CHAPTER THREE

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PULSARS

3.1 Introduction

Pulsars, discovered in 1967, are one of the most captivating phenomena in astrophysics.

These rapidly rotating neutron stars, formed from the remnants of massive stars after a

supernova explosion, have revolutionized our understanding of extreme physics.

Characterized by their periodic electromagnetic emissions, pulsars serve as natural

laboratories for studying matter and energy under extreme conditions.

This chapter explores the key physical properties of pulsars, including their rotation

periods, magnetic fields, emission mechanisms, and energy loss processes. By delving

into these properties, we gain insights into their role in advancing our knowledge of the

universe.

3.2 Rotation Periods of Pulsars

One of the defining features of pulsars is their incredibly stable rotation periods. Pulsars

exhibit a wide range of spin rates, from milliseconds to several seconds. The rotation

period reflects the pulsar’s angular velocity, which is a direct consequence of the

conservation of angular momentum during the core collapse of a massive star.

3.2.1 Formation and Conservation of Angular Momentum

When a massive star exhausts its nuclear fuel, it undergoes a supernova explosion,

leaving behind a dense neutron star. During this process, the progenitor star's vast angular

momentum is conserved, resulting in the newly formed neutron star spinning at

incredible speeds. The conservation of angular momentum is mathematically expressed

as:

I_1\omega_1 = I_2\omega_2
 Where is the moment of inertia and is the angular velocity. As the radius decreases, the

angular velocity increases proportionally, leading to rapid rotation rates observed in

pulsars.

3.2.2 Types of Pulsars Based on Rotation Periods

Slow Rotators: Pulsars with rotation periods ranging from 1 to 10 seconds. These are

often older pulsars that have lost significant rotational energy.

Fast Rotators: Rotation periods below 1 second. These include most young pulsars, which

retain their initial high angular momentum.

Millisecond Pulsars (MSPs): A unique category of pulsars with rotation periods less than

10 milliseconds. Found in binary systems, MSPs are spun up through accretion of matter

from a companion star, a process referred to as "recycling."

3.2.3 Applications of Stable Rotation

The remarkable stability of pulsar rotation periods enables their use as cosmic clocks.

Applications include: Gravitational Wave Detection: Observing subtle variations in

pulsar timing caused by passing gravitational waves.

Interstellar Medium Studies: Measuring pulse delays due to interstellar plasma density,

aiding in mapping the galaxy.

3.3 Magnetic Field Strengths

Pulsars possess extraordinarily strong magnetic fields, which play a pivotal role in their

emission mechanisms and energy dynamics. These magnetic fields arise during the

neutron star’s formation and are amplified due to the conservation of magnetic flux.

3.3.1 Magnetic Field Generation

 The intense magnetic fields of pulsars originate from the progenitor star's field. As the

core collapses, the magnetic flux is conserved, leading to an exponential increase in field

strength. For a pulsar, the surface magnetic field strength () can be estimated using the

equation:

B = \sqrt{\frac{3Ic^3}{8\pi^2R^6}} \cdot \left(\frac{P}{\dot{P}}\right)^{1/2}

Where is the moment of inertia, is the speed of light, is the radius, is the rotation

period, and is the period derivative.

3.3.2 Classes of Pulsars Based on Magnetic Fields

Normal Pulsars: Typical magnetic field strengths range from to gauss.

Magnetars: A special class of neutron stars with magnetic fields exceeding gauss.

Magnetars often exhibit violent outbursts due to their unstable magnetic configurations.

3.3.3 Impact of Magnetic Fields

The magnetic field is central to pulsar behavior, influencing:

Emission Mechanisms: Charged particles accelerated along magnetic field lines produce

electromagnetic radiation.

Spin-Down Rates: Magnetic braking causes pulsars to lose rotational energy, gradually

increasing their rotation periods.

Astrophysical Applications: Magnetic fields affect pulsar wind nebulae and are used to

study magnetohydrodynamics in extreme environments.

3.4 Emission Mechanisms

Pulsars are powerful sources of electromagnetic radiation across the spectrum, from radio

waves to gamma rays. This radiation originates from the charged particles within the

pulsar’s magnetosphere, which are accelerated by electric and magnetic fields.

3.4.1 Radio Emissions

Radio waves are the most common form of pulsar emissions, characterized by their high

coherence. These emissions are generated by synchrotron radiation, where relativistic

electrons spiral around magnetic field lines, emitting energy.

3.4.2 High-Energy Emissions

Young and energetic pulsars emit X-rays and gamma rays, often through curvature

radiation and inverse Compton scattering. These high-energy emissions provide insights

into the magnetosphere's extreme conditions.

3.4.3 Beam Geometry and Pulsation

The pulsar’s radiation is emitted along its magnetic poles, creating narrow beams. Due to

the misalignment between the magnetic and rotational axes, these beams sweep across

the sky as the pulsar rotates. Observers detect periodic pulses only when the beam

intersects their line of sight.

3.4.4 Multi-Wavelength Observations

The ability to observe pulsars across different wavelengths—radio, optical, X-ray, and

gamma-ray, has enhanced our understanding of their structure and emission processes.

For instance, the Crab Pulsar emits across the spectrum, revealing the dynamics of young

pulsars.

3.5 Spin-Down and Energy Loss

Over time, pulsars lose rotational energy, leading to a gradual decrease in their spin rates.

This phenomenon, known as spin-down, is a key indicator of a pulsar’s age and magnetic

field strength.

3.5.1 Mechanisms of Energy Loss

The spin-down process is driven by:

1. Electromagnetic Radiation: Energy is emitted as electromagnetic waves due to the

rotating magnetic dipole.

2. Particle Winds: High-energy particles are ejected from the pulsar, forming pulsar wind

nebulae.

3.5.2 Spin-Down Luminosity

The luminosity associated with spin-down is a measure of the rate of energy loss,

expressed as:

L_{\text{spin}} = -\frac{dE}{dt} \propto B^2P^{-4}

Where is the magnetic field strength and is the rotation period.

3.5.3 Evolutionary Implications

Spin-down rates provide valuable information about pulsar evolution. For instance:

Young pulsars exhibit rapid spin-down due to high magnetic fields.

Older pulsars, including millisecond pulsars, have lower spin-down rates, reflecting their

reduced magnetic fields.

3.6 Pulsar Timing and Applications

The precision of pulsar timing has made these objects invaluable tools in various fields of

astrophysics.

3.6.1 Pulsar Timing Arrays (PTAs)

PTAs monitor pulsar signals to detect low-frequency gravitational waves. Deviations in

pulse arrival times indicate perturbations caused by passing waves.

3.6.2 Galactic Navigation

 Pulsar signals are being explored for spacecraft navigation, providing an autonomous and

precise positioning system within the galaxy.

3.6.3 Fundamental Physics

Pulsars serve as natural laboratories for testing general relativity and quantum mechanics,

especially in extreme gravitational fields.

3.7 Conclusion

The study of pulsars' physical properties has profoundly influenced modern astrophysics,

from exploring stellar remnants to understanding fundamental physics. Their rapid

rotation, intense magnetic fields, and diverse emission mechanisms continue to challenge

and refine theoretical models. As technology advances, pulsar observations promise even

greater insights into the mysteries of the universe, solidifying their place as astrophysical

cornerstones.