2.

20 GIS
Value point encoding
• Cells are assigned position numbers starting in the upper left corner proceeding from
left to right and from top to bottom.
• The position no. for end of each run is stored in the point columns. The value for each
cell in the run is in the value column.

2.7.3. Quadtree
• Typical type of raster model is dividing area into equal-sized rectangular cells .
• However, many cases, variable sized grid cell size used for more compact raster
representation as shown figure.2.13.
• Larger cells used to represent large homogenous areas and smaller cells for finely
details.
• Process involves regularly subdividing a map into four equal sized quadrants.
Quadrant that has more than one class is again subdivided. Then; it is further
subdivided within each quadrant until a square is found to be so homogenous that it is
no longer needed to be divided.
• Then a Quadtree is prepared, resembling an inverted tree with “Root”, i.e., a point
from which all branches expand; Leaf is a lower most point and all other points in the
tree are nodes.

Fig.2.13. The Quadtree Representation

2.8. VECTOR DATA STRUCTURE

Geographic entities encoded using the vector data model, are often called features. The
features can be divided into two classes:
 Spatial Data Models 2.21
a) Simple features
These are easy to create, store and are rendered on screen very quickly. They lack
connectivity relationships and so are inefficient for modeling phenomena conceptualized as fields.

b) Topological features
A topology is a mathematical procedure that describes how features are spatially related
and ensures data quality of the spatial relationships. Topological relationships include following
three basic elements:

1) Connectivity: Information about linkages among spatial objects

2) Contiguity: Information about neighbouring spatial object
3) Containment: Information about inclusion of one spatial object within another spatial
object

2.8.1. Connectivity
Arc node topology defines connectivity - arcs are connected to each other if they share a
common node. This is the basis for many network tracing and path finding operations.

Arcs represent linear features and the borders of area features. Every arc has a from-node
which is the first vertex in the arc and a to-node which is the last vertex. These two nodes define
the direction of the arc. Nodes indicate the endpoints and intersections of arcs. They do not exist
independently and therefore cannot be added or deleted except by adding and deleting arcs.

Fig.2.14. Arc-node Topology

Nodes can, however, be used to represent point features which connect segments of a
linear feature (e.g., intersections connecting street segments, valves connecting pipe segments).

Fig.2.15. Node showing intersection

Arc-node topology is supported through an arc-node list. For each arc in the list there is a
from node and a to node. Connected arcs are determined by common node numbers.
2.22 GIS

Fig.2.16. Arc-Node Topology with list

2.8.2. Contiguity
Polygon topology defines contiguity. The polygons are said to be contiguous if they share
a common arc. Contiguity allows the vector data model to determine adjacency.

Fig2.17. Polygon Topology

The from node and to node of an arc indicate its direction, and it helps determining the
polygons on its left and right side. Left-right topology refers to the polygons on the left and right
sides of an arc. In the illustration above, polygon B is on the left and polygon C is on the right of
the arc 4.

Polygon A is outside the boundary of the area covered by polygons B, C and D. It is called
the external or universe polygon, and represents the world outside the study area. The universe
polygon ensures that each arc always has a left and right side defined.

2.8.3. Containment
Geographic features cover distinguishable area on the surface of the earth. An area is
represented by one or more boundaries defining a polygon.

Fig2.18. Polygon arc topology

 Spatial Data Models 2.23
The polygons can be simple or they can be complex with a hole or island in the middle. In
the illustration given below assume a lake with an island in the middle.

The lake actually has two boundaries, one which defines its outer edge and the other
(island) which defines its inner edge. An island defines the inner boundary of a polygon. The
polygon D is made up of arc 5, 6 and 7. The 0 before the 7 indicates that the arc 7 creates an
island in the polygon.

Polygons are represented as an ordered list of arcs and not in terms of X, Y coordinates.
This is called Polygon-Arc topology. Since arcs define the boundary of polygon, arc coordinates
are stored only once, thereby reducing the amount of data and ensuring no overlap of boundaries
of the adjacent polygons.

2.8.4. Simple Features

Point entities:
These represent all geographical entities that are positioned by a single XY coordinate
pair. Along with the XY coordinates the point must store other information such as what does the
point represent etc.

Line entities:
Linear features made by tracing two or more XY coordinate pair.
• Simple line: It requires a start and an end point.
• Arc: A set of XY coordinate pairs describing a continuous complex line. The shorter
the line segment and the higher the number of coordinate pairs, the closer the chain
approximates a complex curve.

Simple Polygons:
Enclosed structures formed by joining set of XY coordinate pairs. The structure is simple
but it carries few disadvantages which are mentioned below:
• Lines between adjacent polygons must be digitized and stored twice, improper
digitization give rise to slivers and gaps
• Convey no information about neighbour
• Creating islands is not possible

2.8.5. Topologic Features

Networks:
A network is a topologic feature model which is defined as a line graph composed of links
representing linear channels of flow and nodes representing their connections. The topologic
relationship between the features is maintained in a connectivity table. By consulting connectivity
table, it is possible to trace the information flowing in the network
2.24 GIS
Polygons with explicit topological structures:
Introducing explicit topological relationships takes care of islands as well as neighbours.
The topological structures are built either by creating topological links during data input or using
software. Dual Independent Map Encoding (DIME) system of US Bureau of the Census is one of
the first attempts to create topology in geographic data.

Fig.2.19. Polygon as a topological feature

• Polygons are formed using the lines and their nodes.
• Once formed, polygons are individually identified by a unique identification number.
• The topological information among the polygons is computed and stored using the
adjacency information (the nodes of a line, and identifiers of the polygons to the left
and right of the line) stored with the lines.

2.8.6. Fully topological polygon network structure

A fully topological polygon network structure is built using boundary chains that are
digitized in any direction. It takes care of islands and lakes and allows automatic checks for
improper polygons. Neighborhood searches are fully supported. These structures are edited by
moving the coordinates of individual points and nodes, by changing polygon attributes and by
cutting out or adding sections of lines or whole polygons. Changing coordinates require no
modification to the topology but cutting out or adding lines and polygons requires recalculation of
topology and rebuilding the database.

2.8.7. Triangular Irregular Network (TIN)

TIN represents surface as contiguous non-overlapping triangles created by performing
Delaunay triangulation. These triangles have a unique property that the circum circle that passes
through the vertices of a triangle contains no other point inside it. TIN is created from a set of
mass points with x, y and z coordinate values. This topologic data structure manages information
about the nodes that form each triangle and the neighbors of each triangle.
 Spatial Data Models 2.25

Fig.2.20. Delaunay Triangulation

Advantages of Delaunay triangulation

• The triangles are as equiangular as possible, thus reducing potential numerical
precision problems created by long skinny triangles
• The triangulation is independent of the order the points are processed
• Ensures that any point on the surface is as close as possible to a node

Because points can be placed irregularly over a surface a TIN can have higher resolution
in areas where surface is highly variable. The model incorporates original sample points providing
a check on the accuracy of the model. The information related to TIN is stored in a file or a
database table. Calculation of elevation, slope, and aspect is easy with TIN but these are less
widely available than raster surface models and more time consuming in term of construction and
processing.
2.26 GIS

The TIN model is a vector data model which is stored using the relational attribute tables.
A TIN dataset contains three basic attribute tables: Arc attribute table that contains length, from
node and to node of all the edges of all the triangles.

• Node attribute table that contains x, y coordinates and z (elevation) of the vertices
• Polygon attribute table that contains the areas of the triangles, the identification
number of the edges and the identifier of the adjacent polygons.
Storing data in this manner eliminated redundancy as all the vertices and edges are stored
only once even if they are used for more than one triangle. As TIN stores topological
relationships, the datasets can be applied to vector based geo-processing such as automatic
contouring, 3D landscape visualization, volumetric design, surface characterization etc.

2.9. RASTER VS VECTOR MODELS

The two primary types of spatial data are vector and raster data in GIS.

Data Model
The data model represents a set of guidelines to convert the real world (called entity) to
the digitally and logically represented spatial objects consisting of the attributes and geometry.
The attributes are managed by thematic or semantic structure while the geometry is represented by
geometric-topological structure.

There are two major types of geometric data model;

1) Vector Data Model
2) Raster Data Model

Vector Data Model: [data models] A representation of the world using points, lines, and
polygons (show in the figure 2.21). Vector models are useful for storing data that has discrete
boundaries, such as country borders, land parcels, and streets.

Raster Data Model: [data models] A representation of the world as a surface divided into
a regular grid of cells. Raster models are useful for storing data that varies continuously, as in an
aerial photograph, a satellite image, a surface of chemical concentrations, or an elevation surface.
 Spatial Data Models 2.27

Fig.2.21. Example – Raster Data and Vector Data

Fig .2.22. Example – Raster Data and Vector Data

Figure.2.23. Example – Vector Data and Vector Data

2.9.1. Vector Data

Vector data (Show in Fig.2.22) is not made up of a grid of pixels. Instead, vector graphics
are comprised of vertices and paths.

The three basic symbol types for vector data are

1) Points
2) Lines And
3) Polygons (areas).

Since the dawn of time, maps have been using symbols to represent real-world features. In
GIS terminology, real-world features are called spatial entities.

The cartographer decides how much data needs to be generalized in a map. This depends
on scale and how much detail will be displayed in the map. The decision to choose vector points,
lines or polygons is governed by the cartographer and scale of the map.
2.28 GIS
(1) Points

Fig.2.24. Point Vector Data Type

Point Vector Data Type: Simple XY Coordinates

Vector points are simply XY coordinates. When features are too small to be represented as
polygons, points are used indicate (fig.2.24.)

For Example: At a regional scale, city extents can be displayed as polygons because this
amount of detail can be seen when zoomed in. But at a global scale, cities can be represented
as points because the detail of city boundaries cannot be seen.

Vector data are stored as pairs of XY coordinates (latitude and longitude) represented as a
point. Complementary information like street name or date of construction could accompany it
in a table for its current use.

(2) Lines

Fig.2.25. Vector Data Type Line

Vector Data Type Line:
Connect the dots and it becomes a line feature. Vector lines connect vertices with paths
show in the fig (2.25). If you were to connect the dots in a particular order, you would end up
with a vector line feature.

Lines usually represent features that are linear in nature. Cartographers can use a different
thickness of line to show size of the feature. For Example, 500 meter Wide River may be
thicker than a 50 meter wide river. They can exist in the real-world such as roads or rivers. Or
they can also be artificial divisions such as regional borders or administrative boundaries.

Points are simply pairs of XY coordinates (latitude and longitude). When you connect
each point or vertex with a line in a particular order, they become a vector line feature.
Networks are line data sets but they are often considered to be different. This is because linear
networks are topologically connected elements. They consist of junctions and turns with
 Spatial Data Models 2.29
connectivity. If you were to find an optimal route using a traffic line network, it would follow
one-way streets and turn restrictions to solve an analysis. Networks are just that smart.

(3) Polygons

Fig.2.26. Vector Data Type Polygon

Vector Data Type Polygon: Connect the dots and enclose. It becomes a polygon feature
when a set of vertices are joined in a particular order and closed; they become a vector Polygon
feature shown the (fig.2.26). In order to create a polygon, the first and last coordinate pair is the
same and all other pairs must be unique. Polygons represent features that have a two-dimensional
area.

Examples of polygons are buildings, agricultural fields and discrete administrative areas.
Cartographers use polygons when the map scale is large enough to be represented as polygons.

2.9.2. Raster Types: Discrete vs Continuous

Raster data is made up of pixels (also referred to as grid cells). They are usually regularly-
spaced and square but they don’t have to be. Rasters often look pixelated because each pixel has
its own value or class.

For example:
Each pixel value in a satellite image has a red, green and blue value. Alternatively, each
value in an elevation map represents a specific height. It could represent anything from
rainfall to land cover.

Raster models are useful for storing data that varies continuously. For example, elevation
surfaces, temperature and lead contamination.

Raster data models consist of 2 categories – discrete and continuous.

2.30 GIS
2.9.3. Discrete Raster’s have Distinct Values
Discrete raster’s have distinct themes or categories. For example, one grid cell represents a
land cover class or a soil type.

In a discrete raster land cover/use map, you can distinguish each thematic class. Each class
can be discretely defined where it begins and ends. In other words, each land cover cell is
definable and it fills the entire area of the cell.

Discrete data usually consists of integers to represent classes. For example, the value 1
might represent urban areas; the value 2 represents forest and so on.

2.9.4. Continuous Rasters have Gradual Change

Continuous rasters (non-discrete) are grid cells with gradual changing data such as
elevation, temperature or an aerial photograph.

A continuous raster surface can be derived from a fixed registration point. For example,
digital elevation models use sea level as a registration point. Each cell represents a value above or
below sea level. As another example, aspect cell values have fixed directions such as north, east,
south or west.

Phenomena can gradually vary along a continuous raster from a specific source. In a raster
depicting an oil spill, it can show how the fluid moves from high concentration to low
concentration. At the source of the oil spill, concentration is higher and diffuses outwards with
diminishing values as a function of distance.

2.10. VECTOR VS RASTER: SPATIAL DATA TYPES

It’s not always straight-forward which spatial data type you should use for your maps.

In the end, it really comes down to the way in which the cartographer conceptualizes the
feature in their map.
 Spatial Data Models 2.31
• Do you want to work with pixels or coordinates? Raster data works with pixels.
Vector data consists of coordinates.
• What is your map scale? Vectors can scale objects up to the size of a billboard. But
you don’t get that type of flexibility with raster data
• Do you have restrictions for file size? Raster file size can result larger in comparison
with vector data sets with the same phenomenon and area.

2.10.1. Vector and Raster – Advantages and Disadvantages

There are several advantages and disadvantages for using either the vector or raster data
model to store spatial data. These are summarized below.

2.10.2. Vector Data:

Advantages:
• Data can be represented at its original resolution and form without generalization.
• Graphic output is usually more aesthetically pleasing (traditional cartographic
representation);
• Since most data, e.g. hard copy maps, is in vector form no data conversion is required.
• Accurate geographic location of data is maintained.
• Allows for efficient encoding of topology, and as a result more efficient operations
that require topological information, e.g. proximity, network analysis.
Disadvantages:
• The location of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly. For effective analysis, vector
data must be converted into a topological structure. This is often processing intensive
and usually requires extensive data cleaning. As well, topology is static, and any
updating or editing of the vector data requires re-building of the topology. Algorithms
for manipulative and analysis functions are complex and may be processing intensive.
Often, this inherently limits the functionality for large data sets, e.g. a large number of
features.
• Continuous data, such as elevation data, is not effectively represented in vector form.
Usually substantial data generalization or interpolation is required for these data
layers.
• Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is impossible

2.10.3. Raster Data

Advantages :
• The geographic location of each cell is implied by its position in the cell matrix.
Accordingly, other than an origin point, e.g. bottom left corner, no geographic
coordinates are stored.
• Due to the nature of the data storage technique data analysis is usually easy to program
and quick to perform.
2.32 GIS
• The inherent nature of raster maps, e.g. one attribute maps, is ideally suited for
mathematical modeling and quantitative analysis.
• Discrete data, e.g. forestry stands, is accommodated equally well as continuous data,
e.g. elevation data, and facilitates the integrating of the two data types.
• Grid-cell systems are very compatible with raster-based output devices, e.g.
electrostatic plotters, graphic terminals.

Disadvantages:
• The location of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly. For effective analysis, vector
data must be converted into a topological structure. This is often processing intensive
and usually requires extensive data cleaning. As well, topology is static, and any
updating or editing of the vector data requires re-building of the topology.
• Algorithms for manipulative and analysis functions are complex and may be
processing intensive. Often, this inherently limits the functionality for large data sets,
e.g. a large number of features.
• Continuous data; such as elevation data, is not effectively represented in vector form.
• Usually substantial data generalization or interpolation is required for these data
layers.
• Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is impossible.

2.11. TIN AND GRID DATA MODELS

TIN models
TIN stands for Triangular Irregular Network, which is a vector approach to handling a
digital elevation model. TIN’s are used to interpolate surfaces using multiple triangles. TIN’s are
able to interpolate surfaces by selecting representative points that are usually data points. TIN’s
connect these points to form a set of continuous and connected triangles. The data points consist
of X, Y and Z values. The final result gives users a TIN surface.

Advantages of TIN models

TIN’s give researchers the ability to view 2.5D and 3D at an area that was interpolated
from minimal data collection.
• Users can describe a surface at different levels of resolution based on the points that
were collected.
• TIN interpolation gives GIS users greater analytical capabilities. TIN models are easy
to create and use.
• They provide users a simplified model that represents collected data points.
• Using a TIN surface in conjunction with Arc-Map extensions such as Spatial Analysis
and 3D Analyst, TIN users can also derive slope, aspect, elevation, contour lines, hill
shades, etc.
 Spatial Data Models 2.33
2.11.1. Different Types of TIN Methods and Processes
There are many different types of TIN interpolation methods. Some of the most popular
TIN methods include:
• Natural Neighbour,
• Krigging,
• Spline,
• Nearest Neighbour and
• Inversed Distance Weighting.
These TIN interpolation methods use mathematical algorithms in order to generate
interpolated surfaces. Each of these methods will produce different types of surfaces.

The TIN model (Triangulated Irregular Network):

A triangulated irregular network (TIN) is a digital data structure used in a geographic
information system (GIS) for the representation of a surface.

A TIN is a vector based representation of the physical land surface or sea bottom, made up
of irregularly distributed nodes and lines with three dimensional coordinates (x,y, and z) that are
arranged in a network of non-overlapping triangles. TINs are often derived from the elevation data
of a rasterized digital elevation model (DEM).

Structure of TIN Data Model

The TIN model represents a surface as a series of linked triangles, hence the adjective
triangulated. Triangles are made from three points, which can occur at any location, giving the
adjective, irregular. For each triangle, TIN records:
• The triangle number
• The numbers of each adjacent triangle
• The three nodes defining the triangle
• The x, y coordinates of each node
• The surface z value of each node
• The edge type of each triangle edge (hard or soft)

2.11.2. Components of TIN:

Nodes:
Nodes are the fundamental building blocks of the TIN. The nodes originate from the
points and arc vertices contained in the input data sources. Every node is incorporated in the TIN
triangulation. Every node in the TIN surface model must have a z value.

Edges:
Every node is joined with its nearest neighbors by edges to form triangles, which satisfy
the Delaunay criterion. Each edge has two nodes, but a node may have two or more edges.
2.34 GIS
Because edges have a node with a z value at each end, it is possible to calculate a slope along the
edge from one node to the other.

TIN:
Advantages - ability to describe the surface at different level of resolution, efficiency in
storing data.

Disadvantages - in many cases require visual inspection and manual control of the
network.

Automated hill shading:

The TIN model of terrain representation lends itself to development of an automated
method of hill shading. Slope mapping is possible in TIN.

2.11.3. TIN Data Model

The Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) data model is an alternative to the raster and
vector data models for representing continuous surfaces. It allows surface models to be generated
efficiently to analyze and display terrain and other types of surfaces. The TIN model creates a
network of triangles by storing the topological relationships of the triangles. The fundamental
building block of the TIN data is the node. Nodes are connected to their nearest neighbors by
edges, according to a set of rules. Left-right topology is associated with the edges to identify
adjacent triangles.

The TIN creates triangles from a set of points called mass points, which always become
nodes. The user is not responsible for selecting; all the nodes are added according to a set of rules.
Mass points can be located anywhere, the more carefully selected, the more accurate the model of
the surface will be. Well-placed mass points occur when there is a major change in the shape of
the surface, for example, at the peak of a mountain, the floor of a valley, or at the edge (top and
bottom) of cliffs. By connecting points on a valley floor or along the edge of a cliff, a linear break
in the surface can be defined. These are called break lines. Break lines can control the shape of the
surface model.

They always form edges of triangles and, generally, cannot be moved. A triangle always
has three and only three straight sides, making their representation rather simple. A triangle is
assigned a unique identifier that defines by its three nodes and its two or three neighboring
triangles.

TIN is a vector-based topological data model that is used to represent terrain data. A TIN
represents the terrain surface as a set of interconnected triangular facets. For each of the three
vertices, the XY (geographic location) and the (elevation) Z values are encoded.

Four Tables for TIN Model

• Node Table it lists each triangle and the nodes which define it.
• Edge Table it lists three triangles adjacent to each facets. The triangles that border the
boundary of the TIN show only two adjacent facets.
 Spatial Data Models 2.35
• XY Co-ordinate Table it lists the co-ordinate values of each node.
• Z Table it is the altitude value of each node.

2.12. GRID/LUNR/MAGI
In this model each grid cell is referenced or addressed individually and is associated with
identically positioned grid cells in all other coverage’s, rather than like a vertical column of grid
cells, each dealing with a separate theme. Comparisons between coverage’s are therefore
performed on a single column at a time. Soil attributes in one coverage can be compared with
vegetation attributes in a second coverage. Each soil grid cell in one coverage can be compared
with a vegetation grid cell in the second coverage. The advantage of this data structure is that it
facilitates the multiple coverage analysis for single cells. However, this limits the examination of
spatial relationships between entire groups or themes in different coverage’s.

2.12.1. Imgrid GIS

To represent a thematic map of land use that contains four categories: recreation,
agriculture, industry and residence, each of these features have to be separated out as an individual
layer. In the layer that represents agriculture 1 or 0 will represent the presence or absence of crops
respectively. The rest of layer will be represented in the same way, with each variable referenced
directly. The major advantage of IMGRID is its two-dimensional array of numbers resembling a
map-like structure. The binary character of the information in each coverage simplifies long
computations and eliminates the need for complex map legends. Since each coverage feature is
uniquely identified, there is no limitation of assigning a single attribute value to a single grid cell.
On the other side, the main problem related to information storage in an IMGRID structure is the
excessive volume of data stored. Each grid cell will contain more than 1 or 0 values from more
than one coverage and a large number of coverages are needed to store different types of
information.
2.36 GIS
2.13. OPEN GEOSPATIAL CONSORTIUM (OGC)
The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC), an international voluntary consensus standards
organization, originated in 1994. In the OGC, more than 500 commercial, governmental, nonprofit
and research organizations worldwide collaborate in a consensus process encouraging
development and implementation of open standards for geospatial content and services, sensor
web and Internet of Things, GIS data processing and data sharing.

2.13.1. Standards
Most of the OGC standards depend on a generalized architecture captured in a set of
documents collectively called the Abstract Specification, which describes a basic data model for
representing geographic features. Atop the Abstract Specification members have developed and
continue to develop a growing number of specifications, or standards to serve specific needs for
interoperable location and geospatial technology, including GIS.

The OGC standards baseline comprises more than thirty standards, including:

• CSW – Catalog Service for the Web: access to catalog information

• GML – Geography Mark-up Language: XML-format for geographical information
• Geo-XACML – Geospatial eXtensible Access Control Mark-up Language
• KML – Keyhole Mark-up Language: XML-based language schema for expressing
geographic annotation and visualization on existing (or future) Web-based, two-
dimensional maps and three-dimensional Earth browsers
• Observations and Measurements
• OGC Reference Model – a complete set of reference models
• OLS – Open Location Service (Open-LS)
• OGC Web Services Context Document defines the application state of an OGC
Integrated Client
• OWS – OGC Web Service Common
• SOS – Sensor Observation Service
• SPS – Sensor Planning Service
• Sensor-ML – Sensor Model Language
• Sensor Things API - an open and unified framework to interconnect IoT devices, data,
and applications over the Web. Currently a candidate standard waiting for votes.
• SFS – Simple Features – SQL
 Spatial Data Models 2.37

Fig.2.27. Relationship between clients/servers and OGC protocols

• SLD - Styled Layer Descriptor
• SRID, an identification for spatial coordinate systems
• Water-ML – Information model for the representation of hydrological observation
data
• WCS – Web Coverage Service: provides access, sub setting, and processing
on coverage objects
• WCPS – Web Coverage Processing Service: provides a raster query language for ad-
hoc processing and filtering on raster coverage’s
• WFS – Web Feature Service: for retrieving or altering feature descriptions
• WMS – Web Map Service: provides map images
• WMTS – Web Map Tile Service: provides map image tiles
• WPS – Web Processing Service: remote processing service
• Geo-SPARQL – Geographic SPARQL Protocol and RDF Query
Language: representation and querying of geospatial data for the Semantic Web
2.38 GIS
• WTS – Web Terrain Service (WTS)
The design of standards were originally built on the HTTP web services paradigm for
message-based interactions in web-based systems, but meanwhile has been extended with a
common approach for SOAP protocol and WSDL bindings. Considerable progress has been made
in defining Representational State Transfer (REST) web services, e.g., OGC Sensor Things API.

2.14. SPATIAL DATA QUALITY

Introduction
GIS developers and users have paid little attention to the problems caused by error,
inaccuracy and imprecision in spatial data sets. There was awareness that all data suffers from
inaccuracy and imprecision, but effects on GIS problems and solutions were not considered. It is
now generally recognized that error, inaccuracy and imprecision can “make or break” GIS
projects-making the results of a GIS analysis worthless. Spatial analyses done manually can easily
align map boundaries to overlap and be registered. An automated GIS cannot do this, unless it is
programmed to recognize the “undershoots, overshoots, and slivers” to connect lines. The level of
the data quality must be made clear for the GIS to operate correctly. Assessing the quality of the
data, however, may be costly. Data quality generally refers to the relative accuracy and precision
of a particular GIS database. Error encompasses both the imprecision of data and its inaccuracies.

Although the term "garbage in, garbage out" certainly applies to GIS data, there are other
important data quality issues besides the input data that need to be considered.

2.14.1. Components of Data Quality

There are three main components of data quality.
(i) Micro level components
(ii) Macro level components
(iii) Usage components.

Micro Level Components

Micro level components are data quality factors that pertain to the individual data
elements. These components are usually evaluated by statistical testing of the data product against
an independent source of higher quality information. They include positional accuracy, attribute
accuracy and logical consistency given as follows:
a) Position Accuracy
b) Attribute Accuracy
c) Logical Consistency

Position Accuracy
Position accuracy is the expected deviance in the geographical location of an object in the
data set (e.g. on a map) from its true ground position. Selecting a specified sample of points in a
prescribed manner and comparing the position coordinates with an independent and more accurate
 Spatial Data Models 2.39
source of information usually test it. There are two components to position accuracy: the bias and
the precision.

Attribute Accuracy
Attributes may be discrete or continuous variables. A discrete variable can take on only a
finite number of values whereas a continuous variable can take on any number of values.
Categories like land use class, vegetation type, or administrative area are discrete variables. They
are, in effect, ordered categories where the order indicates the hierarchy of the attribute.

Logical Consistency
Logical consistency refers to how well logical relations among data elements are
maintained. It also refers to the fidelity of relationships encoded in the database, they may refer to
the geometric structure of the data model (e.g. topologic consistency) or to the encoded attribute
information e.g. semantic consistency).

Macro Level Components

Macro level components of data quality pertain to the data set as a whole. They are not
generally amenable to testing but instead are evaluated by judgment (in the case of completeness)
or by reporting information about the data, such as the acquisition date. Three major macro level
components are:
a) Completeness
b) Time
c) Lineage

(a) Completeness
Completeness refers to the exhaustiveness of the information in terms of spatial and
attribute properties encoded in the database. It may include information regarding feature
selection criteria, definition and mapping rules and the deviations from them. The tests on
spatial completeness may be obtained from topological test used for logical consistency
whereas the test for attribute completeness is done by comparison of a master list of geo-codes
to the codes actually appearing in the database.

There are several aspects to completeness as it pertains to data quality. They are grouped
here into three categories: completeness of coverage, classification and verification.

The completeness of coverage is the proportion of data available for the area of interest.

Completeness of classification is an assessment of how well the chosen classification is

able to represent the data. For a classification to be complete it should be exhaustive, that is it
should be possible to encode all data at the selected level of detail.

Completeness of verification refers to the amount and distribution of field measurements

or other independent sources of information that were used to develop the data.
2.40 GIS
(b) Time
Time is a critical factor in case of any type of data. Some data will be significantly biased
depending on the time period over which they are collected.

Example:
Demographic information is usually very time sensitive. It can change significantly
over a year. Land cover will change quickly in an area of rapid urbanization.

(c) Lineage
The lineage of a data set is its history, the source data and processing steps used to
produce it. The source data may include transaction records, field notes etc. Ideally, some
indication of lineage should be included with the data set since the internal documents are
rarely available and usually require considerable expertise to evaluate. Unfortunately, lineage
information most often exists as the personal experience of a few staff members and is not
readily available to most users.

2.14.2. Usage Components

The usage components of data quality are specific to the resources of the organization.
The effect of data cost, for example, depends on the financial resources of the organization. A
given data set may be too expensive for one organization and be considered inexpensive by
another.

Accessibility refers to the ease of obtaining and using the data. The accessibility of a data
set may be restricted because the data are privately held. Access to government-held information
may be restricted for reasons of national security or to protect citizen rights. Census data are
usually restricted in this way. Even when the right to use restricted data can be obtained, the time
and effort needed to actually receive the information may reduce its overall suitability.

The direct cost of a data set purchased from another organization is usually well known: it
is the price paid for the data. However, when the data are generated within the organization, the
true cost may be unknown. Assessing the true cost of these data is usually difficult because the
services and equipment used in their production support other activities as well.

The indirect costs include all the time and materials used to make use of the data. When
data are purchased from another organization, the indirect costs may actually be more significant
than the direct ones.

It may take longer for staff to handle data with which they are unfamiliar, or the data
may not be compatible with the other data sets to be used.

2.14.3. Causes of Error

In this section, it is examined when and how errors creep into GIS data. The three major
causes of GIS data error are problems found in (i) source data, (ii) data entry and (iii) data
analysis.
 Spatial Data Models 2.41
Errors in Source Data
It has become common now to collect GIS data directly in the field. Data collection can be
done using field survey instruments that download data directly into GIS or via GPS receivers that
directly interface with GIS software on portable PCs. These techniques can eliminate the need for
GIS source data.

But during the last many years, GIS data most often have been digitized from several
sources, including hard copy maps, rectified aerial photography and satellite imagery. Hard-copy
maps (e.g. paper, vellum and plastic film) may contain unintended production errors as well as
unavoidable or even intended errors in presentation. The following are "errors" commonly found
in maps.

2.14.4. Map Generalization

Cartographers often deliberately misrepresent map features due to limitations encountered
when working at given map scales. Complex area features such as industrial buildings may have
to be represented as simple shapes. Linear features such as roads may have to be represented by
parallel lines that appear wider on a map. Curvilinear features such as streams may have to be
represented without their smaller twists and bends.

Indistinct Boundaries
Indistinct boundaries typically include the borders of vegetated areas, soil types, wetlands
and land use areas. In the real world, such features are characterized by gradual change, but
cartographers represent these boundaries with a distinct line. Some compromise is inevitable.

Map Scale
Cartographers and photogrammetrists work to accepted levels of accuracy for a given map
scale as per National Map Accuracy Standards. Locations of map features may disagree with
actual ground locations, although the error likely will fall within specified tolerances. Of course,
the problem is compounded by limitations in linear map measurements-typically about 1/100th of
an inch on a map scale.

Map Symbology
It is impossible to perfectly depict the real world using lines, colors, symbols and patterns.
Cartographers work with certain accepted conventions. As a result, facts and features represented
on maps often must be interpreted or interpolated, which can produce errors. For example, terrain
elevations typically are depicted using topographic contour lines and spot elevations. Elevations
of the ground between the lines and spots must be interpolated. Also, areas symbolized as "forest"
may not depict all open areas among the trees.

Errors during Data Entry

GIS data typically are created from hard copy source data. The process often is called
"digitization", because the source data are converted to a computerized (digital) format. Human
digitization can compound errors in source data as well as introduce new errors. The following are
the primary methods of digitizing hard copy source data:
2.42 GIS
Manual Digitizing
Although manual digitizing is used less often today, it was the predominant digitizing
method in the 1980s. Maps are affixed to digitizing tables, registered to a GIS coordinate system
and "traced" into a GIS. A digitizing table has embedded in its surface a fine grid of wires that
sense the position of a cross hair on a hand held cursor. When a cursor button is pressed, the
system records a point at that location in the GIS database. The operator also identifies the type of
feature being digitized as well as its attributes.

Photogrammetric mapping also is a manual digitizing process. Through an exacting and

rigorous technical process of aerotriangulation, overlapping pairs of aerial photographs are
registered to one another and viewed as a 3-D image in a stereoplotter or via special 3-D viewers.
In a process called "stereocompilation," a photogrammetrist traces map features that are encoded
directly into a database.

Scanning and Keyed Data Entry

In scanning, source data are mechanically read by a device that resembles a large format
copy machine. Sensors encode the image as a large array of dots, much like a fax machine scans a
letter. High resolution scanners can capture data at 2,000 dots per inch (dpi), but maps and
drawings typically are scanned at 100 dpi to 400 dpi. The resulting raster image then is processed
and displayed on a computer screen. Further onscreen manual digitizing (i.e. "heads-up
digitizing") usually is needed to complete the data entry process. If the source data contain
coordinate values for points or the bearings and distances of lines (e.g. parcel lines), then map
features can be keyed into a GIS with great precision.

General Data Entry

Accurate digitizing is not easy. It requires certain basic physical and visual skills as well
as training, patience and concentration. There also are many opportunities for error, because the
process is subject to visual and mental mistakes, fatigue, distraction and involuntary muscle
movements. In addition, the "set up" of a map on a digitizing table or a scanned raster image can
produce errors. Cell size of a scanned raster image also can affect the accuracy of heads- up
digitizing.

A digitizer must accurately discern the centre of a line or point as well as accurately trace
it with a cursor. This task is especially prone to error if the map scale is small and the lines or
symbols are relatively thick or large. The method of digitizing curvilinear lines also affects
accuracy. "Point-mode" digitizing, for example, places sample points at selected locations along a
line to best represent it in a GIS. The process is subject to judgment of the digitizer who selects
the number and placement of data points. "Stream-mode" digitizing collects data points at a pre-
set frequency, usually specified as the distance or time between data points. Every time an
operator strays from an intended line, a point digitized at that moment would be inaccurate. This
method also collects more data points than may be needed to faithfully represent a map feature.
Therefore, post-processing techniques often are used to "weed out" unneeded data points.

Heads-up digitizing often is preferred over table digitizing, because it typically yields
better results more efficiently. Keyed data entry of land parcel data is the most precise method.
Moreover, most errors are fairly obvious, because the source data usually are carefully computed
 Spatial Data Models 2.43
and thoroughly checked. Most keyed data entry errors show as obvious mismatches in the parcel
"fabric."

GIS software usually includes functions that detect several types of database errors. These
error-checking routines can find mistakes in data topology, including gaps, overshoots, dangling
lines and unclosed polygons. An operator sets tolerances that the routine uses to search for errors,
and system effectiveness depends on setting correct tolerances. For example, tolerances too small
may pass over unintentional gaps, and tolerances too large may improperly remove short dangling
lines or small polygons that were intentionally digitized.

Errors during Data Analysis

Even if "accurate," the manipulation and analysis of GIS data can create errors introduced
within the data or produced when the data are displayed on screen or plotted in hard copy format.

2.14.5. Sources of Possible Errors

Obvious Sources of Error
1) Age of data. With the exception of geological data the reliability decreases with age.
2) Areal coverage: partial or complete. Many countries still have fragmentary coverage
of maps at scales of 1:25000 to 1:50000. Moreover, during the last 30 to 40 years,
concepts and definitions of map units, the way they should be mapped have changed.
3) Map scale.
4) Density of observation. How dense should observations be "to support a map".
5) Relevance. Not all data used are directly relevant for the purpose for which they are
used. Prime example: remotely sensed data.
6) Accessibility. Not all data are equally accessible (e.g. military secrecy). Sometimes
data is not available because of inter-department secrecy.
7) Cost.

Errors Resulting from Natural Variations or from Original Measurement

a) Positional accuracy. Topographical data often available with a high degree of
positional accuracy. But position of vegetation boundaries etc. often influenced by the
subjective judgment of surveyor or by interpretation of remotely sensed data.
b) Accuracy of content: qualitative and quantitative. The problem of whether the
attributes attached to points, lines or polygons are correct and free from bias.
Sometimes systematic errors occur because of instrument. If pixel is too large then it is
not clear that it should be classified as forest, road or camp.
c) Sources of variations in data: data entry, observer bias, natural variation. Data entry
error. Field data very much influenced by surveyor (elevations or census takers).
d) Errors arising through processing. Numerical errors in the computer (e.g. joining,
matching of a field in GIS software), rounding off errors, truncation etc.
2.44 GIS
Numerical Errors in Computers
1) Faults arising through topological analyses. Problems associated with map overlay.
Digitizing considered infallible. Boundary data is assumed to be sharply defined. All
algorithms are assumed to operate in a fully deterministic way.
2) Classification and generalization problems: class intervals, interpolation.
The concepts of complete, compatible, consistent and applicable GIS data previously
defined particularly apply to data analysis. Users must consider whether a selected GIS dataset is
complete, consistent and applicable for an intended use, and whether it is compatible with other
datasets used in the analysis.

The phrasing of spatial and attribute queries also may lead to errors. In addition, the use of
Boolean operators can be complicated, and results can be decidedly different, depending on how a
data query is structured or a series of queries are executed. For example, the query, "Find all
structures within the 100 year flood zone," yields a different result than, "Find all structures
touching the 100 year flood zone." The former question will find only those structures entirely
within the flood zone, whereas the latter also will include structures that are partially within the
zone.

Dataset overlay is a powerful and commonly used GIS tool, but it can yield inaccurate
results. To determine areas suitable for a specific type of land development project, one may
overlay several data layers, including natural resources, wetlands, flood zones, land uses, land
ownership and zoning. The result usually will narrow the possible choices down to a few parcels
that would be investigated more carefully to make a final choice. The final result of the analysis
will reflect any errors in the original GIS data. Its accuracy only will be as good as the least
accurate GIS dataset used in the analysis.

It is also common to overlay and merge GIS data to form new layers. In certain
circumstances, this process introduces a new type of error: the polygon "sliver." Slivers often
appear when two GIS datasets with common boundary lines are merged. If the common elements
have been digitized separately, the usual result will be sliver polygons. Most GIS software
products offer routines that can find and fix such errors, but users must be careful in setting search
and correction tolerances.

2.14.6. Controlling Errors

GIS data errors are almost inevitable, but their negative effects can be kept to a minimum.
Knowing the types and causes of GIS data errors is half the battle; the other half is employing
proven techniques for quality control at key stages in the GIS "work flow."

Many errors can be avoided through proper selection and "scrubbing" of source data
before they are digitized. Data scrubbing includes organizing, reviewing and preparing the source
materials to be digitized. The data should be clean, legible and free of ambiguity. "Owners" of
source data should be consulted as needed to clear up questions that arise.

Data entry procedures should be thoroughly planned, organized and managed to produce
consistent, repeatable results. Nonetheless, a thorough, disciplined quality review and revision
process also is needed to catch and eliminate data entry errors. All production and quality control
 Spatial Data Models 2.45
procedures should be documented, and all personnel should be trained in these procedures.
Moreover, the work itself should be documented, including a record of what was done, who did it,
when was it done, who checked it, what errors were found and how they were corrected.

To avoid misusing GIS data and the misapplication of analytical software, GIS analysts
including casual users need proper training. Moreover, GIS data should not be provided without
metadata indicating the source, accuracy and specifics of how the data were entered.