Guptas: art and architecture – SELF STUDY HISTORY 15/11/24, 12:47 PM

Guptas: art and architecture

August 9, 2021

The Gupta period witnessed Golden Age in the fields of art, literature
etc. Most of the Gupta arts were inspired by the religion.
selfstudyhistory.com
Religion was intimately connected with the developments in
architecture and plastic arts (arts of shaping or modeling;
carving and sculpture).

Forms of Gupta art:

Sculpture:

With the Gupta period India entered upon the classical phase of
sculpture. By the efforts of the centuries, techniques of art were
perfected, definite types were evolved, and ideals of beauty were
formulated with precision.
The Gupta sculptures also served as ideals for the Indian
colonies in the Far East. The finished mastery in execution and
the majestic serenity of expression of the image of Buddha came
to be adopted and locally modified by Siam, Cambodia, Burma,
Java, Central Asia, China and Japan, etc., when these countries
adopted the Buddhist religion.
Gupta sculpture is the logical outcome of the early classical sculpture
of Amravati and Mathura. Its plasticity is derived from that of Mathura
and its elegance from that of Amravati. Yet a Gupta sculpture seems
to belong to a sphere that is entirely different.
The iconographic conventions of religious sculpture became
elaborated and fixed.
The sculpture of this period is rich in ornamental designs such
as the foliated scroll.

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In the composition, it is the female figure that now becomes the

focus of attraction and nature recedes into the background. The
human figure, taken as the image, is the pivot of Gupta
sculpture.

The success of Gupta sculpture lies in its attaining a balance

between the sensuousness of the Kushan figures and the symbolic
abstraction of the early medieval ones.

An enormous amount of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain sculptures have

been found in several places.

Both Buddhist and Hindu sculpture concentrate on large, often

near life-size, figures of the major deities, respectively Buddha,
Vishnu and Shiva.

Vishnu images:
The Vishnu images are varied.
Some of them combine the anthropomorphic and
theriomorphic forms of the Varaha (boar) avatara.
Another form (found at places such as Mathura and
Gadhwa) shows the god in a human form, surrounded with
several radiating heads.
The deity’s attributes such as the shankha and chakra are often
personified as dwarfish attendants known as ayudha-purushas.
At Eran, there is a magnificent boar sculpture with an inscription
of the Huna ruler Toramana.
The notable sculptures from Besnagar include a Vishnu head
and a representation of the Sapta-Matrikas.
Shiva images:
The images of Shiva depict him in a combination of the linga and
anthropomorphic form.
Buddha images:
In this period, the Buddha images display a greater variety of
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mudras than before.

The plain halo of the earlier period makes way for ones
decorated with bands of ornamentation, and the Buddha’s body
is clothed in transparent drapery.
Distinct styles—e.g., those of Mathura and Sarnath —are
discernable in the Buddha sculptures.
At Sanchi, numerous Buddha and bodhisattva images reveal
some similarities with those of Mathura.
Eastern UP and Bihar:
The Buddha images from eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
stand out from those of the earlier centuries with their
expression of serene spirituality.
The Sarnath Buddhas of this period are among the greatest
works of art produced.
Two standing figures and one seated Buddha figure
are especially renowned for their beauty and finesse.
The seated Buddha shows him in the meditative
padmasana pose.
His hands are in the dharmachakra mudra.
The halo around his head is beautifully
ornamented.
Beneath the throne is a chakra, flanked with
monks with hands folded in veneration.
The Buddha images from Sarnath differ in several ways
from those of Mathura.
The robes have no folds; only the outline of the
transparent robes is indicated.
Sarnath has also yielded many bodhisattva images and
narrative reliefs depicting scenes from the Buddha’s
life.
Western India:
Apart from the Ajanta caves, examples of the Buddhist

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sculpture of these centuries are found at Kanheri and

Aurangabad.
The Kanheri caves of this period are comparatively simple,
but their sculptural embellishment includes representations
of various Buddhas and bodhisattvas, including figures
arranged in mandalas.
At Aurangabad, near Ajanta, several Buddhist caves were
excavated in the 5th–6th centuries. Their sculptural
decoration includes Buddha and bodhisattva figures.
The prominence of female imagery, especially the female
attendants who frequently flank the bodhisattvas, may
reflect Tantric or Vajrayana influence.
One of the most beautiful relief sculptures in these
caves shows Tara flanked by two female figures
accompanied by dwarfs.
On the left wall of the same cave shrine is a fine relief
of a woman dancer, flanked by six female musicians.

More examples:

Two metre high bronze image of Buddha is recovered from

Sultanganj near Bhagalpur.

The Sultanganj Buddha is a Gupta-Pala transitional period

sculpture, the largest substantially complete copper
Buddha figure known from this time.
The Buddha statue stands with his right hand raised in
abhayamudra, while his left hand is held downwards with
palm outwards, said to indicate granting a favour.

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The Sultanganj Buddha of copper in abhayamudra (a gesture of reassurance or

protection)

Stone statue of Buddha from Sultanganj

The images of Siva, Vishnu and other Brahmanical gods are

sculptured in some of the finest panels of the Deogarh temple
(Jhansi district).

Fa-hien saw an over 25 metre high image of the Buddha made of

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copper, but it is not traceable now.

Stone sculpture of horse:

Among the stone sculptures assigned to the period c. 300–
600 CE is a larger-than-life figure of a horse carved out of
beige sandstone, found at Khairigarh (UP).
It bears a damaged Sanskrit inscription, which seems to
refer either to Samudragupta or Kumaragupta I.
It has been suggested that this horse represents the
sacrificial horse in one of the ashvamedha sacrifices
performed by Samudragupta.
North-west:
Sites such as Hadda in Afghanistan show the increasing use
of stucco instead of stone.
The relief sculptures show elements and modifications of
the earlier Gandhara style.

Three main schools of Gupta sculpture are often recognised, based in

Mathura, Varanasi/Sarnath and to a lesser extent Nalanda.

Mathura School:

Stone and bronze images of Buddha have been found at

Mathura and other places.

This school had started in post-Mauryan period and continued

as one of the main two schools of Gupta Empire art, joined by
the school of Sarnath.

Mathura sculpture is characterized by its usage of mottled red

stone.

The art of Mathura continued to become more sophisticated

during the Gupta Empire.

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The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved during

the Gupta period to reach a very high fineness of execution
and delicacy in the modeling, displaying calm and serenity.

Hellenistic elements are still clearly visible in the purity of the

statuary and the folds of the clothing, but are improved upon
with a very delicate rendering of the draping and a sort of
radiance reinforced by the usage of pink sandstone.

Artistic details tend to be less realistic, as seen in the symbolic

shell-like curls used to render the hairstyle of the Buddha, and
the orante halos around the head of the Buddhas. The art of
the Gupta is often considered as the pinnacle of Indian Buddhist
art, achieving a beautiful rendering of the Buddhist ideal.

Gupta art is also characterized by an expansion of the Buddhist

pantheon, with a high importance given to the Buddha himself
and to new deities, including Bodhisattvas such as
Avalokitesvara or divinities of Bramanical inspiration, and less
focus on the events of the life of the Buddha which were
abundantly illustrated through Jataka stories in earlier period.

Examples:

Vishnu statue, 5th century, Mathura

Head of a Buddha, 6th century

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Head of a Buddha, Gupta period, 6th century, Mathura.

Standing Buddha (434 CE), Mathura

Buddha of the Gupta period, 5th century, Mathura.

There are seated tirthankaras, including a headless one

dated in Kumaragupta’s reign. The figures are usually
carved against the background of a carved throne or are
flanked by attendants carrying fly-whisks (chamaras).
A dated stone image of a seated tirthankara belonging
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to 432–33 CE was found at the Kankali Tila at Mathura.

Many mukhalingas have also been found at Mathura.

Sarnath School:

It was new school emerged in Sarnath during Gupta period.

It was essentially Buddhist sculptural art.

Buddhist theme is reflected in Images of Buddha, Images of

Bodhisattavas, scenes of Buddha’s life.

Sarnath introduces not only a delicacy and refinement of form

but also a relaxed attitude by bending the body in the case of
the standing figure, slightly on its own axis, thus imparting to it
a certain litheness and movement in contrast to the columnar
rigidity of similar Mathura works.
Even in the case of the seated figure, the slender
physiognomy conveys a feeling of movement, the body

Standing Buddha, Sarnath, U.P.

It was a stone sculptural art.

This school represents both 3D and relief art.

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There is refined executions of details of the faces, the halo and

the robes.

The halo is highly ornamented.

It shows more elegant, more graceful and sophisticated image.

Buddha is shown in transparent dress-code.

Drapery is too much clinging and having no folds and it

reveals the forms of body beneath and sometimes it gives
an impression of having figures unclothed.

Facial features of Buddha characterized by gently smiling

expressions and also expression of peace and tranquility.

It is also characterized by the feeling of introspection and

the feeling of contemplation (act of thinking deeply).

Buddha is shown in various mudras:

Dhyanmudra

Bhumisparsha mudra.

Abhay Mudra

dharmachakra pravartana mudra

It is characterized by its yellowish sandstone from the quarries

of Chunar.

It lacks the foreign influences seen in Mathura.

The Hindu sculptures from Sarnath area include:

A lintel depicting Vishnu, Surya, Chandra, a procession of
musicians, young girls, and food-bearers.
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A relief carving of Krishna lifting Govardhana mountain

was found at Varanasi.

Other areas:

Nalanda:

Gupta sculptural qualities tend to deteriorate with time, as

in Nalanda in Bihar in the 6th century BCE, figures become
heavier and tend to be made in metal.

This evolution suggests a third school of Gupta art in the

area Nalanda and Pataliputra, besides the two main centres
of Mathura and Vanarasi.

The colossal Sultanganj Buddha in bronze from the area of

Pataliputra is a uniquely large survival from this school, but
typical in style.

Sculptures at Udayagiri cave:

The “first dated sculptures in a fully-fledged early Gupta
style” come from the rock-cut Udayagiri Caves and the
surrounding area near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh.
At Udayagiri, all the caves except for one Jaina cave, depict
Hindu deities.
Most of the sculptures are carved outside the caves. These
include
a four-armed standing Vishnu,
an eka-mukha-linga,
pratiharas (doorkeepers),
Durga Mahishasuramardini.
A particularly powerful relief shows Vishnu in his boar
incarnation rescuing the earth from the waters.

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Varaha Avatar of Lord Vishnu at Udayagiri Caves

Terracotta sculpture:

There are many sculptures in terracotta of very fine quality, and

they are similar in style across the empire, to an even greater
extent than the stone sculpture.

Teracotta art of this period includes small figurines and plaques

found at many places including Kaushambi, Tajghat, Bhita and
Mathura.
These represent animals, ordinary people, and gods and
goddesses such as Durga, Karttikeya, and Surya.
Many terracotta heads have been found at Akhnur in
Kashmir.

Some can still be seen in their original settings on the brick

temple at Bhitargaon, where the large relief panels have almost
worn away, but various heads and figures survive at higher
levels.

The very elegant pair of river goddesses excavated from a

temple at Ahichchhatra are 1.47 metres high.

Terracotta Images of Ganga and Yamuna ,originally

installed in niches flanking the main steps leading to the
upper terrace of the Shiva temple at Ahichhatra.

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Ganga stands on her vehicle, the makara and Yamuna on

the cacchap.

Buddhist Stupa at Devnimori:

Several finely modelled terracotta reliefs were found at the
Buddhist stupa site of Devnimori in Gujarat.
The seated images were placed in niches all around the
lower part of the stupa.
The stupa was also faced with terracotta ornamentation.

Terracotta Buddha head was found at Devnimori, Gujarat.

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A Terracotta relief panel depicting a scene from the Ramayaṇa, built during the Gupta era.

A Terracotta relief panel of a meditating Buddha from the Gupta era.

Sculpture in metal:

The over life-size copper Sultanganj Buddha is “the only

remaining metal statue of any size” from the Gupta period.

It was made by lost-wax casting, is comparable to slightly

earlier stone Buddha figures from Sarnath school.

The Brahma from Mirpur Khas (in Sindh, Pakistan) is a famous

bronze image of Brahma made.

Small images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas have been found at

Gandhara and at many sites in the Ganga valley as well.
A hoard of metal sculptures that seem to stylistically belong to
this period was found at Chausa in Bihar. It includes a figure of
the Jaina tirthankara Rishabhanatha.

Coins and metalwork:

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The Gupta coins are also pieces of art. They are well designed and
meticulously crafted. They carry aesthetically impressive depictions
of the activities of the rulers.

The lyrist type of gold coins issued by Samudragupta show him

playing a lute(vina). His interest in music can be detected from
this representation.

Gupta coinage only started with the reign of Samudragupta

(335/350-375 CE), or possibly at the end of the reign of his
father Chandragupta I, for whom only one coin type in his name
is known (“Chandragupta I and his queen”).

Gupta period in the Indian history saw a considerable increase in the

coinage. Trade relation with Roman empire had resulted in heavy
inflow of gold.

Early gold coin of Gupta closely resembles the coins of later

Kushanas.

Guptas adopted Kushana coins weight standard, techniques

and designs, following the conquests of Samudragupta in the
northwest.

The Guptas even adopted from the Kushans the name of Dinara
for their coinage.

The imagery on Gupta coins was initially derived from Kushan

types.

Later these coins were completely Indianised. i.e. became more

Indian in both style and subject matter.

The Gupta monarchs were famous for their gold coins. They also
issued silver coins. However, coins made of copper, bronze or any

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other alloy metals are scarce. The abundance of gold coins from the
Gupta era has led some scholars to regard this phenomenon as the
‘rain of gold’.

The silver coinage of the Guptas was made in imitation of the

coinage of the Western Satraps following their overthrow by
Chandragupta II, inserting the Gupta peacock symbol on the
reverse but retaining traces of the Greek legend and the ruler’s
portrait on the obverse.

Kumaragupta and Skandagupta continued with the old type

of coins (the Garuda and the Peacock types) and also
introduced some other new types.

The copper coinage was mostly confined to the era of

Chandragupta II and was more original in design. Eight out of the
nine types known to have been struck by him have a figure of
Garuda and the name of the king on it.

The usual layout is an obverse with a portrait of the king that is

normally full-length, whether standing, seated or riding a horse, and
on the reverse a goddess, most often seated on a throne and an
inscription in Sanskrit.

The artists depicted the ruler in various poses. There were many
types of such coins. e.g.: (i)Tiger tiger coin (ii) Lyrist type of coin (iii)
Asvamedha type of coin (iv) Archer type of coin (v) Couch type of
coin (vi) Chhattra type of coin (vii) Lion Slayer type coin (j)Horsemen
type coin.

The gradual deterioration in design and execution of the gold coins

and the disappearance of silver money, bear ample evidence to their
curtailed territory.

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Architecture

Free standing temples:

Gupta period marks the beginning of Indian temple architecture.

It is for the first time in the Gupta period that the temples in the form
of structures were constructed in north India.

The doctrine of bhakti and the growing importance of image

worship led to the construction of the free standing temple with
its sanctuary (garbha griha) for the first time, in which the central
cult image was placed.

Gupta period temples laid down the foundation of the Nagara

architectural style.

Generally the images placed in the center as a chief deity.

The temples are simple and impretentious structures, but their

bearing upon later developments is of great significance.

It can be divided in 2 phases:

Features in phase 1: 4th and 5th centuries:

Small structure.

Garbhagriha-Sanctum

Mandapa assembly hall having pillars -> it is open

mandapa.

Pillars have bell shaped capitals.

Square plan of the temple.

in general flat roof.

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one example of 2nd storey temple at Nachnakuthar in MP.

Absence of ornamentation on both exterior and interior wall.

Temple walls tended to be plain, but the doorways were

often intricately and profusely carved.

Examples:

Eran temple, MP.

Sanchi temple, MP.

Tigwa temple, MP

Vishnu Temple and Varah Temple at Eran, Madhya Pradsh

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Vishnu Temple – This is most complete temple in this complex in Eran with intact doorway.
Two mandapa pillars are still standing with their corresponding pilasters however walls
between these have no more survived.

Kankali Devi temple at Tigawa

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Parvati temple at Nachna Kuthara

Lad Khan temple of Aihole

Later temples-those of the late 5th and 6th centuries—reveal

some changes.

Features in phase 2: 6th century AD:

The temple was now built on a raised plinth and had a

shikhara (spire). For example:
The Dashavatara temple at Deogarh and the temple at
Bhitargaon, both of which probably had curvilinear
shikharas.

Square ground from.

Distinct form of square plan known as cruciform.

Mandapa and Garbhagriha.

Pillars

Bell capital

Ornamentation on wall -> generally exterior wall.

Decorated doorway.

Antral (vestibule) e.g. at Bhitargaon temple

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Antral is a structure which connects garbhagriha with

Mandap.

Brick temple at Bhitargaon. The walls are decorated with terracotta panels
depicting aquatic monsters, Shiva and Vishnu etc.

Tower (aka Shikhar) and because of its typical shape it is

curvilinear tower. -> rekha shekhara

Panchayatana style: e.g. Deogarh temple.

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Dasavatara Temple or Vishnu Temple at Deogarh

Another typical feature of this period is the carving or

painting of the conch and lotus on door jambs. This occurs,
for instance, on the Deogarh temple.

Examples:

Deogarh (in Jhanshi)

The Deogarh temple had four large porches and

its shikhara was about 40 ft high.
The stones that comprised the structure were
secured to each other with dowels.
The sculptural decoration on the main doorway of
the Deogarh temple includes various kinds of
motifs—birds, attendants, purna-ghatas, mithuna
figures (couples), svastikas, foliated scrolls, and
dwarfish figures.
All these, except the birds, are also found on
the doorway of the Dah Parbatia temple.

Bhitargaon (in Kanpur) in Uttar Pradesh.

Made of terracotta and brick.

outer walls are decorated with terracotta panels
depicting mythological scenes.

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This temple provides one of the earliest examples

of the true arch in India.
The pillars of later temples of this period have capitals in the
form of purna-kalashas (water pots).
Although an elaboration on the earlier temples, they
have a very modest appearance compared to temples
built in later centuries.

Nagara style emerged in this phase.

Nara Narayana panel on the eastern wall of the Dasavatar temple

Vishnu reclining on the serpent Shesha (Ananta) on a side panel of the Dasavatar Temple
of 5th century.

Major types of Gupta temple architecture:

Flat roofed, square temple with a shallow pillared porch in front.

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Examples:
Temple at Sanchi,
Kankali Devi temple at Tigawa and
Vishnu and Varaha temples at Eran.
The nucleus of a Temple (garbha – griha) with a single
entrance and a porch (mandapa) appears for the first time
as an integrated composition in this type of Gupta temples.
Flat rooted, square temple with a covered ambulatory around the
sanctum and proceeded by a pillared porch, sometimes with a
second story above.
Examples:
Parvati temple at Nachna Kuthara
Siva temple at Bhumara (both in M P),
Lad Khan temple of Aihole .
This group of temples shows some of the characteristic
features of the Dravida style.
Square temple with a low and squat sikhara (tower) above.
Examples:
Dasavatara Temple at Deogarh (Jhansi district. It is
earliest known Panchayatana temple in North India)
and
Brick temple at Bhitargaon (Kanpur district).
The importance of this group lies in the innovation of a
shikhara or tower that caps the sanctum, the main feature
of the Nagara style.
The Bhitargaon Temple is a terraced brick building fronted
with a terracotta panel. Built in the 6th century during the
Gupta Empire, it is the oldest remaining terracotta Hindu
shrine with a roof and a high Sikhara,
These three types may be regarded as the forerunners of
medieval Indian temple styles.

Stone temples:
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Most of the surviving temples are located in the hilly areas of

Madhya Pradesh and are in a ruined state. The stone temples
include:
Vishnu temple at Tigawa,
Shiva temples at Bhumara and Khoh,
Parvati temple at Nachna-Kuthara, and
Buddhist shrines at Sanchi.
Outside central India, there is the Buddhist temple at Bodh Gaya
in Bihar and the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh in Jhansi district
(UP).
There are also ruins of a temple of this period at Dah Parbatia on
the banks of the Brahmaputra in Assam.
Brick temples:
There are brick temples at Bhitargaon (Kanpur district, UP),
Paharpur (Rajshahi district, Bangladesh), and Sirpur (Raipur
district, Chhattisgarh)

Cave architecture:

For reasons that are not entirely clear, for the most part the Gupta
period represented a hiatus in Indian rock-cut architecture, with
the first wave of construction finishing before the empire was
assembled, and the second wave beginning in the late 5th century,
just as it was ending.

This is the case, for example, at the Ajanta Caves, with an early
group made by 220 CE at the latest, and a later one probably all
after about 460

It is found at following places:

Ajanta cave:

The Buddhist site of Ajanta consists of several caves

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nestled in a curving section of the Sahyadri hills,

overlooking the Waghora river.

It was constructed in two phases:

earlier under Satavahanas

later under Vakatakas during Gupta period.

Out of total 29 caves, 4 are Chaityas. i.e. cave 9, cave 10,

cave 19, and cave 26. Rest are Viharas.

There were two phases of activity at this site—five

caves were excavated in the Satavahana period, while
23 belong to the Vakataka period (inscriptional
evidence establishes this).
The scale and magnificence of the Ajanta caves
suggest that they must have housed a prominent
monastic community which attracted lavish patronage
from the elites of the Vakataka kingdom.

It has 1 storey cave as well as 2 storey cave also.

Paintings are found in only 6 caves. Cave no. 1,2,9,10,16 and

17.

In some caves facades are ornamented.

Unique feature of the facade in some cave (like 19 and 26)

is what is known as Chandrasala (large semicircular
window).

Engravings are Buddhist and folk (nagas and Yakshas).

Image of Buddha,

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Image of Rahul,

Events of Buddha’s life,

Jataka scene.

In cave number 26, there is very unique engravings on wall

i.e. reclining Buddha (symbol of parinirvana or
mahaparinirvana of Buddha).

Another unique engraving is depiction of the scene

“Maravijaya“.

Mara represents evil spirit which tries to disturb

Buddha and Buddha got victory over Mara.

Earth as a witness of victory over Mara- Bhumisparsh

Mudra.

Ajanta art represents a beautiful blend of architecture,

sculpture and painting.

Bagh cave:

There are 9 caves in Bagh belonging to c. 500–600 CE.

Broadly similar in plan and arrangement to those at Ajanta,

the Bagh caves are more simple and plain.

Ornamentation is limited.

some caves have pillars.

some caves has painting.

The end of the hall usually has a chaitya instead of a

Buddha image.
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The purpose of a large room attached to one of the larger

viharas is not certain.
Some caves have additional columns in the interior of the
central hall to support the roof.
Udayagiri cave:
The cave architecture of this period is almost entirely
Buddhist but Udayagiri cave and Elephanta cave is
exception.
The Brahmanical cave at Udayagiri has an inscription
belonging to the reign of Chandragupta II.

There are 20 caves at Udaygiri- some rock cut and some

stone built.

It has a pillared portico in the front, a carved doorway, and

pillars with purnaghata capitals.

These cave are Brahmanical/Hindu affiliation.

caves have engravings of Vishnu, Durga, Varaha etc.

Kanheri caves (Mumbai. date from the first century BCE to the 10th
century CE), Elephanta Caves (In Mumbai, between the 5th and 8th
centuries)may be assigned to the Gupta period.
In Elephanta cave, the most important sculpture in the caves is
the Trimurti, described as a “masterpiece of Gupta-Chalukyan
art”. It is also known as Trimurti Sadashiva and Maheshmurti.
The three heads are said to represent three essential aspects of
Shiva: creation, protection, and destruction.

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Trimurti

The Mogulrajapuram Caves, Undavalli Caves and Akkanna Madanna

Caves in the Andhra country belong to the Gupta period.
Mogulrajapuram Caves:
Mogalarajapuram Caves in Vijayawada, are known for its five
rock-cut sanctuaries that date back to around the 5th century.
The caves have religious significance due to the presence of the
idols of Lord Nataraja and Lord Vinayaka in some of them.

Undavalli Caves:

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The Undavalli Caves, a monolithic example of Indian rock-cut

architecture are located in the Guntur District, and near the
southern bank of the Krishna River.
These caves were carved out of solid sandstone on a hillside in
the 4th to 5th centuries A.D.
The best known largest cave has four stories with a huge
recreated statue of Vishnu in a reclining posture, sculpted from a
single block of granite inside the second floor.

Lord Vishnu in a reclining posture sculpted from a single block of granite inside the second floor

Undavalli caves are an example of how many Buddhist artifacts

and stupas in Andhra were converted into Hindu temples and
deities. It was originally a Jain cave resembling the architecture
of Udayagiri and Khandgiri.
The main cave is one of the earliest examples of Gupta
architecture, primarily primitive rock-cut monastery cells carved
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into the sandstone hills.

Initially the caves were shaped as a Jain abode and the first floor
abode still retains the Jain style; the vihara exhibits Jain
monastics and includes tirthankara sculptures. This first level of
the cave is a carved vihara and includes Buddhist art work.
Akkanna Madanna Caves:
Akkana Madanna cave temple is located in Vijayawada, Andhra
Pradesh. This temple is built in the 17th century, though the
caves themselves date from the 6th and 7th centuries. There is
another cave nearby which is dated from the 2nd century BC.
The Trimurti of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva is hosted there.

Stupa architecture:

The construction of two Buddhist stupas – Dhemakh Stupa of

Sarnath and Jarasandha meeting (Jarasandha ki Baithak) at
Rajgriha is believed to have taken place during the period of Gupta.

Dhamekh stupa was enlarged and encased in stones carved with

beautiful scroll work and geometric designs.
The 128 ft high stupa has four niches at the cardinal points for
Buddha images.
Several fine Buddhist sculptures of the Gupta period were found
at the site.
Dhamekh Stupa was recorded by Xuanzang While visiting
Sarnath in 640 CE.

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Dhamekh Stupa at Sarnath

Stupas in Mirpur Khan in Sindh and at Ratnagiri (Orissa) have also

been believ ed to be constructed in this period.

In Nalanda, the Biddhist university was set up in 5th century. It was made
in bricks.

Painting:

Painting was evidently a major art in Gupta times, and the varied
paintings of the Ajanta Caves, which are much the best survivals,
show a very mature style and technique, clearly the result of a well-
developed tradition.

The other survivals are from the Bagh Caves.

Fresco Secco technique has been used.

Ajanta Paintings:

At Ajanta, it is thought that established teams of painters were

brought in when required to decorate a cave.
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Paintings are found in 6 caves. (some chaityas and some

viharas)

Paintings are found at walls, ceilings, door-frames and pillars.

There is significant difference between Ceiling painting and

door-frames and pillar painting in format and colors.

White color is widely used on ceilings and not on walls.

Absence of framing. No clear demarcation of scenes .

One scene merges into other.

Some kind of ‘multiple perspective’ and elements of technique

of foreshortening is used.

Pattern of highlighting certain parts in the face e.g. nose,

eyebrows etc.

This represents highlighting and shading pattern.

Under this, luminous glow is given to certain parts.

Painting exhibit stylistic variation.

This is indication of painting by different hands.

Paintings are in general multi-color paintings.

6 main colors are white, red, yellow, black, green and

blue.

Besides the blend of these 6 are visible.

Buddhist themes depicted into paintings.

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They are narrative paintings.

Events of Buddha’s life.

Scenes of Jataka’s.

Depiction of Bodhisattvas and the most common is

Avlokiteshwar also known as Padmapani.

Depiction of yaksha, Yakshini, Apsaras and Gandharvas.

Whole life of ancient India depicted in Panorama.

Depiction of women in homes, workers with loads and

peasants cultivating fields.

Depiction of birds, animals, trees, and flowers etc.

Depiction of ascetics performing penance, beggars seeking

alms etc.

Human figures at Ajanta painting is slender figure and well

proportioned figure.

These figures are high;y elegant and graceful.

Faces of women are marked by highly arched eyebrows and

elongated eyes.

costumes depicted are highly refined and sophisticated.

figures are characterized by ornament which also depicts

refinement and sophistication.

Hair style is also graceful and elegant.

Bagh paintings:

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Paintings are found in cave number 4 and cave number 5.

Paintings are both religious and secular.

Some of paintings shows processions where people shown

riding horses and elephants.

Scenes of princes in grief and a companion consoling.

Scenes of 2 divines and 2 princely figures. Both seated in

conversation.

Scenes of flying monks and devotees playing musical

instruments.

Some scenes depicts beautiful birds and animals. Some

depicts floral decoration.

Other forms of art:

Music: Coin (Lyrist type coin) during Samundragupta period showed

he was a good musician also. e.g. One of Samudragupta’s coin types
shows him playing the vina (lyre).

Drama: Various sanskrit plays were written during this period. e.g.
Abhigyanshakuntalam and vikramorvasiyam by Kalidas.
Mudrarakshasha by Vishakhadutta, and Mricchakatika by Shudraka.

Differences between Gupta and Mauryan art

Most of Mauryan sculptures, architectures were associated with the

King and court. e.g. Ashokan pillars, Stupas and Banabar Caves etc.

While there is no evidence that sculptures, architectures and

caves of Gupta period were constructed at the direction of
Kings.

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Mauryan arts reflects the transition from the use of wood to stone.

While Gupta arts reflects the transition from the use of stone to
bricks.

Mauryan period saw starting of cave architecture.

While temple architecture started during Gupta period.

Large-scale stone pillars were constructed during Mauryan period.

While in Gupta period we find the iron pillar e.g. Mehrauli pillar
constructed during Chandragupta II.

Coin of Mauryan period (only punch marked coins) doesn’t reflect the
artistic elegance like that of Gupta period.

Coin (Lyrist type coin) during Samundragupta period showed he was

a good musician also. e.g. One of Samudragupta’s coin types shows
him playing the vina (lyre).

No such tradition of music is visible from Mauryan period.

Gupta arts are generally further evolution of the art forms already
exiting from early period (Mauryan and post Mauryan period).

Mauryan are considered as pioneer of the art form existing

during Maurya period.

Brahmanical images are not visible in art form of Mauryan period.

Paintings art is not visible in Mauryan art.

While Painting during Gupta period had reached its perfection.

Q. The Gupta period is considered as a “Golden Age” but the

common masses lived in misery. To what extent do you agree with
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this statement?

Ans:

The Gupta Empire lasted from 320 AD to 550 AD. This age in ancient India
has been called the ‘Golden Age of India’ because of the all-round
progress witnessed in different spheres of human life and achievements in
different fields like arts, science and technology and literature etc. The
prosperity under the Gupta initiated a period of splendid
accomplishments in arts and sciences.

It is known as golden age also because large number of sources are

available to reconstruct the history of Guptas. Literature, both religious
and secular, writings of foreign travellers, inscriptions, coins, seals,
monuments etc. constitute various sources of the history of the Guptas.
Such diversity of sources are rarely available for other periods of ancient
India.

It is called golden age due to achievements in various fields:

Polity:

With the decline of Mauryan Empire, the unity and integrity of

India shattered. The central authority disappeared and regional
principalities emerged everywhere. This trend was reversed by
emergence of Gupta rulers in 4th Century AD. Gupta rulers
provided political unity to a large part of north India for nearly
two centuries, administered it well.

Therefore, the Gupta age witnessed political unification of

India after long period of more than 500 years after the decline
of Mauryans.

A number of strong and efficient rulers came to power during

Gupta period. For example, Chandragupta I, Samudragupta,

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Chandragupta II and Skandgupta ruled over extensive empires.

Attention was given to the dispensation of justice. Mostly fines

were imposed on law-breakers and corporal punishment was
given only in extreme cases of repeated offences. In general, the
punishments were light.

Fa-hien has also cites about good law and order situation
prevailing during Gupta period.

Economy:

Gupta age was full of economic prosperity. According to Chinese

traveller Fa-hien Magadh, the power centre of Gupta empire
was full of cities and its rich people.

Fa-hien says that enjoyed economic prosperity and the

burden of taxes on them was not heavy.

In ancient India, the Guptas issued the largest number of gold

coins which were called ‘dinaras’ in their inscriptions.

Achievements in the field of literature:

Sanskrit language and literature had reached its peak during

this period which had been taking into shape since long time.
The lavish royal patronage had encouraged the intellectuals to
put in their best and thus achieve an artistic excellence.

Various Puranas like Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana, Bhagvata

Purana, Harivamsha Purana, etc. had been compiled during this
time. These were important not only for studying Brahmanical
religion but also for the knowledge of genealogy and historical
traditions.

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This was the period when probably the epics Ramayana and
Mahabharata were finally compiled into their present form.

Several law books like those of Manu, Vishnu, Yajnavalkya,

Narada Brihaspati, and Katyayana were written during this
period.

Kalidasa, one of the navratnas in the court of Chandragupta II,

was undoubtedly the most renowned poet and dramatist of the
period.

He wrote lyrical poems like Meghaduta, Raghuvamsa,

Kumarasambhava and short poem like Ritusamhara.

His plays Abhijanashakuntalam, Malavikagnimitra and

Vikramorvashiya are classics in the field of Sanskrit
literature.

The famous Natya-shastra of Bharata was a treatise on dance,

drama and poetry. It provided foundation to literary
development.

Kamasutra of Vatsyayana, the first systematic illustration of the

art of love making shows the beginning of a strong presence of
the erotic tradition in literature.

Sudraka’s Mrichchhakatika, Mudrarakshasa and

Devichandraguptam of Vishakhadatta, Bharavi’s Kiratarjuniya,
Magha’s Shishupalavadha and Bhattikavya, Bhatti’s
Ravanavadha,Panchatantra fables written by a sage
Vishnusharman are some of the other achievements of the
period.

In the field of grammar, Bhartihari in the 5th century CE wrote a

commentary on Patanjali’s Mahavashya and Amarasimha

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compiled Amarakosha.

This was the time when Prakrit literature too got some
patronage outside the court.

Several of the Jaina texts were written in Prakrit during this

period. The most didactic work of the Jains written in prakrit
was the Paumacariyam by Vimalasuri.

Achievements in the field of Science and Technology:

It was during the Gupta age that many scientific breakthroughs

occurred.

In the field of astronomy, the most important Indian name is of

Aryabhata who flourished in the 5th century CE.

His work Aryabhatiyam, deals with astronomy and

mathematics.

He suggested that the earth revolved around the Sun and

rotated on its axis.

He also explained the eclipse and argued that it was the

shadow of the earth on the moon which caused eclipse.

he was the first person to use the decimal-value system.

he is the author of Aryabhata-siddhanta.

The close contemporary of Aryabhata was Varahamihira who

included the study of horoscope and astrology in astronomy.

His Panchasiddhantika (Five schools) discusses about the

five astronomical systems (siddhanta) of which two-
Romakasiddhanta and Paulishasiddhanta shows a close

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knowledge of Greek astronomy.

His another work, Brihatsamhita is encyclopaedic. It

covers wide ranging subjects of human interest, including
astrology, planetary movements, eclipses, rainfall, clouds,
architecture, growth of crops, manufacture of perfume,
matrimony, domestic relations, gems, pearls, and rituals.

The Laghu and Brihat-jataka are his works on horoscopy

and became popular during the Gupta age.

The roots of Indian mathematics are generally traced to the

shulvasutras which are appendices to the shrautasutras. It
made suggestions for the construction of Vedic sacrificial altars
which could be made only with the help of ruler and compass.

In the field of medical science

Ashtanga hridaya of vagbhata was written in this period.

The Navanitakam is the famous book of this age on

medicine

Veterinary medical science also progressed:

Hastyayurveda is a work to cure elephant’ diseases.

Asvasastra by Salihotra is a work on horse science.

Probably, Dhanavantari, the most renowned physician of

Ayurvedic medicines, also flourished during this age.

In chemical and metallurgy:

Nagarjuna, the famous Buddhist scholar, was also a great

student of medicine, chemistry and metallurgy. He

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discovered many new medicines. He invented rasa

therapy.

Use of mercury and iron in the treatment of diseases is

mentioned by Varahmihira.

Mehrauli iron pillar is a strong evidence to indicate highly

developed metallurgy.

Manufactured in the fourth century A.D. the pillar has

not gathered any rust in the subsequent 15 centuries. It
is a great tribute to the technological skill of the
craftsmen.

It was impossible to produce such a pillar in any iron

foundry in the west untill about a century ago.

It is pity that the later craftsmen could not develop this

knowledge further.

Several bronze image of the Buddha was produced at

considerable scale.

Achievements in art and architecture;

Sarnath school and Mathura schools are two major sculptural

school of art developed during Gupta time.

During Gupta period this art was totally free from foreign
influence and took it to its best form.

Nagara architecture had its origin during Gupta period.

Some Cave architectures like Ajanta and Bagh caves are also
constructed during Gupta time.

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Ajanta and Bagh paintings testifies the achievements in mural

painting art of this era.

Music, Dance and Drama:

Music, dance and the art of acting and drama were

patronized by the Gupta emperors.

The coins of Samudra Gupta justify it. Coin (Lyrist type coin)
during Samundragupta period showed he was a good
musician also. e.g. One of Samudragupta’s coin types
shows him playing the vina (lyre).

Women were trained in these fine arts, particularly the

prostitutes, the Devdasis and the Nagaravadhus. Besides,
we find innumerable references of these arts in literary texts
of this age.

Various sanskrit plays were written during this period. e.g.

Abhigyanshakuntalam and vikramorvasiyam by Kalidas.
Mudrarakshasha by Vishakhadutta, and Mricchakatika by
Shudraka.

Dr Coomarswamy has remarked, “Gupta art marks the zenith in a

perfectly normal cycle of artistic evolution.”

Further, it helped in the progress of art in South India as well as

in the countries of South East Asia where the Indian culture had
by then penetrated.

Developments in religious aspect of life:

Hinduism:

The transformation of the ancient Brahmanical faith into

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something like modern Hinduism, its final triumph against

Buddhism and Jainism, its spirit of liberalism, its absorption
of foreigners within its fold and the practice of tolerance by
every religion, are regarded as the distinguishing features of
the religious life of the Gupta age.

Neo-Hinduism which mostly provided the base to modern

Hinduism was organised during the Gupta age.

They provided protection to the Bhagavata sect of

Hinduism, called themselves Bhagavatas, worshipped god
Vishnu and his spouse Lakshmi, marked Garuda (vehicle of
Vishnu) on their state-flag, performed Asvamedha
sacrifices, gave large donations to Brahmanas and built
many temples.

Besides, a large number of scholars wrote different texts

and revised or compiled the old ones which certainly helped
in the growth of Hinduism.

Practically all the Puranas were written during this age;

the Sutras were prepared or compiled; and the
Mahabharata was given a new shape.

Of course, the construction of the temples, emphasis on

Bhakti-Marg and concept of incarnation of God in different
forms started earlier than the Gupta age. But, now all these
infiltrated down to the masses and became their universal
beliefs.

The old Vedic religion yet formed the basis of Hinduism

but its form was changed. The common people did not
forget to practice the ancient Vedic religion based
mostly on ritualism and sacrifices which they neither

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understood nor had the economic means to pursue.

They were now attracted to a simple and economically
less burdensome religion based on faith and worship.

Absorbing within itself all the essentials of the ancient and

the new Brahamanic religion, Hinduism took a new shape
during the Gupta age, proved most attractive to the
common people and became the dominant religion in
India once again.

The acceptance of what was attractive in Buddhism or

Jainism, the adaptability to new circumstances and ideas
and the liberalism in accepting even the foreigners within its
fold also helped in the popularity of Hinduism.

It has been said that it was the revival of Hinduism or

‘Hindu Renaissance’ that took place during this age.

However, it is better to suggest that the process did not

start with the Guptas. It started much earlier and only found
its culmination during the age of the Imperial Guptas.

Bhagavatism, which was a contemporary to Buddhism and

Jainism in origin and owed its birth to the stream of thought
which began with the Upanishads, reached its zenith and
became the most popular religion during this age.

The theory of ten Avatar as or incarnations of the

supreme god Vishnu was accepted and, amongst
them, Krishna was regarded as the most important
one.

The Buddha was also accepted as one of the ten

incarnations of Vishnu and the worship of Rama, the

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hero of the Ramayana, also started, though it did not

become much popular at that time.

However, Saivism became more widespread, particularly in

South India, and Siva-worship became as popular as that of
Vishnu.

Different rulers of the Vakatakas, the Nalas and the

Kadambas accepted Saivism and built temples in
honour of Siva.

Mathura was an important place in the North where

Pasupata-cult of Saivism became most popular. Actually,
Bhagavatism and Saivism became so close to each other
that both were accepted as part of the same religion, viz.,
Hinduism.

Temples were built by the followers of both the sects

and image-worship became most popular in Hinduism.

Besides, Brahma, Surya, Kartikeya, Ganesa, Durga, Lakshmi,

Sarasvati and other lesser gods like Indra, Varuna, Yama,
etc. also remained the objects of worship. The snakes, the
Yakshas, the Gandharvas, the Apsaras also continued to be
revered.

Even animals (i.e. cow), plants (i.e. Tulsi), rivers (i.e. the
Ganga and the Yamuna) and mountains (the Himalayas)
were looked at with reverence and cities like Banaras and
Pravag (Allahabad) became places of pilgrimage.

The worship of Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu and Siva) also

started during this age.

Thus, all prominent features of modern Hinduism had

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virtually taken shape during the Gupta-period.

Hinduism absorbed within its folds all foreigners like the

Greeks, the Sakas and the Kushanas. Besides, it spread
itself beyond the frontiers of India.

Hindu missionaries and religious preachers went as far

as Syria and Mesopotamia in the West and to the
islands of Java, Sumatra and Borneo in the South-East
Asia, drew large converts and helped in the
propagation of Indian culture there.

Buddhism:

Buddhism was also widely supported during this period. Of

course, Hinduism became the most popular religion in India
and particularly superseded Buddhism in Bengal, Bihar and
Uttar Pradesh, yet Buddhism remained popular in many
parts of India.

Dr A.S. Altekar writes, “The general view that Buddhism was

on the decline in the Gupta period, owing to the revival of
Hinduism under the Guptas, is not supported by the above
survey of its pliilosophical activity. Nor is it confirmed by the
artistic evidence.”

Renowned Buddhist scholars like Asanga, Vasubandhu,

Kumarjiva and Dignaga wrote their best scholarly works
during this time.

Besides, the artistic creations of Ajanta and Ellora caves

and the Dhamek Stupa built at Sarnath, monastery at
Nalanda and images of the Buddha of this time justify the
fact that Buddhism was also quite popular.

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The account of Fa-hien testifies to the same.

Buddhism remained quite popular at Kashmir, Gandhara,

Mathura, Sanchi, Nalanda, Vallabhi, Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Pradesh during this period.

However, it is accepted that due to the increased popularity

of Hinduism, Buddhism had certainly lost its first position in
India.

It is also said that later Guptas (e.g. Buddha Gupta) was the
follower of Buddhism.

Jainism also remained popular during this period and efforts

were made to strengthen it further.

Two Jaina councils were convened at Mathura and Vallabhi

respectively, in 313 A.D. Another council was called again in
453 A.D. at Vallabhi. Fresh commentaries were written on
Jaina-texts which enriched Jaina literature.

While the Svetambara sect of Jainism remained popular at

Mathura and Vallabhi, its Digambara sect was popular in
Karnataka and Mysore.

Jainism was also popular in some parts of Bengal and at

Kanchi in the South.

It was provided patronage by the Kadamba and Ganga

dynasties of the South.

The one basic feature of the religious life of the Gupta age was
the spirit of religious toleration between different religious
communities. e.g.

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The followers of the Hinayana and the Mahavana sect lived

in the same monasteries.

Hinduism accepted the Buddha as one of the incarnations

of Vishnu.

The emperors also practised religious toleration in their private

and public life.

Samudra Gupta himself believed in Hinduism but he had

appointed a Buddhist scholar, Vasubandhu, as the tutor of
his son.

The Gupta rulers gave generous grants to all scholars and

religious institutions including Buddhism and Jainism.

The University of Nalanda was also patronised by the

Gupta, rulers.

Development in Education:

Literature, science and fine arts progressed tremendously during

the Gupta age. This is the best proof that there existed a varied
and sound system of education during this period in the absence
of which neither intellectualism could grow nor progress could
be achieved in different fields of life.

Pataliputra, Vallabhi, Ujjayini, Padmavati, Avarapur,

Vatsagulma, Kashi, Mathura, Nasik, Kanchi, etc., were the
centres of learning where universities were established.

The rulers and the rich people gave large donations in cash, land
or material to educational institutions, though they were all
autonomous in their functioning.

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University education was provided only to meritorious

students.

The admission to a university was done on the past

performance of a student. Once a student was admitted to
a university he was provided not only free education but
also free boarding and lodging.

In the sixth century, the university of Nalanda became

renowned all over Asia. The universities provided both religious
and secular education to students according to their choice or
capability.

The existence of many universities suggests that institutions of

the lower level existed in every pan of India and education was
quite widespread.

Social achievements:

Spread of varna system to remote areas using system of land

grants.

Some improvements in conditions of Shudras and women. e.g.

they were now permitted to listen to the Ramayana, the
Mahabharata and the Puranas. They could also worship new god
called Krishna and allowed to perform certain domestic rites.

Women are visible on coins and seals e.g. Queens are depicted
on the ‘king and queen type’ of coins, and on the reverse of
certain coins.

Dr V.A. Smith writes, “The age of great Gupta kings presented a more
agreeable and satisfactory picture than any other period in the history of
Hindu India. Literature, art and science flourished in a degree beyond
ordinary and gradual changes in religion were effected without

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persecution.”

Thus, the Gupta age marked the progress of India, particularly that of
North India in every field of life. The political unity of large part of India, its
economic prosperity, the spirit of religious toleration, the revival of Hindu
religion and Sanskrit literature, the acceptance of foreigners within the
Hindu society and religion, progress in fine arts, spreading of Indian
culture in foreign countries, particularly those of South-East Asia etc.,
were such achievements that have provided this period a unique place in
ancient Indian history and it deserves to be ranked as the golden age of
ancient India. A historian has remarked that “Never in her history has India
seen such a many-sided blossoming of her force in life.”

Limitations of Gupta age:

Dr Romila Thapar contends that when we accept the Gupta period as

the classical age of ancient India we have to accept its limitations
also. She says that the living standards, which reached their peak,
were limited to upper classes alone and, further the classicism of the
Gupta period was restricted to northern India alone. i.e.

Geographically the golden age of the Gupta period was limited

only to northern India. Dr Romila Thapar has rightly expressed
that in south India, economic prosperity began much after the
period of the Guptas.

The common masses lived in misery:

Another view expressed by several modern scholars is that the

advantage of the increased prosperity during the Gupta age was
drawn largely by rulers, mercantile and trading community and
the Brahamanas.

The land was given to the Brahamanas first as donations.

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Then afterwards, it was donated to individuals in lieu of

services to the state.

It marked the beginning of feudalism which resulted in

bringing misery to the peasants, Sudras and slaves.

It resulted, in some cases, permanent bondage to peasants

and social tensions among different castes.

The number of chandalas( untouchables) increased and their

condition worsened during the Gupta age. Fa-Hien has
described the wretched condition of the Chandalas.

Even the texts written by the great Sanskrit scholar, Kalidas

described values which supported the life-style of rich people.
Even in the field of fine arts we find that most of them flourished
under the patronage of rich classes and therefore, folk-arts
failed to develop. The economic condition of the common
people also did not improve during the Gupta age.

Position of women declined too. The origin of system of Sati lies

in Gupta period (Eran inscription, 510 A.D.).

Thus, it can be said that Gupta age did not witness much progress in the
social development and economic prosperity too was limited to upper
strata of society. In this way the golden character of Gupta age can be
accepted only in degrees not in absolute terms.

Yet, we have to understand that the poor were neglected at that time all
over the world and the measurement of success and failure of a rule or the
rule of a particular dynasty should be viewed on the basis of the
contemporary prevailing conditions in general. Therefore, if we assess the
Gupta age from the then prevailing code of assessment, we can fairly
accept the Gupta age as the golden age of ancient India.

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