UNIT-2

2. Structural Geomorphology[10 hrs]

Global geomorphology
Processes and landforms
associated with plate margins
Mineral stability series, Physical
Weathering Slope stability, Landforms
associated with slope
Physical Weathering
Slope stability, Landforms associated with slope
Physical and chemical weathering go on constantly and
simultaneously in most environments. Physical
weathering makes rocks more susceptible to chemical
weathering by creating more surface area for chemical
attack
Rock weathering:
The sum total effect of the disintegration and decomposition of the
rocks of the crust is known as “weathering”. This weathering is
nothing but break down of rocks by the action of water and
related agencies. Weathering is a slow process and it cannot be
observed, but its effects are seen.
For eg: Evidence of old buildings, walls, old temples.
Disintegration: Mechanical weathering, this
process cause mechanical disruption of rock.
Decomposition: Chemical weathering this cause
decays of the rocks due to chemical reaction.
Types of Weathering: 1) Physical or
Mechanical Weathering, 2) Chemical
Weathering, and 3) Biological Weathering
Physical weathering: is a type of weathering
in which rocks and minerals break down into
smaller pieces. This weathering does not involve
any change in a rock’s composition, only changes
in the size and shape of the rock.
A variety of factors are involved in physical
weathering, including changes in temperature and
mechanical actions such as crystallization (growth
of crystals),splitting effect of freezing water, the
root system of plants
physical weathering can be classified in to two
major parts as thermal and mechanical
weathering.
Thermal Weathering: This is the most common
type of weathering due to temperature fluctuation
which causes non uniform heating and cooling of
rocks result in volume changes of the rock
constituents.
Mechanical Weathering: This involves breaking down
of rocks in smaller pieces without changing the
composition of the rock. It is also called as
“Disintegration or physical weathering”.
The important agents of mechanical weathering are:
1) Heating and cooling 2) Action of frost 3) Action of organisms.
1) Heating and cooling:
Particularly arid (hot) region rocks heated to high
temperature during day by solar energy, the rock expand
in volume. Rapid cooling during night result contraction.
The repeated expansion and contraction tends to develop
cracks in the rocks. The mineral constituents of the rock
produce disintegration of the rock itself. The rock is
found to break off into outer layer or slabs. Which are
large sheets of rocks peeled off from the rock masses.
2)Action of frost:
In cold regions the rain water that collects in the
cracks and fissures found on rocks gets freeze, when
the temperature falls below the freezing point
expands 10% of the compared original volume.
There exerts great pressure onthe walls of the crack.
By this process angular fragments of rock are broken
into pieces. This types of disintegration are very
common in rocks of steep mountains with plenty of
joints. The broken fragments roll down the
mountain slopes and collect at foot of the mountain
as “scree” or “Talus”. These accumulated deposits
will be transported later by river or Glaciers.
3)Action of organisms: Plants and animals also play
and important role in mechanical weathering of rocks
plant roots grow into cracks and joints and push the rock
into fragments. The burrowing animals such as
earthworm, assents & rodents also contribute to the
disintegration of rocks. Man also breaks the rocks by
making road cutting, tunneling, quarrying and mining.
 Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering (chemical decomposition) is
the breakdown of rocks by the chemical alteration
of the constituent minerals. It involves several
important reactions between the devlopement in
the atmosphere and those in the minerals of Earth’s
crust. In these processes the internal structures of
original minerals are destroyed, and new minerals
are formed with new crystal structures that are
stable under conditions at Earth’s surface.
The chemical reactions involved in the
decomposition of Rocks are complex but three main
groups are recognized:
 Oxidation, Hydrolysis, Dissolution 8
Oxidation: Addition of oxygen ions to the chemical
composition of the rocks is known as “oxidation”.The
combination of atmospheric oxygen with a mineral to
produce an oxide. Oxidation is a slow process unless
water is present and most oxidation is carried out by
oxygen dissolved in water. During oxidation
ferromagnesian minerals such as olivine, pyroxenes,
amphibole, Biotite are altered. Irons in these minerals
combine with oxygen to form the reddish iron oxide
haematite (Fe2O3) or the yellowish hydroxide limonite-
Fe2O3 . 2H2O EX: Mineral pyrite (FeS2) common accessory
constituent is altered to limonite (Fe2O3 . 2H2O) by this
reaction
Pyrite + water —> limonite + sulphuric acid
FeS2 + H2O —> Fe2O3 . 2H2O + H2SO4 9
This dil.Sulphuric acid further corrode the carbonate
rocks(limestone).The iron oxide so formed might exist
as coating or stain or grain in weathering zone. The
most familiar rusting is nothing but oxidation.
Hydrolysis: In some cases of decomposition of minerals,
instead of water molecule, only the hydrogen part of
water enters into the mineral structure. This is called
HydrolysisThe process of chemical reaction of minerals
with water involving the action of H+ and OH- ions and
accelerated by the presence of CO2. Hydrolysis is an
important process in the hydrolysis of feldspar. Where
the final products are clay minerals and colloidal silica,
the later going into solution.
The chemical weathering of k-feldspar by hydrolysis to
give clay (kaolinite) occurs as follow: 10
2KAlsi3O8+2H++HCO-3+H2O=Al2Si2O5(OH)4+2K
+2HCO3- + 4SiO2
b)Carbonation (dissolution): When CO2 is dissolved in
water, weak carbonic acid (H2CO3) is formed which
increase the solubility of water. The solvent action of
water containing H2CO3 is more effective in terrain made
up of limestone, gypsum and salt deposits..
The reaction of H2CO3 on lime stone given below:
Limestone + Carbonic acid —> Calcium bicarbonate
CaCO3 + H2CO3 —> Ca(HCO3)2
The formed calcium bicarbonate is easily soluble in water
and removed in solution .The removed of the the more
soluble materials by percolating water through rocks is
called “leaching” . So among different liquids water is
the most powerful corroding and leaching agent.
Biological Weathering :
The remains of plants and animals may be
decomposed by the action of microscopic organisms
like bacteria. These micro-organisms also respire and
contribute CO2 to the weathering environment.
– plants and animals contribute to weathering.
Roots physically break or wedge rock
Lichens (algae and fungi living as single unit), remove
minerals and weaken rock by releasing acids
Burrowing animals can increase weathering.

Lichens
Spheroidal weathering:
The water containing dissolved gases enter the joints
or fissures in rocks and attack joints block from all
the sides causes peripheral expansion in rocks. As a
result the edges and corners of the joint blocks are
removed and assume the rock mass in spherical
shape. Further attack of water charged chemicals the
spherical mass develops a skin of weathering
material like peels of the rock masses, usually yellow
brown colour. The angular blocks are transformed
into spherical masses covered by layers of
decomposed material resembling that of onion or
cabbage. This type of weathering is known as
“Spheroidal weathering” or “onion weathering” or
“Exfoliation” Eg: Dolerite and Basalts.
 •Exfoliation – due to thermal expansion/contraction
and/or release of pressure when buried rocks are
uplifted and exposed
e.g., Exfoliation Dome (Stone Mountain, GA) and
Exfoliation Sheets (Sierra Nevada)
 weathering effect of rocks
As rock weathers:
its porosity increases
it begins to hold moisture
its mineral loose their lustre
cracks appear between the crystals
it softens to the point at which it can
scratch with knife , ultimately with
finger nail
it becomes weak enough to break in
hand
15
 Slope stability :
Mass wasting (mass movement) is movement in
which bed rock, rock debris, or soil moves down
slope in bulk, or as mass, because of the pull of
gravity. Mass wasting includes movement so slow that
it is almost imperceptible.
 LANDSLIDE :
A landslide is a slow or sudden downhill movement of
slope forming rock and soil material under the force of
gravity. Landslides or slope failures are natural erosion
process. Landslides causes, when the stability of a slope
change from stable to unstable condition. A change in
stability of slope can caused by number of factors , acting
together or alone .
16
The natural causes of landslides occur in hillsides, valley slopes,
seacoasts, riverbanks and bends, on the slope of volcanic cones
and in earthquake prone areas. They also occur underneath as on
lake or sea floor. Man in his urban and regional development
activities also trigger landslides. Such as excavations, fills
quarries, cuttings of roads, railway and canals etc. Landslides as
natural erosion process not only modify the existing topography
and landscape, they also cause immense damages to manmade
structures and heavy loss of life.

17
 Slope processes and types of landslides
•Falling,
type of •flowing, or
movement: •sliding.
Landslides Some classification schemes
distinguished emphasize rate of movement-
based on
type of material bedrock, soils slow or rapid.
sliding: /sediments or
mixture of both

1. Fall-involves a very rapid downward movement of earth

material. Rock falls occur when a piece of rock on a steep slope
becomes dislodged and falls down the slope .
Debris falls: are similar, except they involve a mixture of soil,
regolith, and rocks.
Rock fall: may be a single rock, or a mass of rocks, and the
falling rocks can dislodge other rocks as they collide with the
cliff. At the base of most cliffs is an accumulation of fallen
material termed talus. 18
2. Flows-move at variable rates, consist of
unconsolidated material, and resemble a viscous fluid.
•Most flows occur during or after period of heavy rainfall.
•Movement can occur on fairly gentle slopes and cover
distance of several kilometers.
3. Slides-involves very rapid to very slow movement
along surface of shear failure.
•Two basic patterns of movement are associated with
slides- Rotational slide/slump and Translation slide.
•Translation slides: occur along planes of weakness,
such as bedding planes, fractures and clay lamina.
•The slip surface follows the plane of weakness.
•Rotational slide: the slip surface, or surface of rapture,
is concave upward or spoon-shaped, leading to a
backward rotation in the displaced mass
19
 Cause of Landslides
A. Gravity
• The main force responsible for mass wasting is gravity.
• Gravity is the force that acts everywhere on the Earth's surface,
pulling everything in a direction toward the center of the Earth.
• So long as the material remains on the flat surface it will not move
under the force of gravity.
• On a slope, the force of gravity can be resolved into two components:
a component acting perpendicular to the slope and a component acting
tangential to the slope.
components of the force of gravity

20
 B. Slope stability
• Mechanism of slide (slope stability): Driving force working against
resisting force. A material will slide when the component of force
caused by gravity and directed downward the inclined plain is greater
than the friction force holding the material in place.

Resisting Force (shear strength)

Safety factor =
(FS)
Driving force
(shear stress)

 if resisting force > Driving force, stable slope

 if Driving force > resisting force, unstable slope

21
 Landslides occur because the force creating movement, the
disturbing forces (MD), exceeds those resisting it, the resisting
force (MR), that is, the shear strength of the material concerned.
In general terms the stability of the slope may be defined by a
factor of safety (F) where:
F= MR/MD
If the factor of safety exceeds one, then the slope is stable,
whereas if it is less than one, the slope is unstable
“SF” is the safety factor.
The driving forces include:
• The weight of the material
• The gradient of the slope
• Ground vibration
Resisting forces include:
• Strength
• Cohesion of the material
• Friction
22
.
The factors leading to landslide may be viewed as
either external or internal
The most common external factors are:
1. steep topographic slope
2. removal of support at the toe/slope
modification
3. overloading the crown of the slope
4. ground vibration
5. Change in vegetation cover.
These factors may be related to natural process
and/or human activities.

23
Most common internal factors are
1. An increase in moisture content as it relates to weight and
pore-water pressure
2. structures such as bedding planes, joints, foliation,
cleavage, faults, cavities, etc
3. composition, such as the presence of water soluble
minerals and expansible clays
4. Weathering by solution, hydration, freeze-thaw, and so on.
Preventative Measures of Landslides :
Many methods for controlling the slides are available and
choice of many methods will depend of factors like nature of
slide, the underlying cause for it, the nature and amount of
materials involved and the economical consideration, of such
method most important are.
1)Providing adequate drainage 2)Construction of retaining
walls 3)slope treatment 24
Providing adequate drainage :-
It involves the removal of moisture from within the rocks as well
as preventing any further moisture to approach the material to
sliding this may be achieved either by surface drainage or by
subsurface drainage; construction of interpretation ditches,
waterways, trenches and drainage tunnels may become
necessary. Grouting the joints and other fractures may also
prove helpful.
Retaining structure :-
All such devices like construction of retaining wall etc. are aimed
at stopping the moving mass by force and their success is always
doubtful. Construction of retaining wall requires an accurate
assessment of the forces, which the wall has to withstand.
Retaining walls may prove exceptionally, successful where,
a) The ground is neither too fine nor too plastic
b) The sliding mass is likely to remain dry
c)The movement is of shallow nature
Slope treatment:-
When the material is soil & situation is a slope the
failure is attributed to a loss of stability. In such cases
the treatment involves stability for the particular type
of soil and slope and if such computation indicate that a
given slope of soil will not be stable then the solution
lies in either.
a) Flattening the slope
b) Decreasing the load
c) Increasing the shearing resistant of the soil by
decreasing its water content with help of drains and
evaporation
d) A forestation that is growth of vegetation cover with
intricate and interwoven root system has also been
found useful in stabilizing the barren slopes.
 Landforms associated with slope :
Landforms associated with faults

Escarpment
RIDGE FAULT :- A Fault system consisting of a pair of
normal faults whose fault planes are inclined away from
each other with a common up throw side in between.
The up throw side of a ridge fault system forms a
conspicuous inverted wedge shaped ridge parallel to
the fault plane, generally long compared to its width
called ridge or a horst.
TROUGH FAULT :- A fault system consisting of a pair of
normal faults whose fault planes are inclined towards
each other with a common down throw side in
between, the down throw side of troughs fault system
forms a long trench of depression parallel to the fault
planes, general long compared to its width called fault
basin or graben of a rift valley.
 Graben
Fault escarpments
 Escarpment & Talus Slope
• Escarpment: sharp drop-off from a higher elevation to a lower
one. It may be called a cliff.
• Talus slope: deposited materials at the base of an escarpment –
the result of mass wasting .
• The broken fragments roll down the mountain slopes and collect
at foot of the mountain as “scree” or “Talus”. These accumulated
deposits will be transported later by river or Glaciers.

Escarpment Escarpment

Talus slopes
 Rift Valley
escarpment
The road down
the coastal
escarpment
(Serra da Leba,
Angola).
 Plate Boundaries
• There are three different plate boundaries:
Divergent Boundaries
Convergent Boundaries
Transform Boundaries
Divergent Boundaries
• Divergent Boundaries
are the boundaries
between two plates
that are diverging, or
moving away from
each other.
 Convergent Boundaries
• Convergent Boundaries are the boundaries
between two plates that are converging, or
moving towards each other.
• There are three types of convergent
boundaries:
1. An ocean floor plate collides with a less dense
continental plate.
2. An ocean floor plate collides with another ocean
floor plate.
3. A continental plate collides with another
continental plate.
Convergent Plate Boundaries and Folding

Subduction causes Arc: Continent-Continent

Under Ocean Lithosphere collision forms
Japan, Fold and Thrust Mountains:
Aleutians, Cent. Am.; under Alps, Himalayans,
continent Andes, Cascades Appalachians
  Oceanic-Continental

Oceanic-Oceanic 

 Continental-Continental
 Transform Fault Boundaries
• Transform Boundaries are the boundaries
between two plates that are sliding horizontally
past one another.
Causes of Plate Tectonics
• Convection Current is the driving force of plate tectonics in
which hot, plastic-like material from the mantle rises to the
lithosphere, moves horizontally, cools, and sinks back to the
mantle.
• The convection currents provide enough energy to move the
plates in the lithosphere.
Compression, Tension, and Shearing Stress

Convergent Divergent Transform

Quick Review of Plate Boundaries
 Mineral Stability
• What controls when and where a particular mineral forms?
– Commonly referred to as “Rock cycle”
– Rock cycle: Mineralogical changes that occur because of
variations in geologic environment
• Knowing answer provides information about earth history or
processes

Mineral formation
• Why would you want to know earth history or processes:
– Find: ore deposits, oil and gas, building materials
– Understand engineering hazards, water cycle
– Understand how humans effect the earth: climate…
The Rock Cycle

A system for
organizing
mineralogical
changes

Fig. 5-1
Bowen’s reaction series

Fe, Mg - silicates
Ca, Na - silicates

Changing composition
K-spar
Ca, Na, Fe, Mg
- silicates
Qtz
3 requirements for mineral stability
• Constituents
– Available reactants/elements (X)
• Correct environmental conditions (energy)
– Pressure (P)
– Temperature (T)
Mineral Stability
• More stable position is one of lower energy
• Minerals may not be stable – e.g. metastable
minerals
– Mineral contains more energy than expected from their
environment
• Energy required to overcome metastability –
activation energy
 How can stability be estimated?
• Algebraically:
– Physical chemistry/Thermodynamics
– Estimates of DG – Gibbs free energy
• Graphically – “phase diagrams”:
– Essentially figures of solutions to DG problems
– Many types, common ones:
• One component – P & T variable, X fixed (i.e. the
component)
• Two (or more) components – T & X variable, P fixed
Components and Phases
• Component – Chemical entity
– H2O
– Al2SiO5
• Phase – physically separable part of a system; e.g.
– for H20: ice, water, water vapor
– for Al2SiO5: Sillimanite, Kyanite, Andalusite
• One and two component phase diagrams
– Several types of 2-component diagrams
 One component diagrams
• Fields – where only one phase (mineral) is stable
• Lines – where two phases are stable
simultaneously
• Points – where three phases are stable
• If P and/or T changes
– One phase converts to another
– Examples:
H2O – component; ice, water, and vapor are phases
Al2SiO5 – component; Kyanite, Andalusite, Sillimanite are
phases
 Two component phase diagrams
• What happens if there are two components in a system?
• Example: Plagioclase feldspars – two components with
complete solid solution (at high T, otherwise
“exsolution”)
– Albite– NaAlSi3O8
– Anorthite – CaAl2Si2O8
– Any composition in between the two end member
compositions
How does solid (and melt) composition vary during
crystallization?
How does composition vary as solids melt melt to form
magma? OR…
If you know the composition of a plagioclase feldspar, can
you determine T and P of crystallization?
 Two component phase diagram with
complete solid solution

= Na, Ca, Al, SiO2

= (Na,Ca)xAlySizO8

100% Albite – Mole % Anorthite 100% Anorthite –

NaAlSi3O8 CaAl2Si2O8