adaptive (or
acquired) immunity. Innate immunity is a general, non-specific immune response which presents in all individuals
at all times. In contrast to innate immunity, adaptive immunity is highly specific to the particular pathogen that
induced it. It develops during the lifetime of an individual as a response to infection and adaptation to the infection.
Thus, when a given pathogen is new to the host, it is initially recognized by the innate immune system and then
the adaptive immune response is activated. Innate immunity is the most ancient form of defense, found in most
multicellular organisms, while adaptive immunity is a recent evolutionary phenomenon, having arisen in vertebrates.
Thus, vertebrates are protected by both innate immunity and adaptive immunity.

5.1 Innate immunity

Innate immunity is present since birth, evolutionarily primitive and is relatively nonspecific. It provides the early
defense against pathogens, before adaptive immune responses can develop. It is not specific to any one pathogen
but rather acts against all foreign molecules and pathogens. It also does not rely on previous exposure to a pathogen
and response is functional since birth and has no memory.
6
Diversity of Life

Learning objective

6.1 Taxonomy 6.5 Plantae

6.2 Five-kingdom system 6.6 Animalia

6.3 Protists 6.7 Animal’s classification

6.4 Fungi

D
iversity of life can be summarized as 'variety of life on Earth.' The living world is enormously diverse. The
total number of species on the Earth described so far is about 1.2 million. There are many more species
that have not yet been described. Scientists are still discovering new species. Thus, we do not know for sure
how many species really exist today. Current estimates of the total number of species range from 8 million to 10
million. The known species are unevenly distributed across taxonomic groups. More than 70 percent of all the species
recorded are animals, while plants (including algae and fungi) comprise no more than 22 percent of the total. The
variety of life on Earth plays a critical role in regulating the Earth's physical, chemical, and geological properties,
from influencing the chemical and physical composition of the environment. To understand the diversity of life, it is
important to organize the different kinds of organisms. Here the role of taxonomy comes which classify organisms
in a way so that we can understand them better.

6.1 Taxonomy
In order to study the diversity of organisms, biologists have evolved certain rules and principles for identifying,
describing, naming, and classifying organisms. The branch of science dealing with these aspects is referred to as
taxonomy (arrangement by the rules). Taxonomy is often used as a synonym for systematics. Taxonomy can be
considered as a branch of systematics. The main difference between taxonomy and systematics is that taxonomy
is involved in the description, identification, nomenclature, and classification of organisms. In contrast, systematics
is, in principle, broader, covering all aspects of relationships among organisms.
Levels of taxonomy: The discipline of taxonomy traditionally covers three areas: alpha, beta and gamma taxonomy.
Alpha taxonomy is concerned with finding, describing, and naming species. Beta taxonomy includes the identification
of natural groups and biological classes. Gamma taxonomy includes the study of evolutionary processes and patterns.
Organisms were first classified more than 2,000 years ago by Greek philosopher Aristotle. He classified organisms
as either plant or animal. Modern biological classification began with the eighteenth-century Swedish naturalist
C. Linnaeus. He established a simple system for classifying and naming organisms. He developed a hierarchy (a
ranking system) for classifying organisms that is the basis for modern taxonomy.
7
Ecology

Learning objective

7.1 The Environment 7.9 Island biogeography

7.2 Shelford’s law of tolerance 7.10 Ecological interdependence and interactions
7.3 Ecosystem 7.11 Lotka-Volterra model
7.4 Ecosystem services 7.12 Ecological niche
7.5 Types of Ecosystems 7.13 Effect of competition
7.6 Biomes 7.14 Ecological succession
7.7 Population ecology 7.15 Biodiversity
7.8 Community ecology 7.16 Behavioural ecology

E
cology is the scientific study of the relationships between organisms and their environment. These relationships
are complex, varied and hierarchical. The word ‘ecology’ was first used by German biologist Ernst Haeckel in
1869. It is derived from the Greek words, oikos (meaning ‘house’ or ‘dwelling place’) and logos (meaning the
study of). Haeckel defined ecology as ‘the study of the natural environment including the relations of organisms
to one another and to their surroundings’. Ecology describes the relationships between living organisms and their
environments, the interaction of organisms with each other and the pattern and cause of the abundance and
distribution of organisms in nature. It is the science that attempts to answer questions about how the nature works.

7.1 The Environment

Organisms and their environments are dynamic and interdependent. The term ‘environment’ etymologically means
surroundings. It includes everything (biotic as well as abiotic) that surrounds an organism. Any factor, abiotic or
biotic, that influences living organisms is called environmental factor (or ecological factor or ecofactor). Abiotic
factors include factors such as temperature, sunlight levels, pH, salinity and soil composition. In contrast, biotic
factors encompass producers, consumers and decomposers.

7.1.1 Physical environment

Soil
Soil constitutes the uppermost weathered layer of the Earth’s crust. It is a mixture of weathered mineral rock
particles, organic matter (i.e. both living and dead), water and air. Soil is a biologically active matrix and home of
diverse organisms. The scientific discipline dedicated to the study of soil is known as pedology.
 A letter from Bruce Alberts
(author of Molecular Biology of the Cell)

Some feedback on your two Life Sciences volumes – for authors only
Bruce Alberts

Dear Usha and Pranav,

I have finally finished reading through many sections of your large two-volume introductory
biology textbook, and I write to provide some feedback that might possibly help with your next
edition.

Let me start by saying how impressed I am that such a wide-ranging textbook was written by
only two authors. For those sections where I am most knowledgeable – which I read closely -- I
find it to be remarkably accurate. As you well know, most such textbooks that attempt to cover all
of biology are written by a sizeable team of authors – each with a different expertise -- who in
addition acknowledge help from a large number of other experts. And it is great to learn that you
are able to provide these two volumes at a low price that Indian students can afford.

My first question concerns the way that this material has been divided up into two separate
volumes. If I were a student, I would have felt a need to learn about genetic mechanisms (which
you call “genetics”) in volume 1, before learning about how proteins are sorted through internal
membranes, for example.

A major concern that I would have is one of level. I find that in many places you go into
considerably more detail that we do in MBOC (molecular biology of the cell), even though the
latter book is aimed at a more advanced student population than I believe yours is. Biology is
such a huge subject that we can easily lose students in all the details, when what is most
important for them learn are the concepts. Students often feel a need to memorize such details:
in our interviews with sets of students who had just used our textbook, we found that many
(most?) lack the judgement to ignore them when preparing for exams. For the same reason, we
also leave out many of the scientific words in our book, like 2.27 helix, linking number, abzyme,
etc.

I hope that you find these comments useful, and I write to wish you the very best in 2023, as well
as to encourage you in all of your future efforts!

With my best wishes,

Bruce
Pathfinder Publication

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 NINTH EDITION

PART 2

Life Sciences
Fundamentals and Practice

PRANAV KUMAR USHA MINA

Life Sciences
Fundamentals and Practice
Part - 2
Ninth edition

PRANAV KUMAR
Former faculty,
Department of Biotechnology,
Jamia Millia Islamia (JMI),
New Delhi, India

USHA MINA
Professor,
School of Environmental Sciences,
Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU),
New Delhi, India

Pathfinder Publication
New Delhi, India
 Pranav Kumar
Former faculty,
Department of Biotechnology,
Jamia Millia Islamia (JMI),
New Delhi, India

Usha Mina
Professor,
School of Environmental Sciences,
Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU),
New Delhi, India

Life Sciences: Fundamentals and Practice

Ninth edition

ISBN: 978-81-956333-8-8 (paperback)

Copyright © 2024 by Pathfinder Publication, all rights reserved.

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly

regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and
information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the
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private use, without written permission from the publisher.

Publisher : Pathfinder Publication

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Production coordinator : Murari Kumar Singh

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 v

Contents
Chapter 1
Genetics
1.1 Mendel’s principles 1 1.10 Cytogenetics 68

1.1.1 Mendel’s laws of inheritance 4 1.10.1 Human karyotype 68

1.1.2 Incomplete dominance and codominance 8 1.10.2 Chromosome banding 69

1.1.3 Multiple alleles 10 1.10.3 Chromosomal abnormalities 71

1.1.4 Lethal alleles 11 Variation in chromosome number 71

1.1.5 Penetrance and expressivity 12 Variation in chromosome structure 74

1.1.6 Probability 12 1.10.4 Position effect variegation 79

1.2 Chromosomal basis of inheritance 15 1.11 Genome 80

1.3 Gene interaction 17 1.11.1 Genome complexity 82

1.3.1 Genetic dissection 23 1.11.2 Gene 84

1.3.2 Complementation analysis 24 1.11.3 Introns 85

1.3.3 Pleiotropy 27 1.11.4 Gene duplication 88

1.11.5 Acquisition of new genes 89

1.4 Linkage and gene mapping 27
1.11.6 Gene families 90
1.4.1 Genetic mapping 33
1.11.7 Human nuclear genome 92
1.4.2 Gene mapping from two point cross 34
1.11.8 Yeast S. cerevisiae genome 93
1.4.3 Gene mapping from three point cross 36
1.11.9 E. coli genome 93
1.4.4 Interference and coincidence 38
1.11.10 Organelle genome 93
1.5 Tetrad analysis 40
1.11.11 Transposable elements 95
1.5.1 Analysis of ordered tetrad 41
1.12 Eukaryotic chromatin 103
1.5.2 Analysis of unordered tetrad 43
1.12.1 Packaging of DNA into chromosomes 105
1.6 Sex determination 44
1.12.2 Heterochromatin and euchromatin 110
1.6.1 Sex-linked traits/sex-linked inheritance 50
1.12.3 Polytene chromosomes 113
1.6.2 Sex-limited traits 52
1.12.4 Lampbrush chromosomes 114
1.6.3 Sex-influenced traits 52
1.12.5 B-chromosomes 115
1.7 Pedigree analysis 53
1.13 DNA replication 116
1.8 Quantitative inheritance 57
1.13.1 Semiconservative replication 116
1.8.1 Quantitative trait locus analysis 61
1.13.2 Replicon and origin of replication 117
1.8.2 Heritability 61
1.13.3 DNA replication in E. coli 121
1.9 Extranuclear inheritance and maternal effect 62 1.13.4 Telomere replication 135
1.9.1 Maternal effect 67 1.13.5 Rolling circle replication 136
vi

1.13.6 Replication of mitochondrial DNA 137 1.25.3 Post-translational modification of

polypeptides 247
1.14 Recombination 138
1.14.1 Homologous recombination 138 1.26 Mutation 249

1.14.2 Site-specific recombination 143 1.26.1 Mutagens 254

1.26.2 Types of mutation 258

1.15 DNA repair 145
1.26.3 Fluctuation test 263
1.15.1 Direct repair 145
1.26.4 Ames test 264
1.15.2 Excision repair 146

1.15.3 Mismatch repair 147

1.15.4 Recombinational repair 148 Chapter 2

1.15.5 Repair of double strand DNA break 150

1.15.6 Gene conversion 151

Recombinant DNA Technology
1.15.7 SOS response 152 2.1 DNA cloning 271

1.16 Transcription 153 2.2 Enzymes for DNA manipulation 273

1.16.1 Transcription unit 153 2.2.1 DNA polymerase 273
1.16.2 Prokaryotic transcription 156 2.2.2 Nucleases 273
1.16.3 Eukaryotic transcription 162 2.2.3 End-modification enzymes 277
1.16.4 Role of activator and co-activator 167 2.2.4 Ligases 278
1.16.5 Regulatory elements 168
2.3 Vectors 279
1.16.6 DNA binding motifs 170
2.3.1 Vectors for E. coli 280
1.17 RNA processing 173 2.3.2 Cloning vectors for yeast, S. cerevisiae 284
1.17.1 Processing of eukaryotic pre-mRNA 173 2.3.3 Vectors for plants 286
1.17.2 Processing of pre-rRNA 184 2.3.4 Vectors for animals 290
1.17.3 Processing of pre-tRNA 187
2.4 Introduction of DNA into the host cells 290
1.18 mRNA degradation 188 2.4.1 In bacterial cells 290

1.19 Regulation of bacterial genes 190 2.4.2 In plant cells 290

1.19.1 Operon model 191 2.4.3 In animal cells 293

1.19.2 Tryptophan operon in E. coli 199 2.5 Selectable and screenable marker 295
1.19.3 Riboswitches 204 2.6 Selection of transformed bacterial cells 297
1.20 Genetic switch in phage lambda 205 2.7 Selection of recombinant containing transformed

1.21 Regulation of eukaryotic genes 209 bacterial cells 298

1.21.1 Chromatin structure on transcription 210 2.8 Expression vector 299

1.21.2 DNA methylation and gene regulation 214 2.8.1 Expression system 300

1.21.3 Post-transcriptional gene regulation 216 2.8.2 Fusion protein 301

1.22 RNA interference 217 2.9 DNA library 302

2.10 Genetic markers 305

1.23 Epigenetics 221
2.11 Genome mapping 312
1.24 Genetic code 222
2.11.1 Radiation hybrids 314
1.25 Protein synthesis 227
1.25.1 Translational frameshifting 244 2.12 DNA profiling 315

1.25.2 Antibiotics and toxins 245 2.13 Genetic manipulation of animal cells 316
 vii

2.13.1 Transgenesis and transgenic animals 316 3.3 Absorption and radial movement of mineral

2.13.2 Gene knockout 317 nutrients 366

2.13.3 Formation and selection of recombinant 3.4 Mineral nutrition 367

ES cells 319 3.4.1 Nitrogen assimilation 371

2.14 Nuclear transfer technology and animal 3.4.2 Biological nitrogen fixation 374
cloning 320
3.5 Translocation in the phloem 378
2.15 Gene therapy 321 3.5.1 Allocation and partitioning of
2.16 Transgenic plants 325 photoassimilates 387

2.16.1 Procedure to make a transgenic plant 325 3.6 Plant hormones 387
2.16.2 Antisense technology 329 3.6.1 Auxin 388
2.16.3 Molecular farming 330 3.6.2 Gibberellins 393

2.17 Plant tissue culture 330 3.6.3 Cytokinins 396

2.17.1 Cellular totipotency 331 3.6.4 Abscisic acid 400

2.17.2 Tissue culture media 331 3.6.5 Ethylene 401

2.17.3 Types of cultures 333 3.6.6 Brassinosteroids 403

2.17.4 Somaclonal and gametoclonal variation 338 3.6.7 Strigolactones 403

2.17.5 Somatic hybridization and cybridization 338 3.6.8 Jasmonates 404

2.17.6 Applications of cell and tissue culture 339 3.7 Signaling photoreceptors 404

2.18 Animal cell culture 342 3.7.1 Phytochrome 404

2.18.1 Primary cultures 342 3.7.2 Cryptochrome 408

3.7.3 Phototropin 411

2.18.2 Cell line 342
3.7.4 Photoperiodism 413
2.18.3 Growth cycle 344
3.7.5 Florigen 415
2.18.4 Culture media 345
3.8 Vernalization 416

3.9 Flowering genes 416

Chapter 3 3.10 Plants movements 419

Plant Physiology and Development 3.11 Seed dormancy and Germination 422

3.12 Plant development 425

3.1 Plant-water relationship 352
3.12.1 Pollination and Self-incompatibility 431
3.1.1 Diffusion and osmosis 352
3.13 Asexual reproduction 432
3.1.2 Chemical potential of water 354
3.14 Embryogenesis 434
3.1.3 Mass flow 356
3.14.1 Apical meristems 437
3.2 Journey of water in plant 356
Root apical meristems 437
3.2.1 Absorption of water 356
Shoot apical meristem 438
3.2.2 Radial movement of water from root
3.15 Plant secondary metabolites 441
surface to the tracheary element 358
3.15.1 Terpenes 441
3.2.3 Ascent of sap 359
3.15.2 Phenolics 443
3.2.4 Transpiration 362
3.15.3 Glycosides 445
3.2.5 Guttation 365
3.15.4 Alkaloids 445
viii

Chapter 4
4.5.5 Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide 515

4.5.6 Control of respiration 518

Human Physiology 4.5.7 Chemoreceptor 519

4.5.8 Disorders of respiratory system 520

4.1 Tissues 451
4.6 Cardiovascular System 521
4.1.1 Organ systems of the human body 460
4.6.1 Blood 521
4.2 Nervous Systems 461
4.6.2 Heart 527
4.2.1 Histology of nervous tissue 462
4.6.3 Blood vessels 534
Neurons 462
4.6.4 Circulatory routes 538
Neuroglia 464
4.6.5 Lymphatic system 541
4.2.2 Structural organization of CNS 465
4.6.6 Intracellular and extracellular fluid 542
Blood-brain barrier 466
4.6.7 Cardiovascular disorders 542
4.2.3 Major parts of the brain 467
4.7 Digestive System 543
Limbic system 469
4.7.1 Gastrointestinal tract 543
4.2.4 Spinal cord 470
4.7.2 Accessory digestive organs 552
Reflex and reflex arc 473
4.7.3 Digestion of foods 555
4.2.5 Peripheral nervous system 473
4.7.4 Absorption of foods 558
4.2.6 Autonomic nervous system 475
4.7.5 Regulation of digestive function 560
Somatic system 478
4.8 Excretory System 561
4.3 Sensory organs 479
4.8.1 Structure of the kidneys 562
4.3.1 Eye 479
4.8.2 Nephron 564
4.3.2 Ear 485
4.8.3 Urine formation 567
4.4 Endocrine System 488
4.8.4 Atrial Natriuretic peptide 574
4.4.1 Hypothalamus 489
4.8.5 Countercurrent exchange 577
4.4.2 Pituitary gland 491
4.9 Reproductive System 578
4.4.3 Pineal gland 493
4.9.1 Male reproductive system 578
4.4.4 Thyroid gland 493
Testis 578
4.4.5 Parathyroid gland 494
Accessory ducts 578
4.4.6 Thymus gland 494
Accessory glands 579
4.4.7 Pancreas 494
Spermatogenesis 579
4.4.8 Adrenal glands 497
4.9.2 Female reproductive system 581
4.4.9 Gonadal hormone 499
Ovaries 581
4.4.10 Hormones from kidney, heart, placenta and
gastrointestinal tract 499 Accessory ducts 582

4.4.11 General mechanisms of hormone action 501 External genitalia 582

4.4.12 Hormones and diseases 502 Oogenesis 583

Folliculogenesis 584
4.5 Respiratory System 505
Hormones control 585
4.5.1 Respiratory organs 505
4.9.3 Female reproductive cycle 585
4.5.2 Mechanics and breathing 509
Ovarian cycle 585
4.5.3 Respiratory volumes and capacities 511
Uterine cycle 585
4.5.4 Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide 512
 ix

Chapter 5 6.5 Population genetics 663

6.5.1 Calculation of allelic frequencies 664
Animal Development 6.5.2 Hardy-Weinberg principle 665

6.5.3 Inbreeding 670

5.1 Patterns and processes of animal development 593
Wahlund effect 674
5.1.1 Cell-to-Cell communication 594
Effective population size 675
Wnt signaling 594
6.6 Evolutionary processes 676
Hedgehog signaling 595
Natural selection 676
Notch signaling 597
Genetic drift 677
5.1.2 Cell fate commitment 599
Mutation 680
5.1.3 Morphogens 603

5.1.4 Pattern formation and morphogenesis 604 6.7 Species and speciation 682
Concept of species 682
5.2 Fertilization 607
Reproductive isolation 683
5.3 Cleavage and gastrulation 615
Speciation 684
Gastrulation 616
Anagenesis and cladogenesis 686
Early development in sea urchins – cleavage,
Adaptive radiation 687
gastrulation and axis formation 617

Gastrulation in the sea urchin 619 6.8 Macroevolution 687

Early development in amphibia – cleavage, 6.9 Molecular phylogeny 689

gastrulation and axis formation 621 Molecular clock 690
Gastrulation in amphibia 622 6.10 Phylogenetic tree 691
Organogenesis 629 6.11 Geological time scale 693
5.4 Embryonic development in Drosophila 629

5.5 Vulva development in C. elegans 639 Index 699

5.6 Regeneration 641

Chapter 6
Evolution
6.1 Origin of Life 649

6.2 Biological evolution and theories of evolution 652

6.2.1 Lamarckism 652

6.2.2 Darwinism 653

6.3 Natural selection 657

Evidences of natural selection 658

Level of natural selection 659

How selection works 659

Modes of natural selection 660

Sexual selection 661

6.4 Pattern of evolution 662

1
Genetics
Gregor Johann Mendel

Learning objective

1.1 Mendel’s principles 1.10 Cytogenetics 1.19 Regulation of bacterial genes

1.2 Chromosomal basis of inheritance 1.11 Genome 1.20 Genetic switch in phage lambda
1.3 Gene interaction 1.12 Eukaryotic chromatin 1.21 Regulation of eukaryotic genes
1.4 Linkage and gene mapping 1.13 DNA replication 1.22 RNA interference
1.5 Tetrad analysis 1.14 Recombination 1.23 Epigenetics
1.6 Sex determination 1.15 DNA repair 1.24 Genetic code
1.7 Pedigree analysis 1.16 Transcription 1.25 Protein synthesis
1.8 Quantitative inheritance 1.17 RNA processing 1.26 Mutation
1.9 Extranuclear inheritance 1.18 mRNA degradation

A
ll living organisms reproduce. Reproduction results in the formation of offspring of the same kind. However, the
resulting offsprings need not and, most often, do not completely resemble the parents. Several characteristics
may differ between individuals belonging to the same species. These differences are termed variations. The
mechanism of transmission of characters, resemblances, and differences from the parental generation to the offspring
is called heredity. The scientific study of heredity and variations is known as genetics (from the Greek word genno
= give birth). The word ‘genetics’ was first suggested by prominent British scientist William Bateson. Genetics can
be divided into three areas: classical genetics, molecular genetics, and evolutionary genetics. Classical genetics is
concerned with the basic principles of heredity and how traits are passed from one generation to the next. It also
addresses the relationship between chromosomes and heredity and the arrangement of genes on chromosomes.
Molecular genetics covers the chemical nature of the gene and how genetic information is replicated and expressed,
i.e., cellular processes of replication, transcription, and translation. Evolutionary genetics is the study of how genetic
variation leads to evolutionary change. It is concerned with the evolution of genome structure, the genetic basis
of speciation and adaptation, and genetic change in response to evolutionary processes such as natural selection,
genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow in populations.

Classical genetics
1.1 Mendel’s principles
Gregor Johann Mendel (1822–1884), known as the father of genetics, was an Austrian monk. He conducted a series
of experiments using pea plants and showed that traits are passed from parents to offspring in predictable ways. By
quantitative data analysis of results, he concluded that each trait in the pea plant is controlled by a pair of factors
2
Recombinant DNA technology
e
nom
t Ge
binan
com
f Re
nO
ctio
stru Paul Berg
Con

Learning objective

2.1 DNA cloning 2.10 Genetic markers

2.2 Enzymes for DNA manipulation 2.11 Genome mapping
2.3 Vectors 2.12 DNA profiling
2.4 Introduction of DNA into the host cells 2.13 Genetic manipulation of animal cells
2.5 Selectable and screenable marker 2.14 Nuclear transfer technology and animal cloning
2.6 Selection of transformed bacterial cells 2.15 Gene therapy
2.7 Selection of recombinant containing bacterial cells 2.16 Transgenic plants
2.8 Expression vector 2.17 Plant tissue culture
2.9 DNA library 2.18 Animal cell culture

R
ecombinant DNA technology (also known as genetic engineering) is the set of techniques that enable the DNA
from different sources to be identified, isolated and recombined so that new characteristics can be introduced
into an organism. The invention of recombinant DNA technology—the way in which genetic material from
one organism is artificially integrated into the genome of another organism and then replicated and expressed by
that other organism—was largely the work of Paul Berg, Herbert W. Boyer and Stanley N. Cohen, although many
other scientists also made important contributions to the new technology as well. Paul Berg developed the first
recombinant DNA molecules that combined DNA from the SV40 virus and lambda phage. Later in 1973, Herbert
Boyer and Stanley Cohen develop recombinant DNA technology, showing that genetically engineered DNA molecules
may be developed and cloned in foreign cells. One important aspect of recombinant DNA technology is DNA cloning.
It is a set of techniques that are used to design recombinant DNA molecules and to direct their replication within
host organisms. The use of the word 'cloning' refers to the method used to generate identical DNA molecules.

2.1 DNA cloning

DNA cloning is the production of a large number of identical DNA molecules from a single ancestral DNA molecule.
The essential characteristic of DNA cloning is that the desired DNA fragments must be selectively amplified, resulting
in a large increase in copy number of selected DNA sequences. In practice, this involves multiple rounds of DNA
replication catalyzed by a DNA polymerase acting on one or more types of the template DNA molecule. Essentially
two different DNA cloning approaches are used: Cell-based and cell-free DNA cloning.
3
Plant Physiology and
Development

Learning objective

3.1 Plant-water relationship 3.9 Flowering genes

3.2 Journey of water in plant 3.10 Plants movements
3.3 Absorption and radial movement of mineral nutrients 3.11 Seed dormancy and Germination
3.4 Mineral nutrition 3.12 Plant development
3.5 Translocation in the phloem 3.13 Asexual reproduction
3.6 Plant hormones 3.14 Embryogenesis
3.7 Signaling photoreceptors 3.15 Plant secondary metabolites
3.8 Vernalization

P
lants are multicellular, photoautotrophic eukaryotic organisms. It includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes,
gymnosperms, and angiosperms. Bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms are usually
referred to as land plants. Angiosperms (also called flowering plants) are a major group of land plants. These
plants are by far the most numerous, diverse, and successful terrestrial plants, representing more than 90% of all
land plant species alive today. They range in size from tiny, almost microscopic Wolfia to tall trees of Eucalyptus
(over 100 meters). Angiosperms are vascular plants containing two types of vascular tissue – xylem that conducts
water and dissolved minerals upward from the roots and phloem that conducts food throughout the plant. Vascular
tissues develop in the sporophytic body but (with a few exceptions) not in the gametophytic body. Angiosperms are
also classified as spermatophytes (also known as phanerogams) because they produce seeds. A seed is an embryo
packaged with a supply of nutrients inside a protective coat. In angiosperms, seeds develop inside ovaries, which
mature into fruits. The seed is a crucial adaptation to life on land because it protects the embryo from drying out.
A typical flowering plant body can be divided into the root and shoot systems. The underground part of the flowering
plant is the root system, while the portion above the ground forms the shoot system. The shoot system consists
of stems, leaves, flowers and fruits.
Root is typically a non-green underground structure. The first root in a vascular plant develops from the radicle
of the embryo. The root develops from the direct elongation of the radicle is known as the primary root. Any root
that develops from plant organs other than radicle is called an adventitious root. The primary root continues to
grow and develops lateral roots (or branch roots) of several orders that are referred to as secondary roots, tertiary
roots and so on. The primary roots and its branches constitute the tap root system. Commonly, the primary root
in monocots such as wheat is short-lived, and it is replaced by the roots developing from the base of the stem.
These stem-borne roots and their lateral roots constitute fibrous root system. The main functions of the root are
absorption of water and minerals from the soil, anchorage, storage of reserve food material and synthesis of plant
growth regulators. But, roots in some plants become modified to perform functions (such as respiration, support)
other than anchorage and absorption of water and minerals.
4
Human Physiology

Learning objective

4.1 Tissues 4.6 Cardiovascular System

4.2 Nervous Systems 4.7 Digestive System

4.3 Sensory organs 4.8 Excretory System

4.4 Endocrine System 4.9 Reproductive System

4.5 Respiratory System

L
ike all multicellular animals, human body is composed of different types of cells. Groups of cells similar in
structure and function are organized into tissues. Different tissues grouped together into a structural and
functional unit called organs. An organ system is a group of organs that function together to carry out the
principal activities of the body.

4.1 Tissues
A tissue is a group of similar cells that usually have a common embryonic origin and functions together to carry out
specialized activities. On the basis of structure and function, animal tissues can be classified into four basic types:
epithelial tissue, connective tissue, nervous tissue and muscular tissue.

1. Epithelial tissue
An epithelial tissue or epithelium consists of cells that form membranes, which cover and line the body surfaces
and glands, which are derived from these membranes. Epithelial cells arranged in continuous sheets, in either
single or multiple layers. Because the cells are closely packed and are held tightly together by many cell junctions,
there is little intercellular space between cells. Three types of cell junctions are found in the epithelium and other
tissues. These cell junctions are called as tight, anchoring (adherens junction and desmosome) and gap junctions.
Epithelial tissue has its own nerve supply, but is avascular; that is, it lacks its own blood supply. The blood vessels
that bring in nutrients and remove wastes are located in the adjacent connective tissue. Exchange of substances
between epithelium and connective tissue occurs by diffusion. Epithelial tissue plays many roles such as protection,
filtration, secretion, absorption and excretion. Because epithelial tissue subjected to wear and tear and injury, it
has high capacity for renewal.
5
Animal Development

Learning objective

5.1 Patterns and processes of animal development 5.4 Embryonic development in Drosophila

5.2 Fertilization 5.5 Vulva development in C. elegans

5.3 Cleavage and gastrulation 5.6 Regeneration

A
nimal development is a highly complex process that begins with a fertilized egg (or zygote) and leads to
the birth of a complex organism with organs at precise positions and shapes. The stages of development
between fertilization and birth are collectively called embryogenesis and its study is called embryology.
Embryonic development begins with the fusion of the male and female gametes (fertilization). After fertilization,
a multicellular organism's development proceeds through a process called cleavage, a series of mitotic divisions.
Cleavage divides the zygote into numerous cells called blastomeres. By the end of cleavage, a solid or hollow fluid-
filled ball of the blastomeres develops, known as a blastula. Cleavage is followed by gastrulation, a process that
rearranges the blastomeres and forms the germ layers — ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Over time and
space, these cells interact with one another and rearrange themselves to produce tissues and organs. This process
is called organogenesis. Many animals have life cycles involving a larval stage specialized for feeding and dispersal.
The larva undergoes metamorphosis to become a sexually mature adult.

5.1 Patterns and processes of animal development

Developmental biology aims to understand how an organism develops. During development, the zygote divides
repeatedly to produce many different kinds of cells arranged in a specific pattern i.e., cells are organized in space
and time so that a well-ordered structure develops within the embryo. Several key processes fundamentally occur
during animal development. These processes include cell proliferation, which produces many cells from one; cell-cell
communications, which coordinate the behavior of each cell with that of its neighbors; cell differentiation, which
creates cells with different characteristics at different positions; and cell movement, which rearranges the cells to
form structured tissues and organs.
6
Evolution

Charles Darwin

Learning objective

6.1 Origin of Life 6.7 Species and speciation

6.2 Biological evolution and theories of evolution 6.8 Macroevolution

6.3 Natural selection 6.9 Molecular phylogeny

6.4 Pattern of evolution 6.10 Phylogenetic tree

6.5 Population genetics 6.11 Geological time scale

6.6 Evolutionary processes

E
volution refers to the changes that occur in life forms over time, leading to the development of many different
forms of life. By understanding evolution, we can gain insight into how and why life has changed and diversified.
It includes the study of evolutionary processes—how they operate, what they produce, and how they are likely
to proceed in the future. It deals mainly with how life changed after its origin. It does not discuss about the origin
of life. To understand evolution, it is also very important to understand how life originated? We should understand
the physical and chemical conditions prevailing on the prebiotic Earth that could drive the first steps of the origin
of life. We also have to address a simple question central to our understanding of the origin of life: how complex
organic molecules formed and how they have become organized into cells?

6.1 Origin of Life

Life is characterized by the three functions: 1. compartmentalization: the ability to keep its components together
and separate itself from the environment, 2. replication: the ability to process and transmit heritable information
to progeny, and 3. metabolism: the ability to capture and utilize the energy and material resources, staying away
from thermodynamic equilibrium.
The origin of life on Earth is a unique event and also one of the great mysteries. Where and how did life on Earth
originate? It is difficult to determine because it began almost four billion years ago. Did life come from outer
space? For a long time, it was believed that life didn’t begin on Earth. It came from outside (i.e. extraterrestial
origin). However, due to lack of any validation, it remained merely speculative. For many years it was also believed
that life came out of decaying and rotting organic matters. This theory was termed as theory of spontaneous
generation. Scientists have disproved this theory by performing controlled experiments. Louis Pasteur by careful
experimentation demonstrated that life comes only from pre-existing life. Living things, no matter how small, do
not come spontaneously from non-living matters. Living things come only from other living things (biogenesis).
However, this did not answer how the first life form came on Earth.
 A letter from Bruce Alberts
(author of Molecular Biology of the Cell)

Some feedback on your two Life Sciences volumes – for authors only
Bruce Alberts

Dear Usha and Pranav,

I have finally finished reading through many sections of your large two-volume introductory
biology textbook, and I write to provide some feedback that might possibly help with your next
edition.

Let me start by saying how impressed I am that such a wide-ranging textbook was written by
only two authors. For those sections where I am most knowledgeable – which I read closely -- I
find it to be remarkably accurate. As you well know, most such textbooks that attempt to cover all
of biology are written by a sizeable team of authors – each with a different expertise -- who in
addition acknowledge help from a large number of other experts. And it is great to learn that you
are able to provide these two volumes at a low price that Indian students can afford.

My first question concerns the way that this material has been divided up into two separate
volumes. If I were a student, I would have felt a need to learn about genetic mechanisms (which
you call “genetics”) in volume 1, before learning about how proteins are sorted through internal
membranes, for example.

A major concern that I would have is one of level. I find that in many places you go into
considerably more detail that we do in MBOC (molecular biology of the cell), even though the
latter book is aimed at a more advanced student population than I believe yours is. Biology is
such a huge subject that we can easily lose students in all the details, when what is most
important for them learn are the concepts. Students often feel a need to memorize such details:
in our interviews with sets of students who had just used our textbook, we found that many
(most?) lack the judgement to ignore them when preparing for exams. For the same reason, we
also leave out many of the scientific words in our book, like 2.27 helix, linking number, abzyme,
etc.

I hope that you find these comments useful, and I write to wish you the very best in 2023, as well
as to encourage you in all of your future efforts!

With my best wishes,

Bruce
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Fundamentals of
Ecology and Environment
Fourth edition

Pranav Kumar
Former faculty,
Department of Biotechnology,
Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi, India

Usha Mina
Professor,
School of Environmental Sciences,
Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU),
New Delhi, India

Pathfinder Academy
 Pranav Kumar
Former faculty,
Department of Biotechnology,
Jamia Millia Islamia (JMI),
New Delhi, India

Usha Mina
Professor,
School of Environmental Sciences,
Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU),
New Delhi, India

Fundamentals of Ecology and Environment

Although the author and publisher have made every effort to ensure that the information in this book was correct at the time of
editing and printing, the author and publisher do not assume and hereby disclaim any liability to any party for any loss or dam-
age arising out of the use of this book caused by errors or omissions, whether such errors or omissions result from negligence,
accident or any other cause. Further, names, pictures, images, characters, businesses, places, events and incidents are either the
products of the author’s imagination or used in a fictitious manner. Any resemblance to actual persons, living or dead or actual
events is purely coincidental and do not intend to hurt sentiments of any individual, community, sect or religion.

In case of binding mistake, misprints or missing pages etc., the publisher’s entire liability and your exclusive remedy is
replacement of this book within reasonable time of purchase by similar edition/reprint of the book.

Copyright © 2024 Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd and Authors

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limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into
a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise),
without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the publisher of this book.

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Published by Pearson India Education Services Pvt. Ltd, CIN: U72200TN2005PTC057128.

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 Contents

Chapter 1
The Environment
1.1 Physical environment 3

Soil 3

Weathering and soil formation 3

Soil composition 4

Soil profile 5

Soil erosion 6

Air and Atmosphere 8

Light 11

Temperature 13

Temperature and vegetation 16

1.2 Adaptation to the physical environment 17

Plant’s adaptation to water stress 18

Animal’s adaptation to thermal stress 18

Relationship between body size and environmental temperature 19

1.3 Metabolic rate and size of animals 21

1.4 Shelford’s law of tolerance 22

1.5 Species concept 23

Ecotype and Ecads 24

Chapter 2
Ecosystem Ecology
2.1 Ecosystem components 29

2.2 Productivity 30

Patterns in primary productivity 32

Relationship between productivity and biomass 34

Measuring primary productivity 34

Oxygen emission method 34

Radioactive tracer method 35

Harvest analysis method 35

v
 2.3 Energy flow 36

Universal energy flow model 38

Concept of the trophic level 39

2.3.1 Food chains 40

2.3.2 Ecological efficiencies 42

2.3.3 Ecological pyramid 44

2.4 Nutrient cycling 46

General model of nutrient cycling 47

Carbon cycle 48

Nitrogen cycle 49

Phosphorus cycle 51

Sulfur cycle 52

Decomposition 53

2.5 Ecosystem services 54

2.6 Control of trophic structure: top-down versus bottom-up control 54

2.7 Types of ecosystems 56

2.7.1 Aquatic ecosystem 56

Variation in light and temperature in aquatic ecosystem 57

Primary productivity in aquatic ecosystems 57

Marine ecosystems 58

Hot hydrothermal vents 59

Coral reefs ecosystem 60

Estuary 61

Freshwater ecosystem 62

Lake 62

Thermal stratification 63

Seasonal changes in water temperature 63

Nutrient inputs and cycling 65

River 65

Wetlands 66

2.7.2 Terrestrial ecosystem 67

Forest ecosystem 67

Deforestation 68

Afforestation 69

Social forestry 69

Grassland ecosystem 69

Desert ecosystem 70

Types of deserts 70

Desertification 71

2.8 Biomes 71

vi
 Biome distribution 72

Biome types 72

Tundra biome 72

Desert biome 73

Tropical grassland (or Savanna biome) 73

Temperate grasslands 74

Tropical rainforests 74

Temperate deciduous forest biome 75

Taiga biome 76

Chaparral biome 76

Chapter 3
Population Ecology
3.1 Population characteristics 79

Population density 80

Natality 80

Mortality 81

Dispersion 82

Age structure and Age pyramids 83

Dispersal 84

3.2 Population growth 84

Exponential growth 85

Logistic growth 86

3.3 Life table: Age-specific mortality and survival 89

3.4 Population regulation 91

3.5 Concept of metapopulation 93

3.6 Life history 94

Life history trade-offs 94

r- and K-selection 95

Grime’s triangle of life history strategies 97

3.7 Home range and Territory 98

Chapter 4
Community Ecology
4.1 Community structure 102

4.1.1 Species composition 102

4.1.2 Species diversity 103

vii
 4.1.3 Diversity index 106

4.1.4 Species-area curve 110

4.1.5 Disturbance and species diversity 111

4.2 Community interactions 112

4.3 Community: Functional classification 113

4.4 Diversity-Stability-Complexity relationships 114

Diversity and stability 114

Complexity and stability 115

4.5 Plant communities 117

4.6 Community gradient and boundaries 119

4.7 Equilibrium theory of island biogeography 120

4.8 Ecological interdependence and interactions 122

4.9 Lotka-Volterra model 131

4.10 Ecological niche 139

Ecological compression 143

4.11 Effect of competition 143

Competitive exclusion principle 143

Competitive exclusion and coexistence 145

Resource partitioning 145

Character displacement 147

4.12 Ecological succession 149

Pattern of succession 150

Species diversity and succession 152

Types of ecological succession 152

Chapter 5
Biodiversity
5.1 Levels of biodiversity 161

5.2 Gradients and Magnitude of biodiversity 162

Gradients of biodiversity 162

Magnitude of biodiversity 163

Biodiversity of India 164

5.3 Uses of biodiversity 164

5.4 Threats to biodiversity 166

5.5 Extinction of species 168

5.6 IUCN Red List categories and criteria 170

5.7 Conservation of biodiversity 174

Biodiversity Hotspots 175

viii
 Flagship and Umbrella species 175

5.8 Protected Areas of India 177

National parks 178

Wildlife sanctuary 178

Conservation reserves and Community reserves 178

Marine protected areas 178

Biosphere reserves 178

Sacred groves 181

5.9 Biodiversity conservation: International and National efforts 181

International conservation strategies 181

Convention on Biological diversity 181

CITES 181

World Heritage Convention (WHC) 182

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 182

International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture 182

Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Convention) 182

International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) 183

National conservation strategies 184

Biological Diversity Act 184

Wildlife (Protection) Act 184

Project Tiger and Project Elephant 185

National Wildlife Action Plan 185

Forest Conservation Act 186

5.10 Biogeographic classification of India 186

Chapter 6
Pollution
6.1 Air pollution 191

6.1.1 Composition of air 191

6.1.2 Sources of air pollution 192

6.1.3 Types of air pollutants 192

6.1.4 Criteria air pollutants 193

Carbon monoxide 193

Ozone 194

Oxides of nitrogen 195

Particulate matter 196

Oxides of sulfur 196

Lead 197

ix
 6.1.5 Effects of air pollution 197

Effect on human health 197

Effect on plants 197

Loss of biodiversity 197

Acid rain 198

Eutrophication 198

Ozone depletion 198

Greenhouse effect and Global warming 198

Climate change 199

6.1.6 Air quality standards 199

Ambient Air Quality Standards in India 199

WHO air quality guidelines 201

Air Quality Index 201

National Air Quality Monitoring Programme 202

6.1.7 Indoor air pollution 202

6.1.8 Acid rain 203

6.1.9 Control of air pollution 204

6.1.10 Noise pollution 208

6.2 Water pollution 209

6.2.1 Causes of water pollution 210

6.2.2 Types of water pollutants 211

6.2.3 Indicators of water pollution 211

6.2.4 Groundwater pollution 212

6.2.5 Water quality indicators 213

6.2.6 Water quality standards 216

6.2.7 Effects of water pollution 218

6.2.8 Control of water pollution 219

6.2.9 Wastewater treatment 220

6.2.10 Bioaccumulation, bioconcentration and biomagnification 224

6.3 Soil pollution 224

6.4 Solid waste management 225

Hazardous waste treatment 226

Solid waste management 227

6.5 Bioremediation 230

Bioremediation strategies 230

Advantages of bioremediation 231

Phytoremediation 231

6.6 Bioindicator 232

Well-studied 234

6.7 Environmental Impact Assessment 234

x
Chapter 7
Climate Change
7.1 Climate change 241

Climate change and Global warming 243

Climate change: Evidence 243

7.2 Greenhouse effect 244

Greenhouse gases 245

Global-warming potential of greenhouse gases 246

Increase in greenhouse gas concentrations 247

7.3 Global warming 249

7.4 Climate change: Impacts 250

7.5 Responding to climate change 252

7.6 Earth Summit 253

Rio Conventions 253

Kyoto protocol 254

Doha Amendment 255

Copenhagen Accord 256

Paris Agreement 256

7.7 Stratospheric ozone 257

Stratospheric ozone formation 257

Stratospheric ozone depletion 258

Ozone depletion potential 259

Antarctic ozone hole 261

Arctic ozone hole 262

Montreal Protocol 263

Progess after Montreal Protocol 264

7.8 Environmental Laws in India 265

Forest and Biodiversity 266

Environment and Pollution 266

7.9 Environmental footprints 268

Carbon footprint 268

Nitrogen footprint 269

Water footprint 270

Ecological footprint 270

Index 274

xi
Chapter 1
The Environment

Organisms and their environments are dynamic and interdependent. The term ‘environment’
etymologically means surroundings. It includes everything (biotic as well as abiotic) that
surrounds an organism. Any factor, abiotic or biotic, that influences living organisms is called
environmental factor (or ecological factor or ecofactor). Abiotic factors include factors such
as temperature, sunlight levels, pH, salinity and soil composition. In contrast, biotic factors
encompass producers, consumers and decomposers.

1.1 Physical environment

Soil
Soil constitutes the uppermost weathered layer of the Earth’s crust. It is a mixture of weath-
ered mineral rock particles, organic matter (i.e. both living and dead), water and air. Soil is a
biologically active matrix and home of diverse organisms. The scientific discipline dedicated
to the study of soil is known as pedology.

Weathering and soil formation

The process of soil formation includes the formation of unconsolidated materials by the weathering
process and the soil profile development. Weathering refers to the physical disintegration and
chemical decomposition of the rocks and minerals contained in them. Physical disintegration
breaks down rock into smaller fragments and eventually into sand and silt particles that are
commonly made up of individual minerals. Simultaneously, the minerals decompose chemically,
releasing soluble materials and synthesizing new minerals. New minerals form either by minor
chemical alterations or by a complete chemical breakdown of the original mineral and resynthesis
of new minerals. Based on the location of soil mineral particles formation and deposition, the
soils are classified as residual soil and transported soil. If the soil mineral particles have been
formed in place from the bedrock below, it is called residual soil. If the soil mineral particles
have been carried from some other location by wind, water, gravity or ice then it is termed as
transported soil. The transported soil can be classified into colluvium (transported by gravity),
alluvium (transported by the movement of water), glacial soil (transported by the movement
of glaciers) and eolian soil (transported by wind).

3
 Chapter 2
Ecosystem Ecology

An ecosystem, also known as an ecological system, represents a structural and functional

unit of nature that encompasses all organisms within a physically defined space. These or-
ganisms interact with each other and their physical environment. Essentially, any system that
encompasses interacting biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) components can be classified
as an ecosystem.
The concept of an ecosystem was first formally proposed by the English botanist Arthur Tansley
in 1935. The term biogeocoenosis (proposed in the 1940s by the Soviet ecologist V. N. Sukachev)
frequently used in Russian literature is roughly equivalent to the ecosystem. Its literal mean-
ing is ‘life and Earth functioning together.’ A key advance in the adoption of the ecosystem
concept occurred after the appearance of a popular textbook by Eugene Odum. Odum’s text-
book was organized around the ecosystem concept. After Odum’s textbook, a famous article
in Science by Francis Evans (1956) mentioned the ecosystem as ‘the basic unit in ecology.’
In the broadest sense, an ecosystem is the interacting system made up of all the living and
non-living objects in a physically defined space.

Pond
An aquatic ecosystem

According to this simple definition, the size, location and timescale at which ecosystems are
defined can therefore precisely match the question that the scientist is trying to answer. An

Figure 2.1 An aquatic ecosystem could be of any size depending on the communities to be studied and its boundaries
ecosystem. A physically can be either real or arbitrary. An ecosystem may be as small as a single tree or as large as
defined space comprising the entire Earth and can be studied for time periods as long as millions of years.
all the organisms which
An ecosystem can be visualized as a functional unit of nature. It has all components: biological
are interacting with one
another and with their and physical, necessary for survival. Accordingly, it is the basic unit around which theories and
physical environment. experiments of ecology are organized.

27
 Chapter 3
Population Ecology

Each species in an ecosystem exists as a population. A population is a group of individuals of

the same species that live together in a region. In essence, a population, also referred to as a
biological population consists of a group of interbreeding or potentially interbreeding individ-
uals found in the same space or area at the same time. The study of populations (especially
population abundance) and how they change over time is called population ecology. It studies
the spatial and temporal patterns of the abundance and distribution of organisms and mech-
anisms that produce those patterns. The study of population ecology includes understanding,
explanation and prediction of population growth, regulation and dynamics or demography.
Multicellular organisms are of two kinds, unitary organisms and modular organisms. Most
animal populations are made up of unitary organisms. In unitary organisms, the form is
highly determinate consisting usually of a strictly defined number of parts (such as legs or
wings) established only during embryogenesis. Their pattern of development and final form
are predictable. For example, all dogs have four legs, all squid have two eyes, etc. In modular
organisms, on the other hand, neither timing nor form is predictable. These organisms grow
by the repeated iteration of modules, usually to yield a branching pattern. Examples of modular
organisms include plants and many sessile benthic invertebrates. In modular organisms,
a single genetic individual (or genet) can consist of many modules (or ramets) capable of
existence as individuals. In plants, a genet is an individual that has arisen from a seed. A ramet
is a new plant which has arisen through vegetative propagation and is now a completely
independent plant with its own roots and shoots. For example, a population of grasses may
consist of several genets, each of which has several ramets.

3.1 Population characteristics

Scientists study a population by examining how individuals within that population interact with
each other and how the population as a whole interacts with its environment. A population
has several characteristics or attributes which are a function of the whole group and not of
the individual. Different populations can be compared by measuring these attributes. These
Demography is the study
attributes are population density, natality, mortality, distributions, etc. The study of the group
of the vital statistics of
characteristics of a population, their changes over time and the prediction of future changes
populations and how they
change over time. is known as demography.

79
 Chapter 4
Community Ecology

An ecological community is a group of species that coexist in a space and time and interact
with one another directly or indirectly. The term ‘community’ means different things to different
ecologists. Most definitions of ecological communities include the idea of a collection of species
found in a particular place. For instance, Whittaker (1975) defined ecological community as,

‘…an assemblage of populations of plants, animals, bacteria and fungi that live in an environ-
ment and interact with one another, forming together a distinctive living system with its own
composition, structure, environmental relations, development and function.’

Simply, an ecological community is a group of interacting species that inhabit a particular

location at a particular time. Most communities are extraordinarily complex. However, the
main features of ecological communities include the following.
Firstly, a community represents the biotic or a living component of the ecosystem. Organisms
within a community include primary producers, consumers and decomposers. In terrestrial
communities, the community structure is largely defined by the vegetation.
Secondly, considering the functional aspect, communities are made up of organisms with
interlocking food chains and each species depends on many other species in a community
which is taxonomically unrelated.
Thirdly, a community may be of any size. It can range from small pond communities to large
tropical rainforests.

Community ecology is a field that examines the effects of abiotic and biotic features on com-
munity or assemblage structure. Community ecologists study the number of species and their
relative abundance in a particular location and ask why the number of species and their abun-
dance changes over time. They also do study communities in different locations and differences
in the species diversity with location. In a broad sense, the goal of community ecology is to
A community is a group
understand the origin and maintenance of biological diversity within communities.
of interacting popula-
tions of different species There are two contrasting concepts of the community – organismal and individualistic concepts.
present together in space, The organismal concept of communities (put forward by Clements, 1916) views the community
whereas assemblage is
as a unit, an association of species, in which each species is representing an interacting, inte-
a taxonomically related
grated component of the whole and development of the community through time (a process
group of species popula-
tions that occur together termed succession) is viewed as the development of the organism. This type of community
in space. organization is commonly known as a closed community.

101
Chapter 5
Biodiversity

Biodiversity, short for biological diversity, refers to the sum total of all the variety and vari-
ability of life in a defined area. In contrast to the more specific term species diversity, the
term biodiversity was coined to emphasize the many complex kinds of variations that exist
within and among organisms at different levels of the organization. It refers to the totality of
genes, species and ecosystems of a region. United Nations Earth Summit defined biological
diversity as:
‘Biological diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including,
inter alia (among other things), terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the
ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between
species and of ecosystems.’
Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992

5.1 Levels of biodiversity

Biodiversity includes three hierarchical levels: Genetic, species and ecosystem diversity.

Genetic diversity
Genetic diversity refers to the variation in the genetic composition of individuals within or
among species. Genetic diversity enables populations to adapt to their environments and
respond to natural selection. The extent of genetic variation serves as the raw material for
speciation. Genetic diversity can be observed at multiple levels of biological organization,
including kingdoms, phyla, families, as well as among species and within species. The most
significant genetic diversity is typically observed between organisms from different kingdoms
(e.g., plants versus animals), between phyla (e.g., arthropods versus chordates), between
classes (e.g., birds versus reptiles), and so on.

Species diversity
According to the biological species concept, species are groups of actually or potentially
interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups.
Hence, species diversity refers to the variety of species within a region, i.e., species richness.
However, in the broader sense, species diversity includes not only species richness but also
species evenness.

161
Chapter 6
Pollution

Pollution is any undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of

the air, water and land that can harmfully affect the living organisms and the ecosystem as
a whole. Any substance introduced into the environment that adversely affects the physical,
chemical or biological properties of the environment that have a harmful effect on the ecosys-
tem as a whole is termed as pollutant. There are three major types of environmental pollution:
air pollution, water pollution and soil pollution.

6.1 Air pollution

Air pollution may be defined as any atmospheric condition in which substances are present at
concentrations above their normal permissible levels to produce a measurable effect on man,
animals, vegetation or materials. Substances mean any natural or anthropogenic (man-made)
chemical compounds capable of being airborne. They may exist in the atmosphere as gases,
liquid drops or solid particles.
According to Air (prevention and control) act, 1981, an air pollutant is any solid, liquid or
gaseous substance (including noise) present in the atmosphere in such concentration as may
be or tend to be injurious to human being or other living creatures or plants or property or
environment.

6.1.1 Composition of air

Air is a heterogenous mixture of different gases that makes the atmosphere. Atmosphere is
the gaseous mass or envelope surrounding the Earth and retained by the Earth’s gravitational
field. The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth’s atmosphere. It contains approximately
80% of the atmosphere’s mass. By volume, standard dry air contains 78.08% nitrogen, 20.9%
oxygen, 0.9% argon, 0.040% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases. There are
two common ways by which one can represent the composition of air – percentage of gas
by volume or percentage of the gas by mass. It is important to note that, the composition of
different gases (in dry air) by mass is a fixed one whereas the percentage composition of the
gases by volume or mass in wet air (i.e. air containing moisture) is dependent on humidity
or the moisture in the air.

191
Chapter 7
Climate Change

Climate refers to the long-term patterns of weather conditions in a specific location, region,
or across the entire planet. It is typically characterized by analyzing meteorological data over
a period of at least 30 years, and this analysis includes variables such as temperature, hu-
midity, atmospheric pressure, wind patterns, precipitation, and other meteorological factors.
‘Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the average weather, or more rigorously, as
the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a
period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period for
averaging these variables is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization. The
relevant quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation and wind.
Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system.’

IPCC, 2001

The terms climate and weather have different meanings. Weather represents the short-term
state of atmospheric conditions (such as temperature, pressure, humidity, precipitation, wind
speed and direction, and more) for a specific place and time. It exhibits both temporal (time-
related) and spatial (location-related) variations.

7.1 Climate change

Climate change is a large-scale, long-term shift in weather patterns and atmospheric condi-
tions on a global scale.
According to IPCC, ‘Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that can
be identified (e.g. by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of
its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate
change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings such as modulations of
the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition
of the atmosphere or in land use.’
The UNFCCC defines climate change as, ‘a change of climate that is attributed directly or in-
directly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and that is in
addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods’.
The UNFCCC, thus, makes a distinction between climate change attributable to human activities
altering the atmospheric composition, and climate variability attributable to natural causes.

241
 7e
Concept and application-based

MCQS
for LIFE SCIENCES | BIOTECH

PRACTICE BOOK FOR

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PRANAV KUMAR
Concept and application-based

MCQs
Life Sciences | Biotechnology

Seventh edition

PRANAV KUMAR
Former faculty,
Department of Biotechnology,
Jamia Millia Islamia (JMI),
New Delhi, India

Pathfinder Publication
New Delhi, India
MCQs
Life Sciences | Biotechnology

Seventh edition

ISBN : 978-81-906427-4-3 (paperback)

Copyright © 2023 by Pathfinder Publication, all rights reserved.

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly

regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data
and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility
for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use.
No part of this book may be reproduced by any mechanical, photographic, or
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 v

Contents

Section – A
Chapter-wise distribution of questions

Chapter 1

Biomolecules and Metabolism

Unit IV Enzymes and Vitamins 47

Unit I Amino acids and Proteins 1 Enzymes: General features 47

Amino acids and Peptides 1 Enzyme kinetics 50

Protein structure 7 Enzymatic inhibition 53

Globular and Fibrous proteins 10 Regulatory enzymes 55

Protein techniques 15 Enzymatic reactions 56

Protein sequencing 20 Vitamins 57
Amino acid metabolism 22

Unit II Nucleic Acids 23

Chapter 2
Nucleosides and Nucleotides 23
Cell Biology
Nucleic acids 24

DNA 27 Unit I Cell Structure and Function 59

RNA 30 Eukaryotic cell: Structure and function 59
Electrophoresis and Sequencing 32 Plasma membrane: Structure and transport 60
Nucleotide metabolism 33 Membrane transport 63

Unit III Carhohydrates and Lipids 34 Membrane potential 66

Monosaccharides and Disaccharides 34 Endoplasmic reticulum 68

Polysaccharides 37 Golgi complex 70

Glycogenesis, Glycogenolysis & Gluconeogenesis 38 Lysosome 72

Lipids 40 Protein targeting 74

Fatty acids 40 Cytoskeleton and Motility 78

Triacylglycerol, Phospholipid and Glycolipid 41 Extracellular matrix and Cell junctions 83

Cholesterol and Lipoproteins 43 Mitochondria and Chloroplast 85

Fatty acid metabolism 45 Peroxisomes 87

Cholesterol metabolism 46 Nucleus 88

vi

Unit II Cell signaling, Cell cycle and Cancer 92 Reproductive system 166

Cell signaling 92 Endocrine system 167

Cell cycle and Cell division 97

Cancer 103 Chapter 5

Genetics
Chapter 3
Unit I Classical Genetics 172
Plant Physiology
Mendel’s principle 172

Unit I Respiration 115 Sex determination and Sex-linked inheritance 177

Glycolysis and Fermentation 115 Quantitative inheritance 181

Krebs cycle 117 Cytogenetics 182

Oxidative phosphorylation 119 Unit II Molecular Genetics 185

Pentose phosphate pathway 123 DNA replication 185

Unit II Photosynthesis 124 Genome complexity 193

Photosynthesis: General features 124 Transposable elements 194

Light reactions 128 Satellite DNA 195

Calvin cycle 132 Gene families 197

Photorespiration, C4 and CAM pathway 134 Transcription 198

Transport of photoassimilate 138 RNA processing 204

Unit III Transport, Mineral nutrition and Plant Prokaryotic gene regulation 209

growth 140 l ac operon 209

Transport of minerals and water 140 trp operon 213

Transpiration 144 Eukaryotic gene regulation 214
Plant nutrition 146 Genetic switch 216
Plant hormones 148 DNA binding motifs 217
Photomorphogenesis and Vernalization 152 Genetic code 219
Seed physiology 154 Ribosomes and tRNAs 221
Plant movements 154 Protein synthesis 222

DNA recombination 229

Chapter 4 DNA repair 230

Gene mutation 232

Human Physiology

Nervous system 156

Chapter 6
Sense organs 159

Blood vascular system 160 Recombinant DNA technology

Respiratory system 162 Enzymes 243
Excretory system 163 Vector 247
Digestive system 165 DNA cloning 249
 vii

PCR 250 Hypersensitivity and Autoimmunity 299

Protein expression 252 Vaccine 300

DNA library 253

Engineering plants and animals 254 Chapter 9

Sequencing/Blotting/Electrophoresis/Labelling 256
Diversity of Life
Applications of recombinant DNA technology 258
Taxonomy 301

Monera 302
Chapter 7
Protists 303
Prokaryotes and Viruses
Fungi 304

Bacterial cell structure 261 Animals 305

Bacterial growth and Cultivation 263 Plants 308

Bacterial groups 265 Anatomy of angiospermic plants 309

Archaea 267 Reproduction in angiosperms 311

Bacterial genome 268

Gene transfer and recombination 269 Chapter 10

Toxins 271
Ecology and Evolution
Virus 273

Viroids and Prions 277 Unit I Ecology 314

Antibiotics 277 Ecosystem 314

Miscellaneous 278 Biotic community and Succession 317

Population ecology 320

Chapter 8 Biodiversity 322

Unit II Evolution 323

Immunology
Population genetics 329
Innate and Adaptive immune response 280

Adaptive immunity 281

Cells and organs of the immune system 282 Answers of section - A 331

Antigens 284

MHC and Antigen presentation 285

Antibodies: Structure and Function 287

Organization and Expression of Ig genes 292

Antigen-antibody interactions: Principles and

applications 293

B-cell: Generation, activation, differentiation and

Response 295

T-cell: Maturation, activation, differentiation and

Response 296

Cytokines and Complement system 298

 ix

Section – B
Unit-wise distribution of questions

Unit 1 Molecules and their interactions relevant to biology 356–374

Answer-key

Unit 2 Cellular organization 375–399

Answer-key

Unit 3 Molecular Genetics 400–431

Answer-key

Unit 4 Cell signaling and Immunology 432–450

Answer-key

Unit 5 Developmental Biology 451–470

Answer-key

Unit 6 System Physiology – Plant 471–495

Answer-key

Unit 7 System Physiology – Animal 496–517

Answer-key

Unit 8 Inheritance Biology 518–546

Answer-key

Unit 9 Diversity, Ecology and Evolution 547–591

Answer-key

Unit 10 Biotechnology and Biophysical techniques 592–621

Answer-key

Section – C
Chemistry in Biology

Chemical context of Life 622–624

pH and Buffer 624–626

Bioenergenetics and Thermodynamics 626–628

Answer-key
 Chapter 1
Biomolecules and Metabolism

Unit I Amino acids and Proteins

Amino acids and Peptides

01. Which of the following statements about standard amino acids are correct?
P. Lysine has butylammonium side chain.
Q. Average mass of an amino acid residue is ~110 Da.
R. Universal genetic code specifies only standard amino acids.
S. Proline has a secondary amino group.
a. P and Q b. Q and S
c. P, Q, R and S d. Q and R

02. Which of the following statement is not true?

a. The pI is the pH value at which a protein has overall charge of +1.
b. At a pH value equal to pI, a protein will not move in the electric field.
c. An acidic protein will have a pI less than 7.
d. A basic protein will have a pI greater than 7.

03. Which of the following statements is not true about the amino acids?
a. Only 22 amino acids are used in ribosome-mediated protein synthesis.
b. All amino acids exist in two stereoisomeric forms.
c. Amino acids have an N-terminus, C-terminus, and R groups.
d. There are more than 300 different kinds of amino acids present in the cell.

04. Choose the incorrect statement about standard amino acids.

a. Aspartate has the smallest pI value.
b. Arginine has the largest pI value.
c. pKa value of side chain is maximum for aspartate.
d. Side chain of isoleucine has maximum hydropathy value.

05. Which of the following is not true about alanine?

a. At pH 1, the overall charge is +1.
b. At pH 1, it will move towards cathode.
c. An equimolar mixture of d and l alanine does not rotate the plane polarized light.
d. It contains branched side chain.
 Unit 1
Molecules and their interactions relevant to biology

Structure of molecules, chemical bonds and principles of biophysical chemistry.

01. What is the pH of a solution that has a hydrogen ion concentration of 1.75 × 10–5 mol/L?
a. 2.26 b. 1.2
c. 4.76 d. 5.8

02. A polar molecule

a. is slightly negative at one end and slightly positive at the other end.
b. has an extra electron, giving it a negative charge.
c. has an extra neutron, making it weigh more.
d. has covalent bonds.

03. When a thermodynamic equilibrium state at a given temperature and pressure is reached, the
a. free energy of the state at equilibrium is always higher than that of any other state at the same T and P.
b. enthalpy of the state at equilibrium is always lower than that of any other state at the same T and P.
c. free energy of the state at equilibrium is always lower than that of any other state at the same T and P.
d. enthalpy of the state at equilibrium may be higher than that of any other state at the same T and P.

04. Which of the following statements are correct?

P. Polarity of water makes it an excellent solvent.
Q. Water has high tensile strength.
R. Cohesive property of water is due to H-bonding.
S. Water has high dielectric constant.
a. P and S b. Q and R
c. Q, R and S d. P, Q, R and S

05. Which non-covalent bond is responsible for the high melting and boiling points of water?
a. H-bond b. van der Waals force
c. Hydrophobic force d. Covalent bond

06. In which of the following systems is the entropy the greatest?

a. Water vapour
b. Liquid water at pH 7.0 and 37°C
c. Supercooled water (liquid water at a temperature less than 0°C)
d. Ice
 Chemistry in Biology
Chemical context of Life, pH and buffer, Bioenergetics and Thermodynamics

Chemical context of Life

01. Which of the following statements about H2O are correct?

P. It is electrically neutral.
Q. It is a polar molecule.
R. It has a high dielectric constant.
S. It acts as an excellent solvent.
T. It is amphoteric but not amphiprotic.
a. Q and S b. P, Q and T
c. P, Q, R and S d. P, Q, R, S and T

02. Which of the following statements accurately describe the chemical composition of cells?
P. Composed of fewer than 30 elements.
Q. Predominantly consisting of elements with relatively low atomic numbers.
R. The most abundant elements found in cells include H, O, N, and C.
S. Among the macromolecules present in cells, proteins are the most abundant.
a. P and Q b. Q and R
c. P, Q and S d. P, Q, R and S

03. Which of the following statements accurately describe covalent bond?

P. A covalent bond forms as a result of equal sharing of electron pairs between two atoms.
Q. Covalent bonds may be either polar or non-polar.
R. Energy of a covalent bond depends on the number of covalent bonds (i.e., bond order).
S. Energy of a covalent bond is dependent on the medium.
a. P and Q b. Q and R
c. P, Q and R d. P, Q, R and S

04. Which of the following statements accurately describe van der Waals forces?
P. They are weak electrostatic interactions.
Q. They involve intermolecular interactions.
R. They occur only between polar molecules.
S. They represent the weakest interaction among non-covalent interactions.
a. P and Q b. Q and R
c. P, Q and S d. P, Q, R and S
Test and Evaluation

Previous Year’s Papers

CSIR-NET Life Sciences

2013-2023

Special features
Unit-wise segregation of questions
Solution of analytical questions

Pranav Kumar | Usha Mina

Test and Evaluation

Previous Year’s Papers

CSIR-NET Life Sciences

Pranav Kumar
Former faculty,
Department of Biotechnology,
Jamia Millia Islamia (JMI),
New Delhi, India

Usha Mina
Professor,
School of Environmental Sciences,
Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU),
New Delhi, India

Pathfinder Publication
New Delhi, India
Test and Evaluation

Previous Year’s Papers

CSIR-NET Life Sciences

ISBN : 978-81-906427-9-8 (paperback)

Copyright © 2024 by Pathfinder Publication, all rights reserved.

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly

regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data
and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility
for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use.
No part of this book may be reproduced by any mechanical, photographic, or
electronic process, or in the form of a phonographic recording, nor it may be
stored in a retrieval system, transmitted, or otherwise copied for public or
private use, without written permission from the publisher.

Publisher : Pathfinder Publication

Production editor : Ajay Kumar
Copy editor : Jomesh Joseph
Illustration and layout : Pradeep Verma
Cover design : Pradeep Verma
Marketing director : Arun Kumar
Production coordinator : Murari Kumar Singh

Pathfinder Publication
A unit of Pathfinder Academy Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
pathfinderpublication.in

09350208235
Contents
CSIR-JRF-NET | Previous Year’s Solved Papers

June 2013 1–25

December 2013 26–51

June 2014 52–77

December 2014 78–103

June 2015 104–129

December 2015 130–155

June 2016 156–181

December 2016 182–208

June 2017 209–236

December 2017 237–266

June 2018 267–295

December 2018 296–324

June 2019 325–354

December 2019 355–385

June 2020 (Shift-1) 386–418

June 2020 (Shift-2) 419–448

June 2021 (Shift-1) 449–481

June 2021 (Shift-2) 482–516

June 2022 (Shift-1) 517–550

June 2022 (Shift-2) 551–582

June 2023 (Shift-1) 583–618

June 2023 (Shift-2) 619–654

December 2023 (Shift-1) 655–688

December 2023 (Shift-2) 689–723

 ix

Syllabus : CSIR-JRF-NET
Unit 1 Molecules and their interactions relevant to Biology

Unit 2 Cellular Organization

Unit 3 Fundamental Processes

Unit 4 Cell Communication and Cell signaling

Unit 5 Developmental Biology

Unit 6 System Physiology : Plant

Unit 7 System Physiology : Animal

Unit 8 Inheritance Biology

Unit 9 Diversity of Life forms

Unit 10 Ecological Principles

Unit 11 Evolution and Behaviour

Unit 12 Applied Biology

Unit 13 Methods in Biology

 Life Sciences : December 2023 (Shift - 1)
PART - A
001. The number 68132 – 31932 is divisible by
a. both 362 and 1000 b. 362 but not 1000 c. 1000 but not 362 d. neither 362 nor 1000

002. Which one of the following graphs represents the displacement verus time relation for the motion of a ball thrown
upward and returning toward the ground, remaining in air for 10 seconds? (Ignore air resistance.)
A. B. C. D.
Displacement

Displacement

Displacement

Displacement
0 0 0 0

0 Time 10 0 Time 10 0 Time 10 0 Time 10

a. A b. B c. C. d. D

003. Vehicle number plates have two letters out of the 26 letters of the English alphabet followed by four decimal
digits. How many different number plates are possible if repetition of letters and digits is allowed?
a. 26 × 25 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 b. 26 × 26 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10
c. (26 × 25 × 24 × 23 × 10 × 9)/(4 × 3 × 2 × 2) d. 26 × 25 × 24 × 23 × 10 × 9

004. In a grid puzzle, each row and column in the 9 × 9 grid, as well as each 3 × 3 subgrid shown with heavy borders,
must contain all the digits 1 – 9.

1 8 9

2 8

8 5 4 9

4 2 9

3 9 2 1

1 ? 5 4

9 1 2 3

7 1
2 7 6

In the given partially filled grid, the digit in the square marked “?” is
a. 3 b. 9 c. 8 d. 7

005. In an examination 3 medals were awarded for each of 5 subjects. If three candidates won exactly four medals
each, and no candidate won Just one medal, the total number of medal winners
a. was exactly 4 b. was exactly 5
c. could be either 5 or 6 d. was exactly 6

006. What is the difference, 11 hours after synchronisation, in the time shown by a standard watch and a watch whose
hour and minute hands coincide every 64 minutes?
a. 11 min b. 16 min c. 22 min d. 44 min
 Life Sciences : December 2023 (Shift - 2)
PART - A
001. Which of the following equations represents the graph shown?
log10 y 1

-1 0 1 2 3 4
log10 x

–1

–2

a. log y = (log x) – 1 b. log y = (log x)/2 – 1

c. log y = (log x) – log(1) d. log y = (log x)/2 + 1

002. Starting at the same time policewomen A and B chase thief T. They all run in the same direction at constant speeds.
A runs twice as fast and B thrice as fast as T. If A and B catch up with T at the same time, B must have started
a. half as far behind T as A did b. 1½ times as far behind T as A did
c. twice as far behind T as A did d. 3 times as far behind T as A did

003. Among A, B, C and D, one is a doctor, one is a teacher, one is an engineer, and the other is a lawyer. The teacher
is older to B but younger than D. B is older to the doctor and younger than C. Which among the following is a
conclusive inference?
a. A is the engineer b. B is the lawyer c. C is the teacher d. D is not the doctor

004. Two circles of radii 9.0 units and 4.0 units touch each other externally as in the figure. Then the length (in units)
of their common tangent AB is

B a. 63

b. 13
A
c. 12
9.0
4.0 d. 122

005. Incomes (in lakhs) of two persons A and B, over the years 2006-2010 are shown in the graph.
8 A

6 B

0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Which of the following statements is true?

a. Over the years, trends of income of A and B are the same.
b. The largest difference in incomes of A and B is in the year 2008.
CSIR-UGC-NET

General Aptitude
Theory and Practice

Solved Papers with Topic-wise Segregation

Life Sciences

Earth Sciences

Physical Sciences

Chemical Sciences
åp
Mathematical Sciences

Ram Mohan Pandey

General Aptitude
Theory and Practice

Solved Papers with Topic-wise Segregation

Ram Mohan Pandey

M.Sc. (Mathematics),
Indian Institute of Technology,
Roorkee, India

Pathfinder Publication
New Delhi, India
Ram Mohan Pandey
M.Sc. (Mathematics),
Indian Institute of Technology,
Roorkee, India

Copyright © 2022 by publisher, all rights reserved.

This book contains information obtained from authentic and

highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made
to publish reliable data and information, but the author and
the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of
all materials or for the consequences of their use.

No part of this book may be reproduced by any

mechanical, photographic, or electronic process,
or in the form of a phonographic recording, nor it may
be stored in a retrieval system, transmitted, or
otherwise copied for public or private use, without
written permission from the publisher.

ISBN : 978-93-80473-05-5

Pathfinder Publication
A unit of Pathfinder Academy Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
G-92, Pratap complex, Pratap market, Munirka, New Delhi-110067, India
Phone: 09350208235

pathfinderpublication.in
Contents

Unit 1 Unit 4
Numerical Ability Geometry and Mensuration
1.1 Number System 01 4.1 Lines and Angles 179

1.2 Ratio and Proportion 33 4.2 Triangles 189

1.3 Mixtures and Alligation 39 4.3 Quadrilaterals 202

1.4 Average 45 4.4 Circles 211

1.5 Percentage 50 4.5 Polygons 225

1.6 Profit and Loss 57 4.6 Coordinate Geometry 231

1.7 Time, Speed and Distance 63 4.7 Mensuration 240

1.8 Trains 72

1.9 Boats and Streams 77

Unit 5
1.10 Time and Work 81

1.11 Venn Diagram 88 Logical Reasoning

5.1 Blood Relations 255

5.2 Calendar 259

Unit 2
5.3 Clock 264
Modern Maths 5.4 Coding-Decoding 271

2.1 Permutations and Combinations 95 5.5 Direction Sense 275

2.2 Probability 105 5.6 Logical Puzzles 281

2.3 Functions and Graphs 116 5.7 Missing terms 294

2.4 Logarithms 128 5.8 Number Series 304

2.5 Algebra 131 5.9 Syllogism 308

2.6 Statistics 141 5.10 True/False Logic 316

Unit 3
Data Interpretation
3.1 Pie charts 147

3.2 Bar graph 154

3.3 Line graphs 160

Previous Year’s Question Papers with Solutions
01. Dec - 2012 Life Science, Physical Science, Earth Science 323

02. Dec - 2012 Mathematical Science, Chemical Science 329

03. June - 2013 Life Science, Mathematical Science, Earth Science 335

04. June - 2013 Chemical Science, Physical Science 340

05. Dec - 2013 Life Science, Mathematical Science, Earth Science 345

06. Dec - 2013 Chemical Science, Physical Science 352

07. June - 2014 Life Science, Mathematical Science, Earth Science 357

08. June - 2014 Chemical Science, Physical Science 363

09. Dec - 2014 Life Science, Mathematical Science, Earth Science 369

10. Dec - 2014 Chemical Science, Physical Science 376

11. June - 2015 Life Science, Mathematical Science, Earth Science 381

12. June - 2015 Chemical Science, Physical Science 388

13. Dec - 2015 Life Science, Physical Science 394

14. Dec - 2015 Mathematical Science, Chemical Science, Earth Science 400

15. June - 2016 Life science, Physical Science 406

16. June - 2016 Mathematical Science, Chemical Science, Earth Science 410

17. Dec - 2016 Life Science, Physical Science 416

18. Dec - 2016 Mathematical Science, Chemical Science, Earth Science 421

19. June - 2017 Life Science, Physical Science 427

20. June - 2017 Mathematical Science, Chemical Science, Earth Science 431

21. Dec - 2017 Life Science, Physical Science 436

22. Dec - 2017 Mathematical Science, Chemical Science, Earth Science 441

23. June - 2018 Life Science, Physical Science 447

24. June - 2018 Mathematical Science, Chemical Science, Earth Science 452

25. Dec - 2018 Life Science, Physical Science 458

26. Dec - 2018 Mathematical Science, Chemical Science, Earth Science 464

27. June - 2019 Life Science, Physical Science 469

28. June - 2019 Mathematical Science, Chemical Science, Earth science 475

29. Dec - 2019 Life Science, Physical Science, Earth Science 480

30. Dec - 2019 Mathematical Science, Chemical Science 485

31. June - 2020 Earth Science 491

32. June - 2020 Life Science (Shift - 1) 497

33. June - 2020 Chemical Science (Shift - 1) 502

34. June - 2020 Chemical Science (Shift - 1) 507

35. June - 2020 Life Science (Shift - 2) 512

36. June - 2020 Mathematical Science (Shift - 2) 517

37. June - 2020 Mathematical Science (Shift - 2) 522

38. June - 2020 Physical Science 526

 Numerical Ability 1

Unit 1
Numerical Ability

1.1 Number System

1.1.1 Numbers
A number is a mathematical object used in counting and measuring. It is denoted by a group of digits, called
numerals. In our everyday life we represent numbers by using ten digits which are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and
these numbers are called decimal numbers. It was taken from Hindu-Arabic system.

Classification of numbers
There are a number of different ways to classify numbers used in counting and measuring.

Real number
It is defined as the set of all numbers that can be represented on the number line. A number line is a straight line
with an arbitrary defined point zero (0).

To the right of this point lie all positive numbers and to the left, all negative numbers. Also, every point on the
number line represents a unique real number.
 Modern Maths 95

Unit 2
Modern Maths

2.1 Permutations and Combinations

Arrangement
It is defined as the number of groups or selections of things multiplied by the number of objects in each group. Let
there be three different objects A, B and C. The possible groups that can be formed out of the three taken two at
a time are AB, BC, and AC. Here three such groups are possible. Now the two objects in each of these groups can
be arranged in two different ways such as
a. AB and BA
b. BC and CB
c. AC and CA
Number of arrangements = number of groups or selections × r!, where r is the number of objects in each group
= (3 × 2)! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6.
Hence, we see that in the case of arrangements change of position of objects causes change in the arrangement.

Permutations
Each of the different arrangements can be made by taking some or all of a number of given things or objects at a
time is called a permutation. In permutation, order of appearance of things or objects is taken into account.
The symbol nPr denotes the number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time. The letter P stands for
permutation.
n!
So, nPr
(n  r)!

For example, the symbol 6P3 will denote the number of permutations or arrangements of 6 different things taken 3
at a time.

6 6! 6! 6 u5u 4u3u2 u1
So, P3 120
(6  3)! 3! 3 u 2 u1

Circular permutation
Consider four persons A, B, C and D who are to be arranged along a circle. If one circular arrangement is as follows:
 Data Interpretation 147

Unit 3
Data Interpretation

3.1 Pie charts

For a pie chart, central angle is 360° that represents 100% of the value.
Hence, we have

360° = 100% 3.6° = 1% 18° = 5%

180° = 50% 36° = 10% 54° = 15%

90° = 25% 72° = 20% 108° = 30%

45° = 12.5% 144° = 40%

Based on these values, we can have the following examples,

Directions (01-03): The pie-chart given below shows the spendings of a family on various items and its savings
during a year.

01. If the total income of the family is Rs. 75000. The expenditure on children education was
a. Rs. 9000 b. Rs. 900
c. Rs. 7500 d. Rs. 750

§ 12 ·
Sol. Expenditure on children education Rs. ¨ u 75000 ¸ Rs. 9000. Hence, option (a) is the correct answer..
© 100 ¹
02. What percent of the income was spent on transport and other items?
a. 25% b. 20%
c. 30% d. 32%

Sol. Clearly 25% of income was spent on transport and other items. Hence, option (a) is the correct answer.
 Geometry and Mensuration 179

Unit 4
Geometry and Mensuration

4.1 Lines and Angles

Line: A line has length. It has neither width nor thickness. It can be extended indefinitely in both directions.

Ray: A line with one end point is called a ray. The end point is called the origin.

Line segment: A line with two end points is called a segment.

Parallel lines: Two lines, which lie in a plane and do not intersect, are called parallel lines. The distance between two
parallel lines is constant. We denote it by PQ || AB.

Perpendicular lines: Two lines, which lie in a plane and intersect each other at right angle, are called perpendicular
lines.

We denote it by L A M.

Properties

• Three or more points are said to be collinear if they lie on a line, otherwise they are said to be non-collinear.

• Two or more lines are said to be coplanar if they lie in the same plane, otherwise they are said to be non-coplanar.
• A line, which intersects two or more given coplanar lines in distinct points, is called a transversal of the given lines.

• A line which is perpendicular to a line segment, i.e. intersect at 90° and passes through the midpoint of line
segment is called the perpendicular bisector of the segment.

• Every point on the perpendicular bisector of a segment is equidistant from the two endpoints of the segment.
• If two lines are perpendicular to the same line, they are parallel to each other or it can be said, “Lines which
are parallel to the same line are parallel to each other”.
 Logical Reasoning 255

Unit 5
Logical Reasoning

5.1 Blood Relations

The questions which are asked under this chapter depend upon relation. Hence, it is necessary for the candidate to
have a sound knowledge of the blood relations. Some most frequently asked relations are given below.

Father’s father Grandfather

Father’s mother Grandmother

Father’s brother Paternal uncle

Father’s sister Paternal aunt

Children of uncle Cousin

Wife of uncle Aunt

Children of aunt Cousin

Husband of aunt Uncle

Mother’s father Maternal Grandfather

Mother’s mother Maternal Grandmother

Mother’s brother Maternal uncle

Mother’s sister Maternal aunt

Children of maternal uncle Cousin

Wife of maternal uncle Maternal aunt

Son’s wife Daughter-in-law

Daughter’s husband Son-in-law

Husband’s or wife’s sister Sister-in-law

Husband’s or wife’s brother Brother-in-law

Brother’s son Nephew

Brother’ daughter Niece

Sister’s husband Brother-in-law

Brother’s wife Sister-in-law

Grandson’s or Grand daughter’s daughter Great grand daughter