Weathering

• the action of elements of weather and climate over the earth’s material.
• It can be defined as the mechanical disintegration and chemical
decomposition of rocks through the actions of various elements of weather
and climate.
• When rocks undergo weathering, some minerals are removed through
chemical/ physical leaching by groundwater, and thereby the concentration
of remaining (valuable) minerals increases.

Three Types of Weathering

1. Physical or mechanical weathering processes depend on some applied

forces.
The applied forces could be: (i) gravitational forces such as overburden
pressure, load, and shearing stress; (ii) expansion force due to temperature
changes, crystal growth, or animal activity; (iii) water pressure controlled by
wetting and drying cycles.
Causes: Most of the physical weathering is caused by thermal expansion
and pressure.

Factors of Mechanical Weathering

a) Unloading and expansion

• Removal of overlying rock load because of continued erosion causes

vertical pressure release. Thus, the upper layers of the remaining rock
expand to produce the disintegration of rock masses. Fractures will
develop roughly parallel to the ground surface. In areas of curved ground
surfaces, arched fractures tend to produce massive sheets or exfoliated
slabs.
• Exfoliation is a result but not a process. Flaking off of more or less
curved sheets of shells from over rocks or bedrocks results in smooth and
rounded surfaces.
• So, unloading and expansion create largely, smooth rounded domes
called exfoliation domes.

b) Temperature changes and expansion

• With rising in temperature, every mineral expands and pushes against its
neighbor and as the temperature falls, a corresponding contraction takes
place.
• Due to differential heating and the resulting expansion and contraction of
surface layers and their subsequent exfoliation from the surface results in
smooth rounded surfaces in rocks.
• In rock-like granites, smooth surfaced and rounded small to big boulders
called tors form due to such exfoliation.
c) Freezing, Thawing and Frost wedging
 • Cycles of freezing and thawing (the becomes warmer and causes snow
and ice to melt) cause frost weathering. · It is most effective at high
elevations in mid-latitude where freezing and melting are often repeated.
• Rapid freezing of water causes its sudden expansion and high pressure.
The resulting expansion affects joints, cracks, and small intergranular
fractures to become wider and wider till the rock breaks apart.
d) Salt weathering
• Salts in rocks expand due to thermal action, hydration, and
crystallization.
• Many salts like calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium, and barium
have a tendency to expand.
• The expansion depends on temperature and thermal properties. High-
temperature ranges between 30-50 0 C of surface temperatures in desert
favors such salt expansions.
• Salt crystallization is the most effective of all salt weathering processes.
It is favored in areas of alternative wetting and drying conditions

2. Chemical Weathering
In chemical weathering, there are changes in the composition of rocks due to
chemical reactions.

FACTORS OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING

1. Oxidation
• In weathering, oxidation means a combination of a mineral with oxygen
to form oxides or hydroxides.
• Minerals most commonly involved in this are iron, manganese, sulfur,
etc.
• The red color of color upon oxidation turns to brown and yellow.
• In this process of oxidation, rock breakdown occurs due to the
disturbance caused by the addition of oxygen.
• When oxidized minerals are placed in an environment where oxygen is
absent, reduction takes place.
• Rusting is an example.

2. Hydration- the chemical addition of water.

• Minerals take up water and expand; this expansion causes an increase in the
volume of the material itself or rock. The process is reversible and long,
continued repetition of this process causes fatigue in the rocks and may lead
to their disintegration.
For example, calcium sulfate takes in water and turns into gypsum, which is
more unstable than calcium sulfate.
3. Carbonation- is the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals and
is a common process helping to break down of feldspar and carbonate
minerals.
 • Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and soil air is absorbed by water to
form carbonic acid that acts as a weak acid.
• Calcium carbonates and magnesium carbonates are dissolved in carbonic
acid and are removed in a solution without leaving any residue resulting in
cave formation.
4. Solution
• When something is dissolved in water or acids, the water or acid with
dissolved content is called a solution. This process involves the removal
of solids in the solution and depends upon the solubility of a mineral in
water or weak acid.
• When coming into contact with water, many solids disintegrate and mix
up as a suspension in water.
• Soluble rock-forming minerals like nitrates, sulfates, potassium, etc are
affected by this process.
• This kind of weathering mainly occurs in a rainy
• Minerals like calcium carbonate and magnesium bicarbonate present in
limestone are soluble in water containing carbonic acid (formed with the
addition of carbon dioxide in water) and are carried away in the water as
a solution.
• Common salt is also a rock-forming mineral and is susceptible to this
process of solution.

3. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
• This kind of weathering is caused by several biological activities like the
growth or movements of organisms.
• They also bring conditions for physical or chemical weathering.
• Grazing of animals, plowing by human beings etc are examples of biological
weathering.

Erosion
Erosion is the separation and removal of weathered rocks due to different agents
like water, wind, and glacier that causes transportation of the material to where
they are deposited.
Agents of Erosion
1. Erosion by Water
Water is the most efficient and effective agent for erosion.

Erosion by water commonly occurs in two different geologic settings:

1. Coastlines – erosion that occurs on coastlines is due to the action of ocean
currents, waves, and tides.
2. Streams and Rivers- erosion commonly occurs along the bank of the stream. A
stream is any size channelized body of running water (small creeks to giant rivers).
Streams are able to transport sediment very long distances. There are different
types of material carried by a stream depending on the size and chemical
properties.
2. Erosion by Wind
Compared to running water and glaciers, wind erosion is relatively insignificant as
an agent of erosion. It is more effective in dry lands compared to humid
environments.

3. Erosion by Ice
• A glacier is a thick ice mass that originates on land by the accumulation,
compaction, and recrystallization of snow.
• Glaciers are capable of flow, and therefore move downhill under the force
of gravity.
• When ice accumulates to greater than 50 m thick, the ice below 50m can
flow. The ice above 50 m remains brittle, below it is ductile.

SHEARING
• In the world of geology, the term “shearing” describes a distinct motion of
two rock surfaces against each other. It is most often caused by intense
pressure under the earth’s crust.
• Shearing can be described as the lateral movement of one rock surface
against another. This motion alters the rocks, causing them to change shape
as they slide against each other.
Effects
• Many times, shearing causes minerals to split in a formation known as
cleavage.
• Under other circumstances, the rocks develop a pattern of parallel lines
called schist.
Where It Occurs
Shearing commonly occurs along the edges of tectonic plates, although it may
occur in other places as well. Most often it takes place between 10 and 20
kilometers beneath the earth’s surface. If the same process occurred at the surface,
it would result in fracturing and faulting.
Zones
Widespread shearing results in geological features called shearing zones. These
zones may cover several miles or just a few centimeters.
Plate Tectonics
Lithospheric plates, commonly called tectonic plates, fit together on the Earth's
surface like a jigsaw puzzle. Scientists believe that the plates float on a hot, semi-
solid region of the mantle called the asthenosphere. This movement is called plate
tectonics. Movement of the lithospheric plates is most easily observed at the plate
boundaries, where the plates converge, diverge or slip sideways. Most earthquakes
and volcanism occur along or near lithospheric plate boundaries.

Three Types of Boundaries Between Lithospheric Plates

1. Convergent Plate Boundaries
• Convergent plate boundaries are regions where two plates converge or
collide with each other. These boundaries are sometimes called
subduction zones because the heavier, denser plate pushes beneath the
lighter plate in a process called subduction.
• Subduction zones are associated with strong earthquakes and spectacular
volcanic landscapes. The Ring of Fire around the margins of the Pacific
Ocean is a direct result of plate convergence and subduction.
• Sometimes continental plates of similar density collide and neither is
heavy enough to create a subduction zone. When this happens, the brittle
crust folds up and splinters as the plates collide. This process created the
Himalayan Mountains.
2. Divergent Plate Boundaries
• Divergent plate boundaries are regions where lithospheric plates are
moving away or diverging from each other under the sea. In contrast to
convergent boundaries that destroy old crust by subduction, divergent
boundaries create new crust through a form of volcanism.
• As plates move apart, magma wells up from beneath the surface to fill the
spaces left by the diverging plates. The magma rises and cools in a
continuous process, forming chains of volcanic mountains and rift valleys
called mid-ocean ridges. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge was formed by this
process.
• As magma cools and forms a new crust, it pushes the plates apart in a
process called oceanic spreading. Oceanic spreading is slowly pushing
North America away from Europe.
3. Transform Plate Boundaries
• The third type of lithospheric plate boundary is a transform boundary.
Sometimes called a conservative boundary, because the crust is neither
created nor destroyed at the boundary, transform boundaries occur in
regions where plates are sliding horizontally past each other. Transform
boundaries are typically found on the ocean floor but occasionally occur
on land.
• An example of a transform boundary is found near the West Coast of the
United States, where the North American and Pacific Plates are moving
past each other. The most visible manifestation of transform boundary
movement is the San Andreas fault in California. Earthquakes along
transform boundaries are generally shallow. They are caused by the
accumulation and sudden release of stress and tension as the plates slip
past each other.