Chapter 8: Linear Algebraic Equations
• Matrix Methods for Linear Equations
• Uniqueness and Existence of Solutions
• Under-Determined Systems
• Over-Determined Systems
Linear Algebraic Equations
For 2 Equations and 2 Unknowns, the solution is the intersection of the
two lines. For 3 Equations and 3 Unknowns, the solution is the
intersection of three planes.
Matrix Methods for Linear Systems of
Equations
The simplest system of linear equations is:
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒𝑦 = 𝑓
Two equations and two unknowns (all coefficients are known). Can be
solved by substitution, row reduction, Kramer’s Rule. Cast the system in
Vector Form:
𝑎 𝑏 𝑥 𝑐
∙ 𝑦 = 𝑓
𝑑 𝑒
Matrix*Column Vector = Column Vector
𝐴∙𝑧 =𝐵
Matrix Methods for Linear Systems of
Equations
𝐴∙𝑧 =𝐵
Solve for solution vector 𝑧 by multiplying both sides by 𝐴−1 (𝐴 Inverse
[Matrix]):
𝐴−1 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝑧 = 𝐴−1 ∙ (𝐵)
LHS: 𝐴−1 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝑧 = 𝐴−1 ∙ 𝐴 ∙ 𝑧 = 𝐼 ∙ 𝑧 = 𝑧
1 0
𝐴−1 ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐼 Identity Matrix : 𝐼 =
0 1
𝑧 = 𝐴−1 ∙ 𝐵
where
1 𝑒 −𝑏
𝐴−1 = ∙
𝑎𝑒 − 𝑏𝑑 −𝑑 𝑎
Matrix Methods for Linear Systems of
Equations
𝐴−1 Exists if the Determinant of Matrix 𝐴 is both Square and
Nonsingular:
𝐴 = det 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑒 − 𝑏𝑑 ≠ 0
For a given linear system of equations, there may be:
• One Unique Solution
• An Infinite Number of Solutions
• No Solution
Use the Rank of Matrix 𝐴 and the Rank of the Augmented Matrix [𝐴 𝐵]
to Establish the Uniqueness and Existence of the Solution.
Rank_A = rank(A)
Rank_AB = rank([A B])
Uniqueness and Existence of the
Solution
If Rank_A ≠ Rank_AB, a Unique Solution Does Not Exist
If Rank_A = Rank_AB = Number of Unknowns, a Unique Solution
Exists
If Rank_A = Rank_AB but Rank_A ≠ Number of Unknowns, an Infinite
Number of Solutions Exist
Uniqueness and Existence of the
Solution
% One Unique Solution:
% x-y = -1, 3x+y = 9
A = [1 -1; 3 1]
B = [-1; 9]
AB = [A B]
rank_A = rank(A)
rank_AB = rank(AB)
Det_A = det(A)
Inv_A = inv(A)
z = Inv_A*B
Matrix Methods for Linear Systems of
Equations
MATLAB has Several Methods of Solving Systems of Linear Equations:
• Matrix Inverse: z = inv(A)*B (Calculates the Inverse of 𝐴.)
• Left Division: z = A\B (Uses Gauss Elimination to Solve for 𝑧 for
Over-Determined Systems.)
• Pseudo-Inverse: z = pinv(A)*B (Used When There are More
Unknowns than Equations: Under-Determined Systems. This Method
Provides One Solution, but Not All Solutions.)
• Row-Reduced Echelon Form: rref([A B]) (Also Used for
Under-Determined Systems. This Method Provides a Set of Equations
That Can be Used to Find All Solutions.)
Under-Determined Systems
Not Enough Information to Determine all of the Unknowns (Infinite
Number of Solutions)
Case 1: Fewer Equations than Unknowns:
𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 7
−8𝑥 − 10𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 28
Case 2: Two Equations are Not Independent:
𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 7
−8𝑥 − 10𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 28
−16𝑥 − 20𝑦 + 8𝑧 = 56
(Equation 3) = 2*(Equation 2)
Solve Under-Determined Systems using Pseudo-Inverse pinv, which
finds one solution by minimizing the Euclidean Norm, or find all
possible solutions by using the rref method (Row-Reduced Echelon
Form).
Under-Determined Systems
% Under-Determined System:
% Inverse Method
% x+3y-5z = 7, -8x-10y+4z = 28
A = [1 3 -5; -8 -10 4]
B = [7; 28]
AB = [A B]
rank_A = rank(A)
rank_AB = rank(AB)
Det_A = det(A)
Inv_A = inv(A)
z = Inv_A*B
Under-Determined Systems
% Under-Determined System:
% Pseudo-Inverse Method
% x+3y-5z = 7, -8x-10y+4z = 28
A = [1 3 -5; -8 -10 4]
B = [7; 28]
AB = [A B]
rank_A = rank(A)
rank_AB = rank(AB)
z = pinv(A)*B
Row-Reduced Echelon Form
𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 7
−8𝑥 − 10𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 28
Replace (Equation 2) by 8*(Equation 1) + (Equation 2):
𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 7
0𝑥 + 14𝑦 − 36𝑧 = 84
Divide (Equation 2) by 14:
𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 5𝑧 = 7
36
0𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 6
14
Replace (Equation 1) by −3*(Equation 2) + (Equation 1):
𝑥 + 0𝑦 + 2.714𝑧 = −11
36
0𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 6
14
Infinite Number of Solutions because 𝑧 can be any number:
𝑥 + 2.714𝑧 = −11
36
𝑦− 𝑧=6
14
Under-Determined Systems
% Under-Determined System:
% Row-Reduced Echelon Method
% x+3y-5z = 7, -8x-10y+4z = 28
A = [1 3 -5; -8 -10 4]
B = [7; 28]
AB = [A B]
rank_A = rank(A)
rank_AB = rank(AB)
z = rref([A,B])
Over-Determined Systems
More Independent Equations
than Unknowns.
If Rank_A = Rank_AB, A
Unique Solution Exists: Use
Left Division Method to find
the Solution: z = A\B
If Rank_A ≠ Rank_AB, No
Solution Exists: The Left
Division Method gives a Least-
Squares Solution, NOT an
Exact Solution.
Over-Determined Systems
% Over-Determined System:
% 4x+3y = 7; x-2y = -1; 3x+5y = 8
A = [4 3; 1 -2; 3 5]
B = [7; -1; 8]
AB = [A B]
rank_A = rank(A)
rank_AB = rank(AB)
z = A\B
Over-Determined Systems
% Over-Determined System:
% 4x+3y = 6; x-2y = -1; 3x+5y = 8
A = [4 3; 1 -2; 3 5]
B = [6; -1; 8]
AB = [A B]
rank_A = rank(A)
rank_AB = rank(AB)
z = A\B
Problem 8.2:
𝐴 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴 = 𝐵
𝐴−1 𝐴 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴 = 𝐴−1 𝐵
𝐵𝐶 + 𝐴 = 𝐴−1 𝐵
𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴−1 𝐵 − 𝐴
𝐵−1 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵−1 𝐴−1 𝐵 − 𝐴
𝐶 = 𝐵−1 𝐴−1 𝐵 − 𝐴
Problem 8.4:
a) Write a MATLAB script file that uses given values of the applied voltage 𝑣
and the values of the five resistances and solves for the six currents.
b) Use the program developed in part a) to find the currents for the case where
𝑅1 = 1 kΩ, 𝑅2 = 5 kΩ, 𝑅3 = 2 kΩ, 𝑅4 = 10 kΩ, 𝑅5 = 5 kΩ, and 𝑣 =
100 𝑉 (1 kΩ = 1000 Ω).
Problem 8.4:
𝑣 − 𝑅2 𝑖2 − 𝑅4 𝑖4 = 0
−𝑅1 𝑖1 − 𝑅3 𝑖3 + 𝑅2 𝑖2 = 0
−𝑅5 𝑖5 + 𝑅4 𝑖4 + 𝑅3 𝑖3 = 0
𝑖1 = 𝑖3 + 𝑖5
𝑖2 + 𝑖3 = 𝑖4
𝑖4 + 𝑖5 = 𝑖6
𝑖6 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2
Unknowns: 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝑖3 , 𝑖4 , 𝑖5 , 𝑖6
Problem 8.4:
(0)𝑖1 + −𝑅2 𝑖2 + 0 𝑖3 + −𝑅4 𝑖4 + 0 𝑖5 + (0)𝑖6 = (−𝑣)
−𝑅1 𝑖1 + 𝑅2 𝑖2 + (−𝑅3 )𝑖3 + 0 𝑖4 + 0 𝑖5 + 0 𝑖6 = (0)
0 𝑖1 + 0 𝑖2 + (𝑅3 )𝑖3 + 𝑅4 𝑖4 + −𝑅5 𝑖5 + 0 𝑖6 = (0)
1 𝑖1 + 0 𝑖2 + (−1)𝑖3 + 0 𝑖4 + −1 𝑖5 + 0 𝑖6 = (0)
0 𝑖1 + 1 𝑖2 + (1)𝑖3 + −1 𝑖4 + 0 𝑖5 + 0 𝑖6 = (0)
0 𝑖1 + 0 𝑖2 + (0)𝑖3 + 1 𝑖4 + 1 𝑖5 + −1 𝑖6 = (0)
−1 𝑖1 + −1 𝑖2 + (0)𝑖3 + 0 𝑖4 + 0 𝑖5 + 1 𝑖6 = (0)
Unknowns: 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝑖3 , 𝑖4 , 𝑖5 , 𝑖6
Problem 8.4:
Problem 8.11:
Problem 8.11:
The resulting equations are:
(1)𝑥 + 0 𝑦 − 1.3846𝑧 = 4.9231
0 𝑥 + (1)𝑦 + 0.0769𝑧 = −1.3846
These equations can be solved in terms of 𝑧:
𝑥 = 1.3846𝑧 + 4.9231
𝑦 = −0.0769𝑧 − 1.3846
Problem 8.15:
