Unit 5 - Reproduction
Asexual reproduction
● One parent; no specialized reproductive organs or cells
● Organism produces genetically-identical copy of itself unless mutations occur
● Allows rapid population increase in some organisms when individuals are not developed
enough to produce gametes
Sexual reproduction
● Usually two parents (but not always) that each produce specialized gametes
● Genetic variability increased when parental characters are recombined. Zygote is
genetically unique
● First generation may present three haplotypes (ex. 2 Heterozygous parents may
produce Heterozygous, homozygous dominant, homozygous recessive)
Five basic forms of asexual reproduction
● (1) Fission – parent divides into approximately equal parts; each grows into similar
individual
○ Fast process (in terms of number of individuals in a short amount of time)
● (2) Budding – new individual arises from outgrowth of parent, develops organs then
detaches itself
○ Unequal division
● (3) Gemmulation - Gemmules are cells aggregations surrounded by resistant coat.
Emerge from their hard capsules and grow into new individuals under favorable
conditions
○ Effective way of surviving inclement conditions
● (4) Fragmentation occurs when multicellular organism breaks into two or more parts, and
each fragment can become complete individual
○ Ex. flatworms and sea stars
● (5) Parthenogenesis is development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg (duplication
event to form diploid embryo)
○ Advantage: two individuals do not need to be present at the same place and time
○ Disadvantage: limited capacity to shift gene combinations to adapt to new
conditions
Two basic forms of sexual reproduction
● (1) Biparental reproduction
○ Most biparentally-reproducing organisms are into two sexes (dioecious)
○ Ova and sperm are haploid
○ Fertilized zygote is diploid
● (2) Hermaphroditism
○ Animals with both male and female organs are hermaphrodites (monoecious)
○ Most cross-fertilize by exchanging gametes with another member of the same
species
○ Advantages (a) recombination of genetic material; (b) twice as many offspring
produced
Why sex?
● Disadvantages of sexual reproduction
○ More complicated; more time consuming; uses more energy; mates must be
available at the right time; unnecessary males use up environmental resources;
produces fewer offspring
● How are these costs of sexual reproduction offset?
○ Breakup and recombination of genomes keeps producing novel genotypes,
which may survive and reproduce during times of environmental change
Variability!
Reproductive patterns
● Oviparity
○ “Egg birth”
○ Most invertebrates and many vertebrates lay their eggs in the environment for
development
○ Fertilization may be internal (inside the body of female before she lays eggs) or
external (fertilized by male after eggs are laid)
○ Ex. birds
● Ovoviviparity
○ “Live-egg-birth”
○ Some animals retain their eggs in their body while they develop
○ Embryos derive nourishment from yolk stored within egg
○ Young are born alive
○ Occurs in several invertebrate groups and some species of fish and reptiles
○ Ex. sharks, fish, snakes
● Viviparity
○ “Live birth”
○ Eggs develop (no shell) inside the female, and embryos derive their nourishment
directly from the mother (placenta - provides nutrients and gas exchange)
○ Fertilization internal and mother gives birth to young at an advanced state of
development
○ Development of embryos within the mother's body provides greater protection to
offspring
○ Occurs primarily in mammals, but also some fish, reptiles, and others
