INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Monopoly over instruments of Decentralized instruments of

violence violence
GLOBAL TRENDS AND ISSUES IN THE 21ST
Lawful authority Self-help
CENTURY / REAL TIME
 Aggression of Rusia against Ukraine (Feb. 24, 2022 - Present) Security Insecurity/security dilemma
 Sporadic Tensions (China v. Taiwan, Japan v. China, India v.
China, West Philippine Sea v. China, Armenia v. Azerbaijan in Justice Power
Nagorro Karabakh, Israel v. Palestine, Hamas, Hezbollah v. Iran
Community Friends & Enemies
v. Arabs).
 Terrorism (Houthis, Al Qaeda, ISIS). Peace & Order War
 Climate Change / Natural Disasters
 Digital Dictatorship (Harrari, 2015).
 Globalization Perhaps the term that distinguishes international relations more than
any other is Anarchy. Anarchy means the absence of rule, but not
WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS? necessarily disorder and chaos, has been the core presumption and
● The academic study of international relations emerged when it did constitutive principle for much of the discipline’s history (Onuf, 1989: 166;
in the early twentieth century. Schmidt, 1998)
● The need to “globalize” the study of international relations, to
make it an academic discipline more open to non-Western Regarding what constitutes this “Great Divide”, the most
perspectives and forms of knowledge. influential realist IR theorist of the late 20th century, Kenneth Waltz (1979:
● It then sketches the contours of the changing agenda of remarked that, “The difference between national and international politics
international relations– a shift some scholars describe as a lies not in the use of force but in the different modes of organization for
transition from international relations to world politics, or from doing something about it.”
the “traditional” to the “new” agenda.
● International relations attempts to explain the interactions of states Domestic International
in the global interstate system, and it also attempts to explain the
interactions of others whose behavior originates within one Inside Outside
country and is targeted toward members of other countries.
● In short, the study of international relations is an attempt to explain
In any case, the presumed differences between domestic and
behavior that occurs across the boundaries of states, the broader
international politics seem to vindicate Martin Wight’s (1966:21) observation
relationships of which such behavior is a part, and the institutions
that, “It has become natural to think of international politics as the untidy
(private, state, non-governmental, and inter-governmental) that
fringe of domestic politics, there may be good reasons for casting doubt over
oversee those interactions.
the “Great Divide” as the point of departure for International Relations
● It refers to external relations among nations, states.
today.”
● The adjective “international” was coined by the English Political
Philosopher Jeremy Bentham in 1780. The neologism’s purpose
According to the ‘Great Divide’, domestic politics takes place on
was to capture relations among nations in a single word
the inside of states whereas international relations take place on the outside,
(Suganami, 1978)
as if they were two mutually exclusive realms.
● Although, “international” literally means relations among
nations, it has for most of its existence referred to relations
among states.
● In Bentham’s time, “nation” and “state” were often used DOMESTIC POLITICS
interchangeably, so his meaning was closer to what we should Domestic politics is premised on the presence of a central
probably call “interstate” relations (Devetak). authority or government that has monopoly control over the instruments
● Every day, the global news media carry stories of events involving of violence, that can lay down and enforce the law, that establishes and
foreign governments and their populations. maintains order and security, and that permits justice and peace to be
● Usually featured under the heading of “international affairs” or delivered to the community of citizens.
“world news”, these stories all too frequently tell of political
violence, lives and livelihoods lost, human rights violated,
DOMESTIC INTERNATIONAL
infrastructure damaged and hopes for the restoration of peace and
prosperity dashed. Hierarchy Anarchy
● War, terrorism, civil war and political upheaval rather than peace
Monopoly over instruments of Decentralized instruments of
makes the news headlines— and understandably so, because
violence violence
violent conflict of war so visibly ravages human societies. “If it
bleeds, it leads”, as the cynical media adage goes.
● In any case, international relations have been distinguished first THE POSSIBLE MODES OF ORGANIZATION
and foremost from domestic politics. Ian Clark (1999) calls this 1. Hierarchical
the “Great Divide” a. Involving clear lines of authority and obedience.
b. The key, according to Waltz, is governance: is there a
THE “GREAT DIVIDE” supreme authority with the right to lay down and
enforce the law? If the answer is ‘yes’, then we must
Domestic International be in the hierarchical realm of domestic politics—
politics within the state.
Inside Outside 2. Anarchical
a. Involving no such lines of authority and obedience
Hierarchy Anarchy (Waltz, 1979)

1
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

b. Is there a supreme authority with the right to lay down

and enforce the law? If the answer is ‘no’, then we
must be in the anarchical realm of international WHAT IS A CASE STUDY?
relations— politics between states. ● A case study is a research process aimed at learning about a
subject, an event, or an organization. Case studies are used in
business, the social sciences, and healthcare. A case study may
focus on one observation or man. It can also examine a series of
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
events or a single case. An effective case study tells a story and
International relations are the negative image of domestic politics.
provides a conclusion.
In contrast to the domestic realm, the international is premised on the
● Case studies utilize the rich resources of local archival collections
absence of an overarching authority or government that can lay down and
to provide an in-depth historical analysis of key individuals,
enforce the law because the instruments of violence are dispersed and
pivotal events, and important public policies, whereas cases in
decentralized. This establishes ripe conditions for insecurity, where injustice
point offer a snapshot in time of a particular event that had a
and war are permanent potentials and regular actualities for states.
direct impact on policy in the region.
● Case studies are real-life scenarios used to illuminate an issue — a
theoretical concept, a policy, an ethical dilemma— by placing the
Domestic International student at the center of the decision-making process. They build
critical thinking, communication as well as leadership skills.
Security Insecurity/Security dilemma Intuitive as it might seem, there’s more to case learning than just
States are trapped in a “security dilemma”, whereby measures having a structured discussion.
taken to enhance their security lead others to take similar countermeasures ● It should prompt students to analyze the issues at stake, make
and in the process generate further mistrust and insecurity. judgements about them, draw conclusions, and suggest
recommendations for further action or future behaviors, with the
implications for broader policy context and professional skills in
Domestic International view.

Justice Power
Comparative Case Studies Political Science Research
It is a world of friends and enemies, where power rather than
justice will determine international outcomes, and where states cannot afford Comparative case studies involve Research particularly in
to put their trust or security in others (Waltz, 1979) the analysis and synthesis of the international relations and
similarities, differences, and comparative politics, has
patterns across two or more cases increasingly become dominated by
Domestic International that share a common focus or goal statistical and formal approaches.
in a way that produces knowledge The promise of these approaches
Community Friends and Enemies that is easier to generalize about shifted the methodological emphasis
causal questions— how and why away from case study research. In
particular programs or policies response, supporters of case study
GLOBALIZING INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS work or fail to work. research argue that case studies
Moving beyond American-centrism or Eurocentric Biases and provide evidence for causal claims
making IR a genuinely global discipline. The point of globalizing IR was not that is not available through
to create a single global discipline that was homogeneous in its outlook and statistical and formal research
methods, but to create a more diverse and inclusive discipline grounded in methods, and many have advocated
multimethod research. It propose a
world history, This involves not simply inquiring into the different ways that
way of understanding the
world politics is studied and understood outside the West– although this is integration of multiple
crucial–but also interrogating critically the way methodologies in which the causes
IR is studied inside the West, disclosing hidden biases in the way sought in case studies are treated as
knowledge is produced. singular causation and contingent
on a theoretical framework.
The project of globalizing IR therefore comprises two tasks:
1. It must incorporate subject matter and perspectives from the non-
West, giving voice to often marginalized and neglected peoples
and states in the post-colonial world–both academic and non- CASE STUDY FORMAT
academic voices. ➢ Executive Summary
2. It must reflect on the intellectual assumptions, concepts and ○ Explains what will be examined in the case study. An
categories that shape how international relations are studied in the overview of the field you're researching. A thesis
West. statement and sum up the results of your observation in
a maximum of 2 sentences.
To globalize IR, then, is to ‘provincialize’ a predominantly ➢ Background
western IR, to borrow the language of postcolonial theorist Dipesh ○ Provide background information and the most relevant
Chakrabarty (2000). It is to show that the West’s experiences are not facts. Isolate the issues.
universal. ➢ Case Evaluation
○ Isolate the sections of the study you want to focus on.
In short, what Global IR seeks is not to discard or disavow In it, explain why something is working or not
mainstream theories and concepts sourced from the West, but to render our working.
discipline more inclusive and broader, so that it reflects voices and ➢ Proposed Solutions
experiences outside the West more fully. ○ Offer realistic ways to solve what isn’t working or how
to improve its current condition. Explain why these
solutions work by offering testable evidence.
➢ Conclusion
LESSON 2: CASE STUDY IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS ○ Summarize the main points from the case evaluations
2
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
and proposed solutions.

3
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

➢ Recommendations
➢ Machiavelli
○ Talk about the strategy that you should choose. Explain
○ After his death, Machiavelli’s name came to evoke
why this choice is the most appropriate.
unscrupulous acts of the sort he advised most famously
➢ Implementation
in his work, The Prince. He claimed that his experience
○ Explain how to put the specific strategies into action.
and reading of history showed him that politics have
➢ References
always been played with deception, treachery, and
○ Provide all citations.
crime. He also notably said that a ruler who is
establishing a kingdom or a republic, and is criticized
LESSON 3: LIBERALISM AND REALISM for his deeds, including violence, should be excused
when the intention and the result are beneficial to him.
The two major theories of international relations are realism and ○ Machiavelli’s Prince has been surrounded by
liberalism. Most theories of international relations are based on the idea that controversy. Some consider it to be a straightforward
states always act in accordance with their national interest, or the interests of description of political reality.
that particular state. (e.g. survival, security, economic, welfare of other
citizens, etc.) ➢ Thomas Hobbes
● A theory is a set of propositions and concepts that combine to ○ Hobbes’ “state of nature” in Leviathan (1968), Hobbes
explain phenomena by specifying the relationship among portrays the state of nature as the antithesis of the civil
propositions. society that forms when individuals agree to establish a
● Theory depends on a logical deduction of hypothesis from state and sovereign authority. The state of nature, says
assumptions and a testing of the hypothesis as more and more data Hobbes, is a state of war that pits “every man against
are collected in the empirical world we often must revise or adjust every man” because there is no “common power to
theories (Mingst & Arreguin-Toft, 2017). keep them all in awe.” In such a condition, there is no
justice, no law, no property, says Hobbes. “Every man
has a right to everything,” this is why Hobbes
RUSSIA-UKRAINE WAR famously described the life of individuals in this
● Individual Level condition as “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”
○ Vladimir Putin is an evil man who disregards the life of
Ukrainians as well as the Russian just to attain his goal ➢ Hans Morgenthau
(territorial expansion). ○ He is the first classical realist.
○ Putin was irrational, miscalculating his own military ○ He wrote the book entitled “Politics Among Nations.”
might versus the Ukrainian Military and the West’ ○ He defined power as “Power may comprise anything that
willingness to support Ukraine. establishes and maintains the power of man over man...
○ Volodymyr Zelenskyy and the Ukrainians strong from physical violence to the most subtle psychological
willingness to fight until winning the war. ties by which one mind controls another” (The most
● State Level important material aspect of power is armed forces).
○ Ukraine must protect its country’s sovereignty, ○ According to Morgenthau, the struggle for power at the
territorial integrity and survival. international level is largely the result of animus
○ Russia’s invasion of Ukraine is just the beginning of a dominandi, the ‘political man’ urge to dominate others.
bigger plan. ○ He regards the state as a collective reflection of
● International Level political man’s lust for power and the unit which
○ Anarchy, no mechanism to intervene or stop the war. carries out its impulses at the international stage.
○ Power e.g. nuclear weapons could prevent intervention ○ Anarchy is not the deep cause of power competition but
militarily from rival superpower/other countries. a vital permissive force. The absence of world
REALISM government means that there are no constraints on
 Historically, realism has been the dominant theory of International man’s basic desires, reflected in state behavior, to
Relations and a point of reference for alternative theories. dominate others.
 Against this optimism, realism comported a more pessimistic
outlook that was felt to be necessary in the tragic realm of According to realists, conflict is inevitable – even necessary – in
international politics. international politics.
 Realists lay claim to a long tradition of political thought, including When disputes cannot be resolved peacefully or diplomatically,
such eminent thinkers whose point of departure is the study of force – which ultimately leads to war – is viewed as a decisive means of
conflict and power politics. settling matters.
Insofar as order exists in international relations, it is the precarious
REALIST THINKERS product of the balance of power or hegemony (supremacy by a great power
➢ Thucydides (c. 460 – c. 400 BC) and its allies), according to realists (Dehio 1963; Levy 1983).
○ He also has been called the father of the school of
political realism, which views the political behavior of BUT WHO ARE THE REALISTS? WHAT IS
individuals and the subsequent outcomes of relations
between states as ultimately mediated by, and
REALISM?
constructed upon fear and self-interest. His text is still  The pragmatic acceptance of conflict and power politics is
studied at universities and military colleges worldwide. essential to realism’s outlook. Realism is best understood as both
The Melian dialogue is regarded as a seminal work of an eclectic and plural tradition of thought, rather than a theory as
IR Theory. such, and a practical guide to the politics of international
○ More generally, Thucydides developed an relations.
understanding of human nature to explain behavior in  Realists are political theorists and practitioners who, since the
such crises as plagues, massacres, and civil war. inter- war years (1918-1938), have self-consciously subscribed to
this tradition of thought. They know the relationship between
theory and practice is complex. Wherever choices have to be
made and
4
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

decisions taken, the gulf between generalizations and the unique

case that calls for action is deep and cannot be bridged. NEOREALISM
 Also known as structural realism
 Keneth Waltz – the founding father of neorealism
WHAT IS THE RELEVANCE OF REALISM? o He attempts to develop a systematic and scientific
 One of the reasons for realism’s enduring relevance is its emphasis realism in his 1979 book, “Theory of International
on history. Realism claims to speak about historical reality, and it Politics.”
takes its convictions, orientations and practice from history. Thus o He defined power based on the “size of population and
it is not surprising that we can locate its roots in the Greek territory, resource endowment, economic capability,
political and historical thought of the fifth century BCE, as military strength, political stability, and competence.”
embodied in Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War (Waltz, 1979: 131).
(1972). o Waltz argued that the states who struggle for power are
 Looking at the clash between the great powers of his time (Athens, simply following that dictates of the international
Sparta, and Persia). Thucydides searched for the fundamental system in order to survive in an international order
causes of conflict, the profound logistics behind political events where there is no global leviathan to offer them
and the instrument of power deployed by political actors– openly, protection.
secretly, or through dissimulation. He concentrated on war because
war is the ultimate test for those who want to distinguish reality
from appearance in international politics. As the name itself LIBERALISM
reveals, this resolute striving to engage with stubborn political  The historical-political context of the term “liberalism” dates only
realities – no matter how tragic or unpleasant – is one of the from the nineteenth century, but the distinctive liberal pattern of
principal claims of realism as a tradition of thought. ideas crystallized much earlier, in political struggle against
monarchical absolutism in seventeenth-century England, and was
INTERNATIONAL ANARCHY formulated as a coherent political doctrine by the English
 The expression “international anarchy” made its first appearance philosopher John Locke.
during the Great War, and became a fundamental concept not just
TWO TREATISES OF GOVERNMENT (1988 [1690])
for realists but more generally for IR as a 20th century academic
discipline. Ironically, G. Lowes Dickinson, who published books ● John Locke
○ The end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to
titled, The European Anarchy (1916) and The International
preserve and enlarge freedom, where there is no law,
Anarchy (1926), was one of the authors whom British diplomat,
there is no freedom.
newspaper editor and historian E.H. Carr (1946) discredited as a
naive idealist in his classic. ○ For liberty is to be free from restraint and violence from
 The Twenty Years’ Crisis, this latter book is considered by one others which cannot be, where there is no law: but
freedom is not, as we are told. A liberty for every man
historian as “the first coherent realist theory yet in print,” has had
to do what he lists (desires): for who could be free,
an immense impact not just on realist thought but on the
when every other man’s humor might dominate him?
development of IR as a discipline.
○ But a liberty to dispose, and order, as he lists, his
person, actions, possessions, and his whole property,
SECURITY as “eternal” within the allowance of those laws under which he is;
 Notwithstanding the contested nature of the national interest, in the and therein not to be subject to the arbitrary will of
context of international anarchy, security is one of the interests that another, but freely follow his own.
Raymond Aron, following Hobbes, calls “eternal.” As in the state
of nature, self-help is the only certain means to the uncertain end Political ideas and arguments that would later be identified with
of self-preservation or survival. Each state aspires to survive as liberalism were embraced in the eighteenth century by French Enlightenment
independent, making major decisions on its own. But, in the last philosophers and the American founding fathers.
analysis, it can count only on itself. Since sovereign states do not Liberal rights and freedoms were proclaimed in declarations such as:
recognize any other higher authority, nothing other than states ➢ The American Declaration of Independence (1776)
themselves can prevent or counter the use of force in their ○ The declaration of independence was designed for
relations. It is only through the balance of power that states — multiple audiences: the King, the colonists, and the
alone or through alliances — can check the power of other states. world. It was also designed to multitask. Its goals were
Most importantly, the balance of power can preserve a state’s to rally the troops, win foreign allies, and to announce
independent existence from threat, aggression, and hegemony (the the creation of a new country.
domination by a great power and its allies). It is for these reasons ➢ The French Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789)
that realists see the balance of power as the only real means to ○ The declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen
achieve common security. came into existence in the summer of 1789, born of an
 Survival is of paramount relevance in international relations, and idea of the constituent assembly, which was formed by
fear is a fundamental emotion because it is an indispensable emotion the assembly of the Estates General to draft a new
for survival. Each monarch keeps ready all the armies and this constitution, and precede it with a declaration of
state in which all strain against all is called peace. principles.
 In modern terms, this spiral of insecurity is called the security ➢ Manifestos such as Thomas Paine’s Rights of Man (1791-1792)
dilemma (Herz, 1962). It means that providing for one’s own ○ What are the rights of man according to Thomas Paine?
security can– often inadvertently– increase the sense of insecurity ○ Paine explored the idea that a government based on true
in other states. Thus, the military arrangements of one state, justice should support not only mankind’s natural rights
including “defensive” arrangements, are likely to be matched by (life, liberty, free speech, freedom of conscience) but
other states, thereby creating a dangerous spiral that, also its civil rights (relating to security and protection.)
paradoxically, leaves every state feeling even more insecure.
➢ Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
(1792)
○ She argues that women are not naturally inferior to men,

5
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
but appear to be only because they lack education. She

6
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

suggests that both men and women should be treated as

rational beings and imagines a social order founded on View of History Recurrence & Progressive change
reason. Repetition
➢ Adam Smith’s the Wealth of Nations (1988 [1776])
○ Liberal thought on the political economy developed
along similar lines. Adam Smith’s The Wealth of
Nations, with its themes of the division of labor free.
The wealth of the nations is a profoundly influential LESSON 4: MARXISM AND FEMINISM
work in the study of economics and examines exactly
how nations become wealthy. Adam Smith advocates MARXISM
that by allowing individuals to freely pursue their own
Marxism is a political, cultural, and economic philosophy that
self- interest in a free market, without government
theorizes that social conflict exists due to constant power struggles between
regulation, nations will prosper.
capitalists and workers.

LIBERALISM AND WAR EXPLANATION WAGE EXPLOITATION

Liberal ideas on international relations also emerged in the 18th century.
Viewing war as irrational violence and attributing it to the unrestrained The founder of Marxism, Karl According to Marx, the bourgeoisie
power, vanity and ambition of monarchs, liberals looked to the same remedy Marx, saw capitalist society as kept salaries low to maximize
as for internal oppression: the removal of the old regime. The republics that clearly divided into two classes. profits. This is only possible as
were to replace it would have no reason to make war, but would be free to long as another worker willingly
The bourgeois own capital. This replaces the one who refuses to
enjoy the benefits of peaceful commerce.
includes resources like land, means accept the conditions.
of production (factories), materials,
● Immanuel Kant and money.
○ There is no major theoretical statement of these ideas,
but they were drawn together by the principal The workers don’t own capital. An example of this in today’s world
philosopher of the German Enlightenment, Immanuel They sell their labor power to the is the move of large manufacturing
Kant, in a brief essay titled “Perpetual Peace.” Early Bourgeoisie. companies from Europe and the
liberal though were not democratic. In Locke’s United States to Asian and African
Marx argued that the Bourgeoisie countries in the 20th century. They
emphasis on property rights, “consent” meant election
exploited the labor offered by the relocated to low-cost labor
by property holders – then a small minority. Kant’s countries to maximize profit and
workers to make profit.
republics were not democracies. maintain high growth rates.

The violence of the French Revolution confirmed liberal fears of

the “tyranny” of the majority” – or more simply, “the rule of the mob.”
Liberal democracy dates only from the 19th century – relatively early in the KARL MARX’S THEORY OF CAPITALIST
United States, much later in Europe, and initially for men only. Women had EVOLUTION
to wait until the twentieth century. ● Marx’s theory of capitalist evolution needs to be placed in the
context of his theory of history.
● He argues that new economic and social systems emerge as a
NEOLIBERALISM/LIBERAL
result of social contradictions that center on struggles over the
INSTITUTIONALISM production and distribution of material output.
 Neoliberalism shares many assumptions as neorealism (namely, that ● Different classes of society have differential access to property and
the international system is anarchic, states are the main actors, and power.
states rationally pursue their self-interest), but draws different ● Political institutions emerge to support the dominant form or mode
conclusions from those assumptions. of exploitation.
 Neoliberalism argues that cooperation is feasible and sustainable. ● Social evolution is punctuated by intense social conflict and
Neoliberals highlight the role of international institutions and occasional revolutionary transformation.
regimes in facilitation cooperation between states. The main
reason why international organizations facilitate cooperation is
MARX’S VIEW ON CAPITALISM
that they provide information, which reduces collective action
● Communism was a theory by Karl Marx as a way to organize
problems among states in providing public goods and enforcing
society fairly.
compliance.
● Marx saw that capitalism creates classes in society.
 Neoliberalism emphasizes market-based principles and economic
● Bourgeoisie are the owners.
integration as the driving forces for cooperation
● Proletariat are the workers.

SUMMARY (RELAISM v. LIBERALISM) Note that when speaking of Marxism, we refer to a social and
philosophical theory. When speaking of communism, we refer to a social,
REALISM LIBERALISM
political, and economic regime.
Main Actor States Individuals Many countries are considered to have established communism in
the 20th century. An example is the Eastern European bloc and the Soviet
Contextual Focus Anarchy Institutions Union, which were under communist leadership until the 1990s. But these
communist regimes– although ideologically founded upon Marxist ideas–
Fundamental Value Security Liberty were far from what Marx envisioned for society. So Marxism and
Communism should not be confused.
Elemental Behavior Conflict Cooperation This introduces to the rich and controversial legacy of Marxism
and one of its major offshoots in the tentieth century, critical theory. It is
Outlook Pessimism Optimism
presented in two parts. The first touches on the historical and intellectual
context that
7
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

‘created’ Marxism, Marx’s notion of historical materialism and the issue of

women can provide useful insights into how they operate. For instance, a
how Marx’s Ideas have been recieved in IR.
young Mexican in a New York hotel may not appear to be in relations.
However, an analysis of her life can include state relations, the international
KEY FEATURES OF MARX’S THEORETICAL political economy, migration, globalization, the politics of labor and gender
FRAMEWORK relations. In this sense, she is an important agent of international politics.
1. Recognition of industrial modernity’s emancipatory potential.
(Giving people social or political freedom and rights.)
2. Critique of capitalism for generating unequal social relations
which lead to domination, exploitation, and oppression. DISCRIMINATORY LAWS ON WOMEN
3. Explanation of class conflict as an outgrowth of power struggles Women continue to do most housework, subsistence
between those who own and control the means of production (the discrimination is also healthcare, land ownership, the causes of this structural
bourgeoisie) and those who do not (the proletariat). and institutional. Why are women less likely to do unpaid work (such as
4. Critique of liberalism as an ideology that legitimizes capitalism. caring, farming, and agricultural work). This is reflected in access to
5. Exploration of potential sources of progressive social change. education and legal rights. Feminists argue that discrimination can be social,
cultural. For instance, there are many reasons to be landowners. These
As Marx and Engels pronounced, capitalism’s global expansion in reasons could include discriminatory laws relating to land ownership,
the 19th century draws all, even the most barbarian nations into civilization. inheritance rights and divorce settlements within a country. If a majority of
For Marx, though– unlike his liberal counterparts– the capitalist stage of women’s work has been unpaid or casualized, then women might not have
progressive development and its bourgeois ideology could not possible the capacity to access credit.
represent the apex of human achievement– it was too selfish and exploitative There might be social and cultural practices that inhibit women’s
for this– and must, therefore be superseded by a higher form of productive abilities to access their rights or discourage them from buying property. An
and social life, initially of a socialist kind and some time later of a communist understanding of these issues has led to programs designed to empower
kind. women economically and challenge biased social values, legal structures and
institutions. One such program is the use of microfinance (small loans) to
MARXISM ARGUED (IR) women to support engagement in their local economy. These loans are
 State as part of capital system; structure i.e. International designed to support women to build businesses, stabilize their income,
Organizations. improve their standard of living, and gain independence.
 Human Nature (e.g. selfish, personal interest) as a historical The feminist IR agenda seeks to identify patterns of
product of material conditions discrimination, explain their causes and promote solutions.
 Expansionist nature of capitalism, capitalism works beyond
borders to accumulate and maximize wealth. THE GOALS OF FEMINIST INTERNATIONAL
 Marxism sees the state as an autonomous actor who still acts as an
instrument of bourgeoise
RELATIONS THEORY
1. To highlight and challenge the way international relations
privileges certain masculine identities and ways of knowing.
FEMINISM 2. To examine the roles and experiences of women in international
Feminist Theory challenged women’s near complete absence from politics.
traditional IR theory and practice. 3. To analyze how gender is constructed and the consequences this
This absence is visible both in women’s marginalization from has for men and women in international politics.
decision-making and in the assumption that the reality of women’d day-to-day a. On September 17, 1937, women’s suffrage was
lives are not impacted by or important to international relations. legalized in the Philippines, after the required threshold
Feminist contributions to IR can also be understood through their for the plebiscite of 300,000 was surpassed. 447,725
deconstruction of gender–both as socially constructed identities and as women affirmed their aspiration to vote, against 33,307
powerful organizing logic. no votes. The Philippines was one of the first Asian
The feminist international relations agenda. Feminist IR examines countries to allow this right for women.
a vast range of issues covering women (and men) from different social, 4. To examine the relationships within and between masculinity,
political, and economic backgrounds. femininity, men and women.
Its’ agenda begins by establishing a broader set of issues to analyze.
1. First, it highlights and examines cases of gender inequality
WHERE ARE THE WOMEN?
between men and women (such as disparities in political
A key goal of feminist male-centric bias in asking “Where are the
representation in parliaments, the distribution of wealth or the
redressing this imbalance by experiences into any relations. Groundbreaking
gender pay gap). The United Nations Commission on the Status of
Enloe’s Bananas, Beaches research is to correct the international relations by
Women reported in June 2016 that only 22.8% of all national
women?” and then incorporating women’s analysis of international works
parliamentarians were women.
such as Cynthia and Bases reveal that women play important roles in
2. Second, it looks at issues that disproportionately affect women but
international relations. In addition to the popularly known stories of Western
have remained largely neglected by IR scholars (such as the
women as nurses and factory workers during wartime, feminists point out
human trafficking of women for the purposes of sexual slavery or
that women, in their everyday lives, are also agents and activists in war, in
the feminization of labor in low-paid industries such as textiles
the international political economy and in the search for peace, security, and
and clothing)
reconciliation.
3. Third, it explores the ways in which key issues in IR (such as
A focus on these topics, with gender at the forefront, promotes a
conflict or disaster) differently affect men and women. In short,
rich agenda of important issues that often are neglected by mainstream
the feminist IR agenda examines men’s and women’s experiences
approaches to IR.
of war, peace, democracy, governance, ecomics, development,
For example, by considering gender equality in global politics, we
justice, security, and health at a global level. (Globally, women
can reveal the extent to which women are often disadvantaged.
are paid less than men, with women earning on average only 60%
to 75% of men’s pay.)
➢ Rape in War
○ Feminists are thinking about security in new ways–
The lives of ordinary international relations women working as a
about what goes on in war, as well as how wars begin
cleaner major actor in international relations tell us a great deal about how
8
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
and end. Feminists have drawn attention to the
increasing number of civilian casualties in recent
wars—

9
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

many of them women and children. Rape in war is now

give women the opportunity to fulfill their potential as
recognized as part of military strategy rather than an
human beings. Today, liberal feminists continue to
unavoidable consequence of conflict.
argue sex-based discrimination deprives women of
➢ Women in Syria
equal rights and the right to pursue their political,
○ Similarly, women have played a significant role in
economic, and social self-interest. They argue that this
attempting to end the conflict in Syria since its outbreak
can be eliminated by the removal of legal and other
in 2011. In local communities, women and women’s
obstacles that have denied them the same rights and
groups have organized nonviolent protests, negotiated
opportunities as men.
ceasefires, distributed food and medical aid, tried to
defuse sectarian divides and sought to combat moves WHAT DOES FEMINISM ADD TO OUR STUDY
towards violent extremists. OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS?
○ Feminists have introduced the issues of trafficking and For many feminists, the role of gender in international relations is
forced prostitution onto the security agenda. not a subset of the discipline but something that is intrinsic to every aspect of
➢ Women Migration it. Feminist theories of international relations suggest that there are other
○ They have pointed out that the majority of the world’s legitimate ways of seeing, knowing, and being in the world. This gender-
refugees are women and children, and they have written sensitive lens offers international relations scholars a broader series of issues
about women who are crossing state boundaries to seek which should be studied as part of the discipline, and a guide to how to
work as domestic servants and nannies in order to address areas of gender-based discrimination. Its bottom-up approach brings
provide income for their families back home. the lives of ordinary people into focus, and works towards understanding
All of these issues have important consequences for how we analyze international relations not as an abstract practice, but as something that
security and the global economy, and it has been exciting for me to see how affects, and is affected by, the lives of the people.
these issues are now considered part of the subject matter of our discipline.

FEMINIST THEORIES OF INTERNATIONAL LESSON 5: CONSTRUCTIVISM IN INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS RELATIONS
Here are some of the theories developed by feminist scholars. Liberal
feminism is based on liberal ideas of equality between men and women.
BACKGROUND
➢ Marxist Feminism  Constructivism arrival is associated with the end of Cold War.
○ Argues that the liberation of women can be achieved  Alexander Wendt is the most prominent thinker of social
through the dismantling of capitalism and oppressive constructivism in International Relations.
class relations.  Constructivism accounts for this issue by arguing that the social
➢ Black Feminism world is of our making according to Onuf (1989) as cited by Theys
○ Examines the relationship between gender-and-race- (2018).
based discrimination.  Actors (usually powerful ones, like leaders and influential
➢ Cultural and Maternal Feminism citizens) continually shape– and sometimes reshape– the very
○ Argues that women’s peaceful natures can contribute to nature of international relations through their actions and
a politics of global peace. interactions.
➢ Postcolonial Feminism
○ Examines the intersection of different forms of BASICS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM
oppression facing women in colonial and post-colonial
societies that are often neglected by Western-based
feminism. Post-colonial issues include identity,  Constructivism sees the world as socially constructed.
resistance, subjectivity, and difference. o Wendt (1995) offers an excellent example that
➢ Critical Feminism illustrates the social construction of reality when he
○ Asks fundamental questions about women’s and men’s explains that 500 British nuclear weapons are less
identities and the gendered nature of the international threatening to the United States than five North Korean
system, and explores the possibilities of emancipation nuclear weapons. These identifications are not caused
for women. by the nuclear weapons (the material structure) but
➢ Ecofeminism rather by the meaning given to the material structure
○ Is an ecological approach to feminism that suggests the (the ideational structure). It is important to understand
value of patriarchy and capitalism have created an that the social relationship between the United States
artificial division between humans and nature which and Britain and the United States and North Korea is
can be remedied through the feminine instinct for perceived in a similar way by these states, as this
nature. shared understanding (or intersubjectivity) forms the
basis of their interactions. The example also shows that
nuclear weapons by themselves do not have any
LIBERAL FEMINISM meaning unless we understand the social context
Liberal feminism is centrally concerned with equal rights between (Theys, 2018).
men and women. As its name suggests, it is broadly derived from the political
theory of liberalism. Liberal feminists, like other liberals, support the rights of  Constructivists argue that agency and structure are
individuals to seek fulfillment, to pursue their own interests, and to be equal
mutually constituted, which implies that structures
before the law. Liberal feminism has a long political tradition.
➢ Mary Wollstonecraft’s Vindication of the Rights of Woman
influence agency and that agency influences structures.
in 1792 was perhaps the first attempt to make the liberal case o Agency can be understood as the ability of someone to
for women’s rights. act, whereas structure refers to the international system
○ She argued that discriminatory practices, such as that consists of material and ideational elements.
denying woman education and full citizenship, did not Returning to Wendt’s example discussed above, this
means that the social relation of enmity between the

10
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
United States and North Korea represents
the
intersubjective structure (that is, the shared ideas and

11
 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

beliefs among both states), whereas the United States and North Korea are the
actors who have the capacity (that is, agency) to change or reinforce the
CONCEPT/PROPONENT DESCRIPTION
existing structure or social relationship of enmity. This change or
reinforcement ultimately depends on the beliefs and ideas held by both states. Emphasizes the role of socially
If these beliefs and ideas change, the social relationship can change to one of constructed ideas, norms, and identities
Social Constructionism in shaping international relations.
friendship.

 Constructivism ideas on States identities and interests. Known for his constructivist theory of
o “Another central issue to constructivism is identities international relations, particularly his
idea of "anarchy is what states make of
and interests. Constructivists argue that states can have
it," which highlights the importance of
multiple identities that are socially constructed through Alexander Wendt shared understandings and norms in
interaction with other actors. Identities are shaping state behavior.
representations of an actor’s understanding of who they
are, which in turn signals their interests. They are
important to constructivists as they argue that identities Argues that there are three main
constitute interests and actions. For example, the cultures in IR: Hobbesian (states as
identity of a small state implies a set of interests that self- interested actors), Lockean (states
are different from those implied by the identity of a Wendt's Three Cultures cooperate under anarchy), and Kantian
(states' identities and norms shape their
large state. The small state is arguably more focused
behavior).
on its survival, whereas the large state is concerned
with dominating global political, economic and
Focuses on how the construction of
military affairs. It should be noted, though, that the identities, such as national, ethnic, or
actions of a state should be aligned with its identity. A religious identities, influences state
Identity Politics
state can thus not act contrary to its identity because behavior and interactions in the
this will call into question the validity of the identity, international system.
including its preferences. This issue might explain why
Examines how norms spread across
Germany, despite being a great power with a leading states and influence state behavior,
global economy, did not become a military power in Norm Diffusion often through processes such as
the second half of the twentieth century. Following the socialization and mimicry.
atrocities of Adolf Hitler’s Nazi regime during the
Second World War, German political identity shifted
from one of militarism to pacifism due to unique
historical circumstances (Theys, 2018.)”

 Social norms are also central to constructivism.

o These are generally defined as ‘a standard of
appropriate behavior for actors with a given identity’
LESSON 6: MODERN STATES
(Katzenstein 1996, 5). States that conform to a certain
identity are expected to comply with the norms that are
associated with that identity. This idea comes with an
expectation that some kinds of behavior and action are
more acceptable than others. This process is also STATE
known as ‘the logic of appropriateness’, where actors
behave in certain ways because they believe that this The state may not be the only actor in world politics, but it is widely
behavior is appropriate (March and Olsen 1998, 951– recognized as the one that has the greatest impact on people’s lives. It is, as
952). John Dunn says, “the principal institutional site of political experience”.

 To better understand norms, we can identify three

But although we live in a world of states today, it was not always thus. At
types: regulative norms, constitutive norms and various moments in time, city-states, empires, feudal states, absolutist
prescriptive norms. states or nation states have been the dominant institutional form. So
o Regulative norms order and constrain behavior; although humanity has always been divided into separate political societies,
constitutive norms create new actors, interests or the character of these societies has varied both historically and
categories of action; and prescriptive norms prescribe geographically. Sovereign states are distinctly modern inventions, and how
certain norms, meaning there are no bad norms from long they will remain the principal institutional site of politics is a contentious
the perspective of those who promote them issue, with some scholars suggesting that globalization may be eclipsing the
(Finnemore and Sikkink 1998). sovereign state.

SUMMARY
A modern state, in its simplest sense, refers to an abstract entity comprising a
 Social Construction of Reality. Constructivist argued that reality is
government, a population, and a territory. Much more needs to be said about
always under construction, which opens the prospect for change.
this abstract entity, but for the moment it is enough to note that it possesses “a
 Ideational Factors. Constructivists argue that ideas, beliefs,
collective personality which makes it immortal”. Governments come and go,
identities, and norms play a crucial role in shaping the behavior of
citizens of a population are born and die, territorial borders may shift, but the
states and other international actors.
state— as “a continuing structure of government, decision-making, legal
 Emphasis on Change. Constructivists underscore the potential for
interpretation and enforcement.” — remains.
change in International Relations, as the social construction of
reality can be transformed through new ideas, norms and
interactions.

12
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

STATE EVOLUTION internationally recognized as possessing sovereignty. These are the states
represented in atlases of the world and with seats at the United Nations.

The State State = government + population SOVEREIGNTY VS INTERNATIONAL LAW

+ territory. Does state sovereignty imply a rejection of international law? No. Sovereign
states acquire their rights in relation to evolving international rules and norms.
The Modern State Modern state = state + sovereignty States may sometimes ignore and indeed breach international law, but
+ nation. international law has been built up around states. It is historically a law of and
for sovereign states, one that elaborates their rights and obligations.
Sovereignty
Sovereignty denotes a single,
ORIGINS OF THE MODERN STATES
supreme decision-making
The concept of state is not as ancient as may at first be thought. As Quentin
Skinner (1989) has demonstrated, it was only in the sixteenth century that the
authority. Article 1 of the
word “state” acquired a meaning close to the modern sense, referring to an
1933 Montevideo
abstract, impersonal entity, separate from the person of the prince.
Convention on the
Rights and Duties of States (1993)
lists four criteria of statehood:
It was also around this time that in the English-speaking word at least,
1. Population
discussions about the state, its purpose, and its powers became widespread
2. Territory
(Skinner, 2009).
3. Government
4. Recognition by other
states. FEUDALISM
Ultimately, none of the pretenders to universal domination could overcome
the “feudal” character of European society. The fragmented, decentralized
system of government that dominated the Medieval period (roughly from 500
 Population BCE to 1500 BCE) is now known as feudalism.
 The quantity, quality, structure, distribution, and movement of a
population can help or hinder the rate of economic development. Feudalism was a system in which people were given land and protection
A developed country with low population density and a low by people of higher rank, and worked and fought for them in return. The
percentage of employable people needs an increase in basic idea of feudalism was that it was a system for structuring society
population in order to keep up with economic development. around relationships derived from the holding of land in return for services.

 Territory Joseph Strayer (1965) identified three characteristic features of feudalism.

 Under international law, a territory is an essential part of 1. The fragmentation of political power,
the definition of a state. 2. Public power in private possession, and
 In 1933, a convention took place among many of the nations of 3. Armed forces through private agreements
the Americas in Montevideo, Uruguay. The convention
established international norms for recognizing sovereignty, Benno Teschke, drawing more from a Marxist perspective, offers a similar
boundaries, and international relations. account, also emphasizing the geographic decentralization, institutionally
personalized government and equally personalized, if divided, control over
the instruments of violence. The feudal state, he says, was essentially “an
 Government ensemble of lordships”. A share of the land and labor. Political rather than
 It provides the parameters for everyday behavior of economic accumulation, he says, was the driving force, pushing forward
citizens, protects them from outside interference, and often military innovation while the economy remained stagnant.
provides wellbeing and happiness.
In European Feudalism, because the king lacked the administrative and
financial capacity to extend his authority across the whole divided kingdom,
 Recognition by other States
he would appoint representatives— usually a count or a duke— to administer
 The recognition of the state is an essential procedure, so that the justice at the local levels. The danger was that as counts and dukes
state can enjoy the rights and privileges as an independent consolidated their power by fighting wars, administering law and justice, and
community under international law. The recognition be it De raising revenue through taxation, they became increasingly proprietorial; as
Facto and De Jure, both provide rights, privileges, and Strayer (1965) puts it, “they became virtually independent rulers.” In time,
obligations. the local power bases counts and dukes grew up to the point where they
could challenge the capacity of royal power to impose its will.
RIGHTS GIVEN TO A RECOGNIZED STATE
 Diplomatic Rights
THE MEANING OF SOVEREIGNTY
 Sovereignty
The original frontispiece to Hobbes’ leviathan provides a brilliant image of
 State Immunity
the sovereign as conceived by absolutist thinkers. It contains the image of a
 Right to Equality
 Right to Existence and Self-Defense crowned prince standing majestically over his land and people, sword in one
hand, crozier (bishop's staff) in the other, keeping watch over an orderly and
WHEN A STATE IS NOT A STATE peaceful city surrounding the countryside. The image reveals that the
prince’s body is made up of tiny people all looking up to the prince. The
It should be noted that in countries with federal systems, like the United image is a wonderful representation that captures several influential ideas
States and Australia, the constituent parts are also called states. But about the state.
California and Texas, Victoria and New South Wales, as large, wealthy, and  The sovereign is supreme and absolute, standing over and above
internationally active as they may now be, are not the states generally a loyal people and territory. This absolutist idea is supported by
referred to in the study of international relations. Primarily, when the word the Latin inscription which translates as, “There is no power on
“state” is used, what it means is the political unit or “country” that claims earth that can be compared with him.” Hobbes found this
and is fragment
13
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

and the very image of Leviathan in the Old Testament Book of

 The modern definition deals with the conduct of states and
Job.
international organizations, their relations with each other, and
 The instruments of coercion (represented by the sword) and
in certain circumstances, their relations with persons, natural or
religion (the cozier) are firmly in the grip of the prince. Two
judicial.
points are conveyed simultaneously here: that sovereign power
monopolizes law through its enforcement capacity, and that
there is no higher earthly power than the state, including the
BASIS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
Church.
 The state is like a natural human body. Indeed, it was
 Natural School Oof Law
commonplace then, as now, to speak of the “body politic”
(Skinner, 2009). Hobbes’ introduction to the Leviathan  It is based on the natural and universal principle of right and
explicitly says that the state “is but an Artificial Man.” wrong which can be recognized by every individual through the
 As feminist theorists point out, there is an obvious gendered use of his reason and conscience. Since individuals compose the
character imagery of the body politic. The state’s masculine State whose will is the collective will of the inhabitants, the
identity is linked to an assumption that man is the natural bearer state is also bound by the natural law.
of reason, authority, and power.

The modern state is built on a series of monopolies. Aside from coercion,  Positivist School
within their jurisdictions modern states claim a monopoly right to:
 Is an approach to the study of society that relies specifically on
1. National economic management scientific evidence, such as experiments and statistics, to reveal
the true nature of how society operates. The binding force of
a. Responsible for formulating, continuing, coordinating,
international law is derived from the agreement of the State to be
and fully integrating social and economic policies, plans, bound by it.
and programs.
2. Law-making
a. They will, however, retain the authority to decide matters  The Eclectic or Grotian School
in these areas inside their territories.
 It conforms to the dictate of right reason, the voluntary law may
3. International representation
be said to blend with the natural law. In case of conflict, the
a. The legal transactions that recognized governments in
natural law prevails, being the more fundamental law.
exile can conduct as states in the international arena,
including treaties (treaty-making competence, limitations,
and rights and duties under existing treaties, and unilateral  Ubi Societas Ibi Jus
acts.)
4. Border control  The law is considered as the hallmark of any political community
a. Securing our international land borders and coastal waters which intends to act together for the common good. Law is
therefore necessary for society to function.
between ports of entry. (e.g. biometrics, immigration
 “Wherever there is society, there is law.” A maxim meaning
stamps, exit controls/permits, travel documents, visa/s,
that law may be found in all forms of stable political organization
electronic visa/s and travel authorizations, and nationality arising from social collaboration.
and travel history.
5. Political loyalty
DIVISIONS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
a. Which people, which group, do you belong to? How do
we know who is them and who is us? Where do your
political loyalties lie? LAWS OF PEACE

 It states that “everyone has the right to enjoy peace such that all
The state is not a powerless victim of globalization so much as one of its
human rights are promoted and protected, and development is fully
vehicles. Globalization affects different states in different ways.
realized.”
For example, developing countries are not able to capitalize on all of  The fundamental purpose of all international laws is to promote
globalization’s purported benefits in the same way as developed ones. peace and world order yet that point is generally not clearly made
However, retain the authority to decide matters in these areas inside their if addressed at all. An obligation exists under IL that requires
territories. Ever since globalization became a hot topic, claims have been states to conduct themselves peacefully in all relations toward their
made about the demise of the sovereign state. own people in a peaceful way, that is, to honor a human right to
peace.

LESSON 7: INTERNATIONAL LAW • Current research focuses on what peace may be conceptualized as
positive, negative, meaning of, peacebuilding, or what constitutes
aggression, but does not directly address what the IL of peace is
or who is bound by it, or the fact that all IL contributes to peace.
THE DEFINITION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
• The obligation of states to conduct relations with each other in
 The term international law was first introduced by what amounted to a “just” and peaceful way was customary
Jeremy Bentham in 1870. law preceding the United Nations (UN) Charter.
 International Law is the branch of public law that regulates the
relations of states and of other entities which have been granted • After World War I and the deaths of nearly 19 million people, the
an international personality (Hackworth and Schwarzenberger). obligation of states under International Law developed into
 It establishes normative guidelines and a common conceptual renouncing war as a tool of international relations in the Kellogg-
framework for states across a broad range of domains, Briand Pact (Peace Pact). After World War II and the deaths of an
including war, diplomacy, economic relations, and human additional estimated 56.4 million people (military and civilian)
rights. international law graduated a step further to require peaceful
 It is a system of treaties and agreements between nations that relations in positive IL in the UN Charter and numerous other
govern how nations interact with other nations, citizens of international agreements.
other nations, and businesses of other nations.

14
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

• Peaceful relations among states and people are the intended result
SOURCES OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
or at least a secondary effect of several areas of IL including the
norm of a responsibility to protect, the Vienna Convention on the
Law of Treaties, international human rights law, humanitarian PRIMARY SOURCES
law, the emergence of new actors creating it, the prolific
emergence of treaty regimes and functional international law, and
 International Treaties and Conventions
the increasing focus of international court decisions affecting all
aspects of international law. International law exists that arguably  A treaty is a binding formal agreement, contract, or other written
applies the obligation of peace to intra-state relations as well as to instrument that establishes obligations between two or more
interstate relations. subjects of international law.
 Treaties are considered international law because the
• The legalization of peaceful international and intra-national agreement applies beyond the national borders of the states.
relations has progressed and continues to progress with every  Treaties, just like domestic law, are governed by the rules on Lex
new example of man’s capacity for massive destructiveness and posterior and Lex Specialis. Lex Posterior provides that a later
inhumanity. What is remarkable is that the legal principle and treaty overrides a prior treaty in case of incompatibility, while Lex
requirement of peaceful relations between states and people is not Specialis provides that a more specific treaty should be followed
clearly given center stage in scholarship where leaders, scholars, if in conflict with a more general treaty. (Public International Law,
and common people alike would necessarily have to focus on its Antonio Nachura, p. 11, 2017)
guiding principle.
 International Customs

LAWS OF WARS  Customs are a way of behaving or a belief that has been practiced
for a long time among a group of people.
The rules of war, or international humanitarian law (as it is known formally)  Customs may be general or regional. The elements of
are a set of international rules that set out what can and cannot be done customs must be present and proven.
during an armed conflict. The main purpose of International Humanitarian  According to Brownlie, custom can be proven using a wide range
Law (IHL) is to maintain some humanity in armed conflicts, saving lives and of instruments including diplomatic correspondence, press
releases, opinion of official legal advisers, executive decisions
reducing suffering. and practices, judicial decisions, legislation, and resolutions of
the United Nations General Assembly, among others. (J.
1. Some of the central principles underlying laws of war are: Wars Crawford, Brownlie’s Principle of Public International Law,
should be limited to achieving the political goals that started 2012)
the war (e.g. territorial control) and should not include  Customary international law contemplates that all nations have
unnecessary destruction. the option to refrain from participation in an armed conflict by
2. Wars should be brought to an end as quickly as possible. declaring or otherwise assuming neutral status. The law of armed
3. People and property that do not contribute to the war effort conflict reciprocally imposes duties and confers rights upon
should be protected against unnecessary destruction and neutral nations and upon belligerents.
hardship.  The principal right of the neutral nation is that of inviolability; its
principal duties are those of abstention and impartiality.
Conversely, it is the duty of a belligerent to respect the former
To this end, laws of war are intended to mitigate the hardships of war. and its right to insist upon the latter.
1. Protecting both combatants and noncombatants from
unnecessary suffering.
2. Safeguarding certain fundamental human rights of persons who  General Principles of Law
fall into the hands of the enemy particularly prisoners of war,
the wounded and sick, children, and civilians.  These are rules derived mainly from natural law, observed
3. Facilitating the restoration of peace. and recognized by civilized nations.
 In Mijares v. Ranada, G.R. No. 139325, April 12, 2005, 455
The idea that there is a right to war concerns, on the one hand, the jus ad SCRA 1997, It was decided that : Generally accepted
bellum or the right to make war or to enter the war, assuming a motive such principles of international law, by virtue of the incorporation
as to defend oneself from a threat or danger, presupposes a declaration of clause of the Constitution, form part of the laws of the land
war that warns the adversary: war is a loyal act, and on the other hand, jus in even if they don’t derive from the treaty obligations.
bello, the law of war, the way of making war, which involves behaving as  They refer to norms of general or customary international
soldiers invested with a mission for which all violence is not allowed. In any law which are binding on all states. Examples, renunciation
case, the very idea of a right to war is based on an idea of war that can be of war as an instrument to national policy, the principle of
defined as an armed conflict, limited in space, limited in time, and by its sovereign immunity, a person’s right to life, and liberty and
objectives. War begins with a declaration (of war), ends with a treaty (of due process, among others. This is understood in Article
peace) or surrender agreement, an act of sharing, etc. 38.1 par(c), of the International Court of Justice Statute.
Justice, fairness, equity, and the policy against
A prisoner of war (POW) is a person who is held captive by a belligerent discrimination, which are fundamental principle underlying
power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest the Bill of Rights and which are basic to legal systems
generally support the notion that the right against enforced
recorded usage of the phrase “prisoner of war” dates back to 1610.
disappearances and the recognition of foreign judgments,
were correctly considered as “generally accepted principles
LAWS OF NEUTRALITY of international law.
• The law of neutrality is a body of rules and principles that  Take Note: 1987 Philippine Constitution, Art. 2- SECTION
regulates the legal relations of neutrality. The law of neutrality 2. The Philippines renounces war as an instrument of
obliges neutral States to treat all belligerent States impartially national policy, adopts the generally accepted principles of
and to abstain from providing military and other assistance to international law as part of the law of the land and adheres
belligerents. to the policy of peace, equality, justice, freedom,
cooperation, and amity with all nations.

15
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

SECONDARY SOURCES force under article 2(4) of the UN Charter and customary
international law.
 Judicial Decisions d. Article 51 of the UN Charter acknowledges self-defense as an
exception to the prohibition against the use of force.
 Referring to the decisions of the International Court of Justice. e. This provision explicitly allows a state to use force in response to
Its decision has no binding effect except as to the parties and an armed attack by another state. UN members must report
only in respect to that particular case. actions taken in self-defense to the UN Security Council.
 Resolutions of International Organizations f. Customary international law has long recognized the principles
governing the use of force in self-defense. Exercising self-defense
is a primary right of States to be exercised when the situation is
imminent and demands necessary, immediate, and proportionate
STATE RESPONSIBILITY action.
g. It is widely accepted on principle that a state may protect their
A. CONCEPT OF STATE country from harm under appropriate circumstances, even
a. State is a community of people, living together in a definite when that behavior would normally amount to a crime.
territory, organized for political ends under an organized and
independent government, free from external control, and capable
of entering into international relations with other states. D. THE RIGHT OF EQUALITY
b. They must be sufficient in number to maintain and
a. According to Christian Wolf, the doctrine of Sovereign Equality is
perpetuate themselves.
by nature all nations should be regarded as equal with one
c. The territory must be definite occupied by the people. There is no
another. The idea here is that nations, being made up of free
definite size of a territory as long as it is definite. It was settled
individuals, must necessarily be equal since all men are born
that in order to satisfy the requirement of territory, it is enough
equal. ( E. Dewit Dickinson. The Equality of States in
that the state possesses the land it claims as its territory, even if
International Law, 1920)
the formal boundaries of such territory have yet to be settled.
b. What is really guaranteed in legal, sovereign, equality is equal in
(Deutsche Continental GasGesellschaft Case 1929, 5 AD 11)
law, rights of sovereignty, personality, territorial integrity, and
d. The government must be organized. It must exercise control over
political independence respected by others. Evidence in the
and capable of maintaining law and order within the territory. The
United Nations-General Assembly, where each member is
identity of the state is not affected by changes in government.
entitled to one vote. (Antonio Nachura. Introduction to
e. The State must maintain its sovereignty where its internal
International Law, 2017)
affairs cannot be dictated by other states. It must have the
c. Each Sovereign State is bound to respect the independence of
freedom to direct and control foreign relations without restraint
every other State, and the courts of one country will not sit in
from other states.
judgment on the acts of the government of another, done within
the territory. (Underhill v. Hernandez 168 US 250)
B. RECOGNITION
a. Recognition is a process whereby certain facts are accepted and TREATIES
endowed with a certain legal status, such as statehood,
sovereignty over newly acquired territory, or the international A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between actors in
effects of the grant of nationality. international law. It is usually made by and between sovereign states, but can
include international organizations, individuals, business entities, and other
b. The recognition of a state under international law is a declaration
legal persons.
of intent by one state to acknowledge another power as a "state"
within the meaning of international law. Recognition constitutes
a unilateral declaration of intent.
c. Why is it important for a State to be recognized by other States?
— because it is evidence that the factual criteria of statehood
actually have been fulfilled.
d. There are some political scientists, who believe that recognition
should be included in the elements of a State. Recognition is the
act by which a state acknowledges the existence of another state
and government. Recognition is the act that constitutes the
entity into an international person where it can be a member of
an international organization such as the United Nations. The
recognition of a State will establish diplomatic relations to other
States where it will create diplomatic relations with other states,
giving the State the right to sue in the courts of the recognizing
State.

C. RIGHT OF EXISTENCE AND SELF-DEFENSE

a. The right of existence was a legalistic concept which meant, for
all practical purposes, that a state would be violating no rule of
law if it chose to protect itself, and that if other states chose to
help a given state to protect itself, they would also be within the
law.
b. Every State has the right to exercise jurisdiction over its territory
and over all persons and things therein, subject to the immunities
recognized by international law. Every State has the duty to
refrain from intervention in the internal or external affairs of any
other State.
c. Right of Self-defense in international law refers to the inherent
right of a State to use of force in response to an armed attack. Self-
defense is one of the exceptions to the prohibition against use of

16
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

SECURITY CHALLENGES
 The treaty gives rise to binding obligations between the parties
who make it. It acts to formalize a relationship between parties to Military Security. This includes the traditional aspects of security related to
an agreement. Treaties contain articles which outline the points military capabilities, deterrence, and defense against external threats. It also
of agreement between the parties. addresses arms control, disarmament, and non-proliferation efforts to reduce
the risk of conflict and promote stability.
• International treaties are often used by countries to address Political Security. Focuses on stability of political systems, governance and
concerns that transcend national boundaries, including the institutions. It includes measures to prevent internal conflict, promote
environment, human rights, humanitarian crises, maritime democratic governance and protect human rights.
issues, security, and trade.

TREATMENT OF ALIENS Economic Security – involves ensuring access to essential resources,

promoting economic development, and combating economic threats such as
• In law, an alien is any person (including an organization) who is terrorism, organized crime and cyber attacks that can undermine economic
not a citizen or a national of a specific country, although stability of states.
definitions and terminology differ to some degree depending
upon the continent or region. More generally, however, the term Environmental Security. Addresses threats to the environment, such as
"alien" is perceived as synonymous with foreign nationals. climate change, pollution, natural disasters and resource scarcity that can pose
security risks by fueling conflict, displacing populations and undermining
• The inhabitants, nationals and aliens, enjoy a single protection sustainable development.
as the national laws and authorities provide. Aliens cannot
demand rights different or more extended than the rights of Human Security. Addresses the protection of individuals and communities
nationals. (This) equal protection must assure nationals and from a wide range of threats, including poverty, hunger, diseases and human
aliens the minimum (of rights) exacted by international law.” rights abuses. It focuses on the well-being and dignity of individuals as the
foundation of security.

“All war is a symptom of man's failure as a thinking animal.”

LESSON 8: CONFLICT & WAR
— John Steinbeck
CONFLICT
 Security
WHAT IS CONFLICT?
 What is Conflict?
 competitive or opposing action of incompatibles :
 What are the different types of conflict?
antagonistic state or action (as of divergent ideas, interests, or
 What is war & warfare?
persons)
 Types of war a conflict of principles
 Effects of War
 FIGHT, BATTLE, WAR
 What are some advantages/disadvantages of war
an armed conflict
 Evolution of theories of war
 The causes of war
International Conflict/Interstates Conflict - referred to conflicts between
 The control of war
different nation-states and conflicts between people and organizations in
different nation-states
DEFINING SECURITY
Walter Lippman and Arnold Wolfers, argues that a nation’s security is
determined by its ability to defend itself against threats to core or acquired
WAR & WARFARE
values, in war if necessary (Realist).
WARFARE
security is about survival ... when an issue is posed as constituting an Method of fighting the war.
existential threat to a designated referent object [the state] ... The special Warfare is a derived term of war
nature of security threats justifies the use of extraordinary measures to handle
them. WAR
a rational instrument of foreign policy: “an act of violence intended to
compel our opponent to fulfill our will.”
Hans Morgenthau (1973) defines National Security as the integrity of the
national territory and institutions and says it is the irreducible minimum that
diplomacy must defend without compromise (Liberals). Modern definitions of war, such as “armed conflict between political units,”

J. Ann Tickner (1992 : 127–44) defines security as ‘the elimination of unjust

social relations, including unequal gender relations’. WAR SINCE TIME IMMEMORIAL

Security in International Relations refers to the measures taken by states 14,500 Wars have taken place between 3500 BC and the late 20th century,
and other actors to protect themselves from threat to their sovereignty, costing 3.5 billion lives, leaving only 300 years of peace.
territorial integrity and national interests
WORLD WAR I (1914-1918) 39 MILLION DEATHS
MONGUL CONQUEST (1219-1221) 60 MILLION DEATHS
Traditionally, security has been narrowly defined in military terms,
TAPING REBELLION (1850-1864) 40 MILLION DEATHS
focusing the use of military force to defend against external WORLD WAR II 1939-1945) 60-85 MILLION DEATHS
intervention/aggression.
BRUTALITY
However, the concept of security encompass a broader range of challenges
and threats; including Military Security, political security, economic security,
 An act or behavior that is cruel and violent
environmental security, human security and cyber security.
17
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

MUTILATION  Technological advancement

 You get to play your part in history
 Cutting off or injury to a body part of a person so that the part  The aftermath of winning
of the body is permanently damaged, detached or disfigured
Disadvantages of War
TORTURE
 The obvious casualties
 Hatred and Propaganda
Torture constitutes an aggravated and deliberate form of cruel, inhuman or  Environmental damage
degrading ... Torture committed in time of war is considered to be a war
crime.
EVOLUTION OF THEORIES OF WAR
ATROCITY
Wars of Religion
The term "atrocity" describes an act of violence condemned by
contemporaries as a breach of morality or the laws of war Wars were fought for the interests of individual sovereigns and
were limited both in their objectives and in their scope.
ANNIHILATION/EXETERMINATION
French Revolution
Annihilation is a military strategy in which an attacking army seeks to entirely
destroy the military capacity of the opposing army. Increased the size of forces from small professional to large
The goal is the complete annihilation of a state, a people or an ethnic minority conscript armies and broadened the objectives of war to the ideals of the
through genocide or through the destruction of their livelihood. revolution, ideals that appealed to the masses who were subject to
conscription.
TYPES OF WAR
World War I
Hegemonic war
Which was “total” in character because it resulted in the
War over control of the entire world order – the rules of the
mobilization of entire populations and economies for a prolonged period of
international system as a whole, including the role of world hegemony
time.

Total war
Warfare by one state waged to conquer and occupy another World War II
Goal is to reach the capital city and force the surrender of the government
The subsequent evolution of weapons of mass destruction made the
Limited war task of understanding the nature of war even more urgent
Includes military actions carried out to gain some objective short
of the surrender and occupation of the enemy THE CAUSES OF WAR
Civil war Biological theories
Refers to war between factions within a state trying to create or Theories centering upon man’s innate drives are developed by ethologists
prevent a new government for the entire state or some territorial part of it who draw analogies from animal behavior, and also by psychologists
and psychoanalysts.
Guerilla war  Ethology - Ethologists start with the persuasive argument that
Includes certain types of civil wars; is warfare without frontlines study of animal warfare may contribute toward an understanding
of war as employed by man.
 Psychology - Such psychological approaches range from very
general, often merely intuitive assertions regarding human nature
States are trapped in a “security dilemma”, whereby measures to complex analyses utilizing the concepts and techniques of
taken to enhance their security lead others to take similar countermeasures modern psychology.
and in the process generate further mistrust and insecurity.
Social theories
EFFECTS OF WAR Many thinkers have sought their explanations in these contexts, focusing
 Long Term Effect either on the internal organization of states or on the international
 Economy system within which these operate.
o Destruction of Infrastructure  Liberal analyses - They assumed that society is self- regulating
o Lavor Force and that the socioeconomic system is able to run smoothly with
little interference from the government.
 Societal
 Socialist analyses - socialists turned to the socioeconomic
o Displacement system of states as the primary factor.
o Education
o Gender Nationalism - Many theories claim or imply that wars result ultimately from
o Environment the allegiance of men to nations and from the intimate connection between the
o Cultural property nation and a state.
 Politically
o One state formation
The Control of War
Advantages of War
 Economic growth

18
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

The international environment within which states and the people within them
• Others stress the manner in which the activity should be
operate is regarded by many theorists as the major factor determining the
undertaken– for example, with honesty, tact and understanding or
occurrence and nature of wars.
peacefully.
• Still others pay attention to who is entitled to undertake it and on
Diplomacy behalf of whom – claiming, for example, that only the official
a better understanding of the international environment, through eliminating representatives of sovereign states and international organizations
misperceptions and irrational fears, and through making clear the full may properly be viewed as engaging in diplomacy (Vienna
possible costs of engaging in war and the full destructiveness of an all-out Convention 1961).
war, possible in our age. • Diplomacy is the application of intelligence and tact to the conduct
of official relations between the governments of independent
Regional integration states, extending sometimes also to their relations with vassal
Many theories concentrate upon the establishment of parallel structures states; or, more briefly still, the conduct of business between states
within the international context. by peaceful means (Satow, 1979).
• Diplomacy is the management of international relations by
International law negotiation; the method by which these relations are adjusted and
There exists an international society of states that accepts the binding force of managed by ambassadors and envoys; the business or art of the
some norms of international behavior. These norms are referred to as diplomatist (Nicholson, 1969).
international law • [Diplomacy is] the conduct of relations between states and other
The United Nations entities with standing in world politics by official agents and by
The United Nations is charged with the maintenance of international peace peaceful means (Bull,1977).
and security. • Diplomacy is the conduct of international relations by negotiation
rather than by force, propaganda, or recourse to law, and by other
The United Nations interrelated approaches peaceful means (such as gathering information or engendering
goodwill) which are either directly or indirectly designed to
Peaceful settlement of disputes promote negotiation (Berridge, 2015).

Pacific settlement of disputes is based upon the assumption that war is TWO FORMS OF DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS
primarily a technique for settling disputes, although it can, • Bilateralism – a diplomatic relations which include two states
of course, also serve other purposes, such as allaying fears and seeking status • Multilateralism – a diplomatic relations which involves three or
more states usually facilitated by a regional or international
Collective security organization.

is an approach to peace involving an agreement by which

states agree to take collective action against any state defined as an EVOLUTION OF DIPLOMACY
aggressor. • Diplomacy has been an essential part of human civilization for
centuries. The practice of using negotiation, communication, and
Disarmament strategic interaction to resolve conflicts and promote mutual
Disarmament and limitation of armaments are based upon the theory that interests between nation and state has a long and complex history.
states are inclined to strive for over any potential leads to arms races war. • In ancient Greece, the concept of diplomacy was developed, with
the practice of sending emissaries and negotiating treaties.
• The rise of the Roman empire brought about a more formalized
The United Nations
system of diplomacy, with the establishment of permanent
diplomatic missions and the use of treaties to regulate relations
Limiting conflict
between Rome and its llies and enemies (Mattingly, 1937).
• One of the earliest known examples of diplomacy can be found in
the United Nations has developed two new procedures aiming at the
the ancient Near east. The Amarna letters, a collection of
limitation of wars. First, “preventive diplomacy,” & Second, the collective
diplomatic correspondences from 14th century, provide insights
legitimization of state policies.
into the diplomatic interactions between the Egypgtian pharaohs
and their counterparts in Mesopotamia, Canaan, and the Hittite
World government Empire (Grimal, 1992)
• The 20th Century saw a significant expansion of diplomacy, with
international system have driven many thinkers to accept the idea that war can the creation of international organizations like the League of
only be abolished by a full-scale world government. Nations and the United Nations as well as the increasing influence
of non- state actors in the diplomatic process.

KEY COMPONENTS OF DIPLOMACY

LESSON 9: DIPLOMACY 1. Negotiation: Negotiation lies at the heart of diplomacy. It involves
discussions between parties with conflicting interests to reach
mutually acceptable solutions. Effective negotiation requires
DEFINING DOPLOMACY communication skills, understanding of cultural nuances, and the
• Diplomacy is conventionally understood as the processes and ability to find common ground.
institutions by which the interests and identities of sovereign states 2. Communication: Diplomacy relies heavily on effective
are represented to one another. communication. Diplomats must convey their country's positions
• Diplomats are understood to be people accredited by those they clearly, listen attentively to the concerns of others, and interpret
represent to undertake this work. subtle cues to gauge the intentions of their counterparts.
• Some definitions of diplomacy emphasize a particular diplomatic 3. Mediation: Diplomats often serve as mediators in resolving
activity – for example, negotiation. conflicts between nations. Through shuttle diplomacy or formal

19
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

peace talks, mediators facilitate dialogue, propose compromises,

and help parties find alternatives to violence.
4. Cultural Sensitivity: Cultural differences can significantly impact
diplomatic interactions. Diplomats must be sensitive to cultural
norms, traditions, and taboos to avoid misunderstandings and build
trust with their counterparts.
5. International Law: Diplomacy operates within the framework of
international law, which governs the conduct of states in their
relations with one another. Treaties, conventions, and customary
law provide guidelines for diplomatic behavior and the resolution
of disputes.

THE ROLE OF DIPLOMATS

• Diplomats represent their countries abroad and act as the primary
channels of communication between governments. They gather
information, analyze political developments, and advocate for their
country's interests while seeking to build alliances and promote
cooperation with other nations.
CHALLENGES IN DIPLOMACY
• Complexity of Issues: Diplomatic negotiations often involve
multifaceted issues such as trade, security, human rights, and the
environment, requiring diplomats to navigate complex
interdependencies and competing priorities.
• Power Dynamics: Power disparities between nations can
influence diplomatic outcomes, with stronger states exerting
greater influence over weaker ones. Diplomats must balance the
pursuit of national interests with the principles of equality and
sovereignty.
• Emerging Threats: Global challenges such as terrorism,
pandemics, and climate change pose new challenges to diplomacy,
requiring innovative approaches and cooperation across borders to
address effectively.

20