1.

Applica on Layer Paradigms (Simplified and Detailed)

The applica on layer facilitates communica on between devices using two primary paradigms:
Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer (P2P). These paradigms determine how devices interact over the
network to exchange data or services.

1. Tradi onal Paradigm: Client-Server

 Descrip on:

o In this model, a server con nuously runs to provide services.

o A client requests these services whenever needed.

o The server is powerful enough to handle requests from mul ple clients
simultaneously.

 Characteris cs:

o The server is always on and wai ng for client requests.

o Clients connect temporarily to send requests and receive responses.

o This model requires significant server resources to handle large numbers of clients.

 Examples:

o Websites using HTTP.

o File transfers with FTP.

o Email servers using SMTP or IMAP.

o Secure connec ons with SSH.

 Advantages:

o Centralized control simplifies management.

 o Reliable service as long as the server is opera onal.

 Disadvantages:

o High server maintenance cost.

o Limited scalability due to server resource constraints.

2. New Paradigm: Peer-to-Peer (P2P)

 Descrip on:

o Devices (peers) in this model can act as both clients and servers, sharing
responsibili es.

o There’s no central server; each peer directly communicates with others.

 Characteris cs:

o Each device provides and consumes resources.

o Highly scalable and cost-effec ve as no central server is required.

o Security and reliability depend on peers’ implementa on.

 Examples:

o File sharing applica ons like BitTorrent.

o Voice and video applica ons like Skype.

o IPTV (Internet Protocol Television).

 Advantages:

o Cost-efficient with no need for a central server.

o Scales well with increasing users.

 Disadvantages:

o Less suitable for services requiring centralized control.

 o Security concerns due to decentralized nature.

3. Mixed Paradigm

 How it works:

o A server is used ini ally to find peers.

o Once peers are iden fied, they connect directly for communica on.

 Example:

o Finding a service using a server, but sharing files directly with other devices.

Summary

 The Client-Server paradigm offers centralized control and is ideal for structured applica ons.

 The Peer-to-Peer paradigm is cost-effec ve and scalable, suitable for resource-sharing

applica ons.

 The Mixed Paradigm leverages the strengths of both models for versa le applica ons.

2. Client-Server Programming (Simplified)

Client-server programming is a way for devices to communicate over a network, where:

 A server provides services (like websites or file storage).

 A client requests and uses these services when needed.

How It Works

1. Server Side:

o The server is always running, wai ng for client requests.

o It listens for connec ons and responds to requests.

2. Client Side:

o The client connects to the server, sends a request (e.g., for a file or webpage), and
receives a response.

o Once done, the client disconnects.

Sockets

 Sockets are like endpoints for communica on between the client and server.

 Server Socket:

o Fixed address (IP + Port) to accept client connec ons.

 Client Socket:

o Temporary address used to connect to the server.

Protocols Used

1. UDP: Fast but doesn’t guarantee data delivery (e.g., streaming).

2. TCP: Reliable, ensures data arrives correctly (e.g., file transfer).

3. SCTP: Combines the benefits of UDP and TCP, more advanced.

Server Types

1. Itera ve Server:

o Handles one client at a me.

o Queues other requests un l it’s free.

2. Concurrent Server:

o Handles mul ple clients at the same me using threads or processes.

Summary

 The server is always ready to provide services.

 The client connects only when it needs something.

 Communica on is managed through sockets and reliable protocols like TCP.

3. Itera ve Communica on Using TCP (Simplified)

In itera ve communica on using TCP, the server handles one client at a me in a step-by-step
process. It waits for a client's request, processes it, sends a response, and then moves to the next
client.

How It Works

1. Server Process:

o Creates a listening socket to accept incoming client connec ons.

o Waits for a client to connect.

o Once connected, creates a new socket for communica on with that client.

o Handles the client’s request, sends a response, and closes the connec on.

o Then goes back to wait for the next client.

 2. Client Process:

o Creates a socket and connects to the server.

o Sends a request (e.g., "Send me file X").

o Receives the response (e.g., the requested file).

o Closes the connec on a er the task is done.

Example: File Transfer

1. Server:

o The server runs con nuously, wai ng for client requests to download files.

o A client connects and requests "file1.txt."

o The server sends the file and closes the connec on.

o Then, it waits for the next client.

2. Client:

o A user runs a client program to request "file1.txt."

o The client connects to the server, receives the file, and disconnects.

o
Advantages of Itera ve Communica on

 Simple to implement.

 Suitable for scenarios with low traffic or short requests.

Disadvantages

 Can handle only one client at a me.

 Other clients must wait un l the server finishes handling the current client.

4. explain web documents and h p

Web Documents

Web documents are resources accessible through the World Wide Web (WWW). These documents
can be stored on web servers and accessed by users via web browsers. They are classified into three
main types:

1. Sta c Documents:

o Content does not change unless updated by the server.

o Examples: Basic HTML pages or XML files.

2. Dynamic Documents:

o Created in real me by the server, o en based on user input or server-side

processing.

o Examples: A search result page or a product recommenda on page.

3. Ac ve Documents:

o Contain scripts or programs that execute in the client’s browser to provide

interac ve features.

o Examples: Online forms with JavaScript valida on or anima ons.

Web documents are iden fied by URLs (Uniform Resource Locators), which specify:

 The protocol (e.g., HTTP).

 The host (server address).

 An op onal port number.

  The path to the document on the server.

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

HTTP is the primary protocol for communica on on the WWW, enabling the transfer of web pages
between servers and clients (browsers).

Key Features:

1. Client-Server Model:

o The client (browser) sends a request to the server.

o The server processes the request and sends a response.

2. Connec on Types:

o Non-persistent connec ons: Separate connec ons for each request-response cycle.

o Persistent connec ons: A single connec on is reused for mul ple requests,
improving efficiency.

3. Message Formats:

o Request Message: Contains a request line (e.g., method like GET or POST, URL, and
HTTP version), op onal headers, and an op onal body.

o Response Message: Includes a status line (e.g., success or error code), headers, and
a body with the requested resource.

4. Cookies:

o Small pieces of data stored by the browser to remember user preferences, sessions,
or track behavior.

5. Web Caching and Proxy Servers:

o Proxy servers act as intermediaries, caching frequently accessed resources to reduce

server load and speed up response mes.

6. HTTP Security:

o HTTP itself is not secure. However, combining it with SSL/TLS results in HTTPS, which
encrypts data and ensures secure communica on.
5.

6.
7. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

FTP is a standard network protocol used to transfer files between a client and a server over a
network. It separates commands and data transfer into two dis nct connec ons to improve
efficiency and organiza on.

Key Features of FTP:

1. Two Connec ons:

o Control Connec on:

 Handles commands and responses.

 Operates on port 21.

 Stays open throughout the session.

o Data Connec on:

 Handles the actual transfer of files.

 Operates on port 20 for the server.

2. File Transfer Modes:

o Text Mode: For transferring plain text files.

o Binary Mode: For transferring binary files like images, videos, or so ware.

3. Commands and Responses:

o Commands are sent in ASCII format from the client to the server.

o The server responds with a three-digit code indica ng success, error, or status.

4. Opera ons Supported:

o Uploading files from the client to the server.

o Downloading files from the server to the client.

o Lis ng directory contents on the server.

o
How Data Connec ons Happen in FTP

1. Ini aliza on:

o The client establishes a control connec on with the server on port 21 to send
commands.

o Once a file transfer command is issued, a data connec on is established.

2. Data Connec on Setup:

o Ac ve Mode:

 The client opens a temporary port and sends its details to the server using
the PORT command.

 The server ini ates the connec on to the client’s specified port from its own
port 20.

o Passive Mode:

 The server opens a temporary port and sends its details to the client using
the PASV command.

 The client ini ates the connec on to the server’s specified port.

3. Data Transfer:

o Once the data connec on is established, files are transferred as either:

 Stream of bytes (default).

 Blocks with headers or metadata.

4. Closing the Connec on:

o A er the file transfer, the data connec on closes.

o The control connec on remains open for further commands unless explicitly
terminated.

Benefits of FTP's Dual Connec ons:

 Ensures that command communica on is separate from the actual data transfer, preven ng
conflicts.

 Provides flexibility in managing file transfers while maintaining session control【5†source】.

8.Domain Name System (DNS)

Defini on:
DNS is a system that translates human-friendly domain names (like www.google.com) into IP
addresses (like 142.250.64.78) so computers can communicate with each other over the Internet.

Key Points:

1. Purpose:
Makes it easy for users to access websites without remembering complex IP addresses.

2. Structure:

o DNS is hierarchical, like a tree.

o It includes:

 Generic domains (e.g., .com for commercial, .edu for educa on).

 Country domains (e.g., .in for India, .us for the USA).

3. Components:

o Resolvers: Programs that send queries to DNS servers.

o Name Servers: Store domain name and IP address mappings.

4. Working:

o When you type a domain name in a browser, the DNS:

1. Converts it into an IP address using a query process.

2. Connects your browser to the correct server to load the website.

5. Caching:

o DNS temporarily stores results for faster access.

o Uses a Time to Live (TTL) to manage cache validity.

6. Resolu on Methods:

o Recursive: DNS server finds the IP for you.

o Itera ve: DNS server gives the next server to query.

Example:
If you type www.google.com, DNS translates it into 142.250.64.78, enabling your browser to load the
site.
9. Workings of Electronic Mail (Email) and Key Protocols
Email is a system that allows users to send and receive messages electronically over a network. It
involves several components and protocols to ensure smooth communica on.

Workings of Email:

1. Sending an Email:

o The user composes an email using an email client (e.g., Outlook, Gmail).

o The email is sent to the sender’s mail server using the SMTP protocol.

2. Transfer Between Mail Servers:

o The sender’s mail server uses SMTP to transfer the email to the recipient's mail
server over the Internet.

o The email is stored in the recipient’s mailbox on the server.

3. Receiving an Email:

o The recipient’s email client retrieves the email from their mail server using protocols
like POP3 or IMAP.

4. Email Components:

o User Agent (UA): Used by the user to compose, send, and read emails.

o Message Transfer Agent (MTA): Transfers emails between servers.

o Message Access Agent (MAA): Retrieves emails from the server for the user.

Key Protocols in Email Communica on:

1. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):

 Purpose: Handles sending and transferring emails between mail servers.

 Working:

o Uses a client-server model.

o Email is sent in three phases:

1. Connec on Establishment: Client (sender’s mail server) connects to the

server (recipient’s mail server).

2. Mail Transfer: Email data (envelope, header, body) is transferred.

3. Connec on Termina on: The connec on is closed a er transfer.

 Limita ons: SMTP only supports sending emails, not retrieving them.
2. POP3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3):

 Purpose: Used to retrieve emails from the server to the client.

 Working:

o Downloads all emails from the server to the client.

o Emails can be deleted from the server a er downloading (in delete mode) or kept (in
keep mode).

 Advantages:

o Simple and works offline.

 Limita on: Doesn't allow synchroniza on across devices.

3. IMAP (Internet Mail Access Protocol):

 Purpose: Also retrieves emails but offers advanced features compared to POP3.

 Working:

o Emails remain on the server and can be accessed from mul ple devices.

o Allows crea ng folders, searching, and downloading specific parts of emails (e.g.,
a achments).

 Advantages:

o Be er for users who access emails on mul ple devices.

o Supports folder management and synchroniza on.

Email Example:

1. Alice sends an email to Bob:

o Alice uses an email client (e.g., Gmail) to send an email to Bob.

o The email goes through Alice’s mail server (SMTP) and is sent to Bob’s mail server.

o Bob retrieves the email using POP3 or IMAP.