BPHYS202-Module- 4

Module 4
Ch-1: ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METALS
Classical Free Electron Theory for Metals [Drude and Lorentz Theory]:-
The classical free electron theory is based on the concept of free electrons. It states
All the metal atom consists of loosely bound valence electrons these valence electrons are
called free electrons. These valence electrons are free to move inside the metals. Hence, they
are called free electrons. These free electrons are
responsible for the electrical conduction in metals.
Therefore the free election is also known as conduction
electrons. The moment of free electrons is similar to the
moment of gas molecules in the vessel. In the absence of
an electric field, the electrons move with some velocity in
a random direction. This velocity is known as thermal
velocity.
The resistance of the metal is due to the scattering
of conduction electrons by the positive ion core when the
electric field is applied the net velocity of all electron will
be increased this velocity is known as drift velocity.
Phonon concept:
Phonon: it is particle like entity which carries the unit energy of elastic field in a particular
mode is called phonon. The energy of the phonon is given by hν. The free electrons collide
with ion core at lattice point. The collision results in a change in the direction of velocity of
the electrons. In absence of electric field, the velocities of electrons are in random directions
as in fig.2 due to which there is no net transfer of charge.
Mean Free Path (𝝀):-
The average distance travelled by the conduction electron between the two successive
collisions is called mean free path.
𝝀 = 𝝉 ∗ 𝑽𝒅
Mean Collision Time (𝞃): -
It is the average time taken by the conduction electron between two successive collisions with
the lattice site in the materials.
i.e., 𝝉 = 𝝀 /𝑽𝒅
Expression of Electrical Conductivity:-
As per the classical free electron theory, the expression for conductivity in metals is given by
the equation.
𝑛 𝑒 2𝜏
𝜎=
𝑚𝑒
Where: m =is the mass of the electron.
n= is number of electrons/m3,
𝞃= is mean collision time.

Resistivity: Resistance is the physical effect brought about the vibrating lattice in a material
by virtue of which the electron scattering of conduction electrons by the phonon.

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Mobility of electrons: The mobility of electrons is defined as the magnitude of drift velocity
acquired by the electrons in unit electric field.
Mobility of electrons 𝜇 = 𝑣𝑑 /𝐸
vd is drift velocity,
E is electric field applied
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND IMPURITY ON ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
OF METALS:

The variation of electrical resistivity 𝜌 with temperature T in the low temperature region for
sodium is shown in the figure. Except for some metals that are super conducting, this
variation in general applies to all the metals. It may be noticed that 𝜌 doesnot become zero
even at T = 0 0 K , but has a small constant value. From this value , 𝜌 increases with T slowly
in beginning , latter it assumes linear but faster
variation . The linearity in variation is continued
throughout till the metal melts. From our earlier
discussion we understand that resistivity of
metals is attributed to the scattering of
conduction electrons. In metals the scattering
takes place basically under two mechanisms
which give rise to two components of resistivity
which are described below.

1. Resistivity 𝜌𝑃ℎ due to scattering of electrons by lattice vibrations (phonons) which

increases with temperature. 𝜌𝑃ℎ is therefore temperature dependent. It is the resistivity
exhibited by pure specimen that is free of all defects, and hence called the Ideal resistivity

2. Resistivity 𝜌𝑖 due to scattering of conduction electrons by the presence of impurities, and

imperfections such as dislocation vacancies, and grain boundaries. This type of scattering is
independent of temperature and contributes to resistivity even at the temperature T= 0 0K. 𝜌𝑖
is therefore called residual resistivity. Since the two scattering mechanisms mentioned above
act independently , the two resistivities are additive. If 𝜌 is the total resistivity of the metal,
then 𝜌 is given by ,

𝜌 = 𝜌𝑃ℎ + 𝜌𝑖 ……………………………(1)

The above equation is called Matthiessen’s rule.

Matthiessen’s rule states that the total resistivity of a metal is the sum of the resistivity due to
phonon scattering which is temperature dependent and, the resistivity due to scattering by
impurities which is temperature independent.

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For lower temperatures, the amplitude of vibrations becomes small because of which,
the scattering of electrons by the lattice ions also become less. This results in 𝜏𝑝ℎ becoming
large, and 𝜌𝑃ℎ tends to zero at very low temperatures. It essentially means that 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑖 at very
low temperatures. Accordingly, in above fig, the resistivity has a residual value 𝜌𝑖 at T= 0.
On the other hand, when the temperature becomes high, the amplitude of lattice vibrations
increases proportionately which results in large scale scattering of electrons. Consequently,
the resistance curve takes an upswing, and the resistivity becomes linearly dependent on
temperature. At sufficiently high temperatures, the scattering effect due to phonons swamps
the effect due to scattering by impurities. Thus, at temperatures near room temperatures, the
resistivity curve is essentially linear.
Failures of classical Free electron Theory
Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity:
As per the classical theory, the free electrons are assumed to behave as like a gas molecule
then its kinetic energy of electrons is equal to the Kinetic energy of gas molecule, therefore

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As per the classical theory, we obtained the relation (6) between conductivity and
temperature but experimentally results in equation (7).
Which, confirms that the CFT does not explain the temperature dependence of the
conductivity of metals.
Dependence of electrical conductivity in metals on Electrons Concentration
𝑛 𝑒2𝜏
𝜎=
𝑚𝑒
𝜎∝𝑛
From the relation (1), the conductivity of metals is supposed to be increased with free
electron concentration. However, experimentally some of the metals even though they have a
considerable level of electrons (Al) those metals conductivity are less than smaller electron
Concentration metals, i.e., copper.

Practically it is observed from above table that 𝜎 is not strictly proportional to electron
concentration.

Specific heat of metals:

Quantum Free Electron Theory:-[Summerfield’s Theory]

Assumptions of Quantum Free Electron Theory:-
1) The Energy of a free electron is quantized in terms of energy states.
2) The distribution of electrons in the various energy levels by Pauli’s exclusion
principle.
3) The Electrons experiences the field by positive ions core is constant.
4) The Interaction between the electrons is to be neglected.

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The density of States:-

In the solid state, the energy levels of free electrons are regarding energy bands. In each band,
there is countless no. of allowed energy levels. These energy states are arranged as like a
quasi-continuous.
The density of states, (𝐸), is defined as the number of energy levels available per unit volume
per unit energy centered at d𝐸. The number of states per unit volume between the energy
levels 𝐸 and 𝐸 + 𝑑𝐸 is denoted by (𝐸) 𝑑𝐸.
Let us consider the case of free electrons in a material. The
possible energy values for the free electrons corresponds to
only the set of energy levels available vacant but adjacent
to the filled energy levels in the band. Consider such a
band as shown in fig below. Let the energy band be spread
in an energy interval between E1 and E2.

The variation of density of energy states with energy as

shown below. Therefore, g (E) is mathematically a continuous
function.

Fermi Energy: The energy corresponds to the highest occupied level of

electrons at zero
Kelvin is known as Fermi energy.

At T = 0 K, the electrons are occupying within the permitted energy

levels by Pauli’s Exclusion principle. As shown (In the above figure) up
to a particular energy level the electrons are filled & above which
vacant energy levels.
Fermi Dirac Statistics: - The distribution of electron among the available energy state after
receiving the energy under thermal equilibrium condition is explained by the statistical rule
known as Fermi Dirac statistics. This statistics is applicable for the (½) spin particle, for an
indistinguishable, particle which permits the evaluation of the probability of occupation of
the electron.
Fermi Factor: - Due to the thermal excitation the occupation of energy level changes due to
this probability of occupation changes. Hence the Fermi factor is the probability of
occupation of a given energy state for material on thermal equilibrium.
Fermi Factor: - Due to the thermal excitation the occupation of energy level changes due to
this probability of occupation changes. Hence the Fermi factor is the probability of
occupation of a given energy state for material on thermal equilibrium.

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Variation of Fermi factor with energy and temperature

Question

1. Discuss the failures classical free electron theory.

2. State assumptions of quantum free electron theory.
3. Write note on Density of states. Define Fermi Energy.
4. What is fermi factor? Explain dependence of fermi factor on energy value and
temperature.
5. Explain concept of Phonon and resistance.
6. Explain the effect of temperature and impurity on electrical resistivity of metals and
state Matthiessen’s rule.
7. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an energy level 0.02eV above
Fermi level at 200K and 400K.
8. Show that the sum of the probability of occupancy of an energy state at ∆𝐸 below
fermi level and that at ∆𝐸 above fermi level is unity.
9. Show that occupation probability at E=EF+∆𝐸 is equal to non occupation probability
at E=EF-∆𝐸.

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Superconductivity
Certain metals and alloys exhibit almost zero resistivity (i.e. infinite conductivity) when they
are cooled to sufficiently low temperatures. This effect is called superconductivity. This
phenomenon was first of all discovered by H. K. Onnes in 1911 when measuring the
electrical conductivity of metals at low temperatures.
Temperature dependence of resistivity of superconductive material as shown below. As the
temperature decreases the resistivity of the material decreases as a normal conductor when
the temperature of the material reaches its critical (Tc) whose electrical resistivity abruptly
drops to zero this type of material is known as a superconductor. The superconductors in
their superconducting state, their conductivity become infinity.
The material above Tc is known as the normal state, and below Tc is known as
Superconducting State.

Figure 1 Resistivity V/S Temperature

Critical or transition temperature (or) Transition temperature (Tc):

The temperature at which the transition from the normal state to the superconducting state
takes place on cooling in the absence of a magnetic field is called critical temperature or
transition temperature.
Meissner effect:
When a superconducting material is subjected to weak magnetic at a temperature below
transition temperature TC the magnetic flux lines are expelled. This phenomenon is called
the Meissner effect (or) expulsion of magnetic flux from the body of superconductor when it
is cooled below its critical temperature.

Figure 2, Normal state and Superconducting state

Under normal state the magnetic induction inside the specimen is

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B = µ0 (H + M)
Where; H is the external applied magnetic field and M is the magnetization produced inside the
specimen.
When the specimen is in superconducting state B = 0, (Meissner effect)

0 = µ0 (𝐻 + 𝑀)

or 𝐻 = −𝑀
𝜒 = 𝑀/𝐻 = −1
Thus the material is act as a perfectly diamagnetic (for diamagnetic material χ = −1).
Let us consider a superconducting material is in normal state. From ohms law, the
Electric field
𝐸 = 𝐽∗𝜌
On cooling the material to its transition temperature ρ t e n d s to zero. If J is held finite E must be
zero.
From Maxwell’s equations
𝑑𝐵
∇×𝐸 = −
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵
Under superconducting condition since E is zero = 0 or 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. This means
𝑑𝑡 =
that the magnetic flux passing through the specimen should not change on cooling to
the transition temperature. The Meissner effect contradicts the result.
Critical field (HC): the minimum magnetic field is required to change the material from a
superconducting state to a normal state called a critical field
When the superconducting material is subjected to the external magnetic field by keeping the
temperature lower than its critical temperature the strength of the magnetic field is increased
if then its superconducting property disappears and the material becomes normal if the
applied magnetic field strength is greater than its critical field the material loses its
superconducting state. The critical field variation with T is shown below

Figure 3 critical field

Relation for critical field
𝑻𝟐
𝑯𝒄 = 𝑯𝒐 𝟏 −
𝑻𝟐𝑪

Where: 𝐻𝑐 = 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

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𝐻𝑜 = 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑡 0𝐾
𝑇 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑇𝐶 = 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
Silsbee effect: The superconductivity will be destroyed by the effect of high current density
It is the maximum current that material can carry in its superconducting state when it crosses
the limit of ‘Ic’ it changes to a normal state.
The current flow through the superconductor when the current exceeds the critical current (Ic)
the superconductor becomes normal. That particular value of current is known as critical
current.
We know that the current flows through the material it produces a magnetic field if the
current is as high as that Ic it changes the material to normal because the generated magnetic
field is greater than its critical field. The Silsbee effect sets the superconductor to carry
maximum current without disturbing its superconducting state i.e.
𝐼𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐻𝑐
In general, the maximum current density at which the material changes in to the normal
state called critical current density
Therefore, 𝜌𝑖< 𝜌 𝑐 superconducting state 𝜌𝑖> 𝜌 𝑐 normal state
Hence superconducting states exist when the 𝝆𝒊< 𝝆𝒄 , 𝑻 < 𝑻𝒄 , 𝑯 < 𝐻𝒄 this are the limiting
conditions these values are different for different materials.
Types of superconductors:
Based on the diamagnetic response superconductors can be classified into two types, they
are
1. Type I superconductors
2. Type II superconductors.
Type-I superconductors or Soft superconductors.
Superconductors which one follows a complete Meissner
effect is called type I Superconductors (i.e. H < H C). When
the magnetic field strength is gradually increased from
its initial value the –M also increases at H C the
diamagnetism is abruptly disappear and the transition
from superconducting state to normal state is sharp
as shown in figure. These superconductors are known as
soft superconductors Figure 4

Examples: - Al, Zn, Hg and Sn

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Type-II Superconductors or hard superconductors.

These superconductors which do not follow complete
Meissner effect are called type II superconductors. In
type II superconductors, the specimen is in a pure
superconducting state up to the field (lower critical field)
H C1, when the field is increased beyond H C1 (upper
critical state) the magnetic flux lines start penetrating.
The specimen is in the mixed state between H C1 and H C2 .
Above, H C2 the specimen is completely becomes
normal. This means that the Meissner effect is
incomplete in the region between H C1 and H C2 . This
region is known as vertex region. However, the material loses diamagnetic
property but it retains superconductivity hence till the temperature H c 2 . These
superconductors are known as hard superconductors.
Examples: - Zr, Nb, Y1Ba2Cu3O7

BCS theory:
1. It is the quantum mechanical theory for superconductors developed by Bardeen,
Cooper and Schrieffers. It can explain the properties of superconductivity.
2. The theory is based upon the formation of cooper pairs that will be responsible for the
conduction process.
3. Cooper pairs are bound pairs of electrons formed due to the electron-lattice-
electron interaction.
4. When the electron approaches the positive ion core at a superconducting state leads to
distorting the lattice and a second electron enters near the distorted lattice bound pair
of electrons and is formed through positive potential this lead to forming cooper
pairs.

5. The above figure is the representation of cooper pairs.

6. This formation of cooper pairs is taking place at T<Tc.
7. Above ‘Tc’, ‘Hc’ and ‘Ic’ pairs are broken and leave the electrons.
8. The cooper pairs are moves without any scattering due to the strong correlation of
cooper pairs that move one by one next to the other without any disturbance hence no
power loss takes place.
9. In general good conducting materials at room temperature, never shows
superconductivity even at 0K.
10. Forming cooper pair requires strong electron lattice interaction.

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11. Hence poor conductors at room temperature are more likely to exhibit
superconducting properties at low temperatures.

High Temperature superconductors (high Tc superconductors):

1. This superconducting materials normally have their Tc value as high as above 20K
2. They are normally non metallic compounds.
3. The materials made up of oxides of copper.
4. They are also called 1-2-3 superconductor
5. They have the crystal structure called perovskites.
6. In the perovskite superconductor current is direction dependent.
7. Super current is strong along the Cu-O plane and Weak perpendicular to the Cu-O
plane.
8. Different forms of ceramics have exhibited superconducting properties they are
normally insulators at room temperature but if they cooled to lower temperature they
can attains superconducting phase
9. Hence they are also called ceramic superconductors.
10. Examples: Y1Ba2Cu3O7 92K,
Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu3O6 110K
Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3O10 125K
HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8 134K,
The Tc of materials is depends on number of CuO planes
Josephson junction: a thin insulation layer is sandwiched between the two
superconductors.
Josephson Effect: Tunnelling of electron through thin insulating layer in absence of
electric field.
Let us consider a thin insulation layer is sandwiched
between the two superconductors in addition to
normal tunnelling of electrons, the super electrons
tunnel through the insulation layer from one
superconductor to another with dissociation, even at zero potential difference across the
junction. Their wave functions on both sides are highly correlated. This is known as
Josephson Effect.

D.C Josephson effect

According to Josephson when tunneling across
through the insulator it introduce a phase
difference 𝜑0 between the two parts of the
function on opposite sides of the Junction as
shown in figure.

The tunnelling current is given by relation,

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𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜑0
Where: I 0 is the maximum current that flows through the junction without any potential
difference across the junction. This effect is called D.C Josephson effect.
A.C Josephson effect
Let a static potential difference is applied across the junction; an additional phase is
introduced by the cooper pairs during tunneling across the junction. This additional
phase change (∆φ ) leads to generate RF current. It could be calculated using quantum
mechanics at any instant of time ‘t’.

The Rf current follows the relation

𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜑0 + ∆𝜑 − −(1)
Where ∆𝜑 change in phase is introduced by cooper pair due to the application of voltage
(h =h/2𝜋)
2𝑒𝑉
∆𝜑 = 𝑡 − − − (2)
ℎ
Therefore, from (1) & (2)
2𝑒𝑉
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜑0 + 𝑡
𝔥
2𝑒𝑉
Where 𝜔 = frequency of alternating current (𝔥=h/2𝜋)
𝔥

SQUID:
A SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device) is a very
sensitive magnetometer used to measure extremely subtle magnetic fields, based on
superconducting loops containing Josephson junctions.
SQUIDs are sensitive enough to measure fields as low as 5×10−14 T with a few days of
averaged measurements.
SQUID consists of two Josephson junctions ‘P’ and ‘Q’ with different thickness. They are
arranged parallel to each other so that the electrons tunnel through it and demonstrate the
interference of super current.
The DC bias applied across the junction it enters at one of the arm ‘C’ and the current divided

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in to two path I1 & I2 and crosses the ‘P’ & ‘Q’ by tunneling and after tunnelling the current
𝐼1′ & 𝐼2′ interfere and leave at another arm ‘D’ and the current phase shift between ‘C’ and ‘D’
represented by 𝛿𝑎 & 𝛿𝑏

Magnetic field

Figure 5

Absence of magnetic field

𝛿𝑎 − 𝛿𝑏 = 0
After the application of magnetic field the flux penetrates through the ‘P’ & ‘Q’ it creates
phase shift in the current along the two paths.
The order of change in phase is proportional to the applied field strength
Then the two currents interfere and demonstrate quantum interference. The total current
𝒆𝝋
𝑰𝑻 = 𝟐 𝑰𝟎 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜹𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔
𝒉𝒄
ℎ
𝜑0 =
2𝑒
RF- SQUID:
The RF (Radio Frequency) SQUID is a one-junction SQUID loop that can be used as a
magnetic field detector (Fig. 4). Although it is less sensitive than the DC SQUID, it is
cheaper and easier to manufacture and is therefore more commonly used.

Figure 6 Figure 7

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 Solved Examples
Numerical Problems 𝑓(𝐸) =
1
=
1
𝐸−𝐸𝐹 −(0.2×1.602×10−19 )
Electrical Properties Solids 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 +1 𝒆 1.38×10−23 ×500 +1
Example 1. Calculate the probabilities of an
electron occupying an energy level 0.02 eV 1 1
above the Fermi level and that in an energy 𝒇(𝑬) = =
𝑒 −(4.643) +1 0.01 + 1
level 0.02 eV below the Fermi level at 200 K.
𝒇(𝑬) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗
Data: For the case of electron occupying the
energy level 0.02 eV above the Fermi level; Example 3.Calculate the probabilities of an
electron occupying an energy level 0.02 eV
(𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭 ) = 0.02𝑒𝑉 = 0.02 × 1.602 × 10−19 𝐽 above the Fermi level at 200 K and 400 K.

For the case of electron occupying the energy Data: For the case of electron occupying the
level 0.02 eV below the Fermi level; energy level 0.02 eV above the Fermi level; (𝑬 −
(𝑬𝑭 − 𝑬) = 0.02𝑒𝑉 𝑬𝑭 ) = 0.02𝑒𝑉 = 0.02 × 1.602 × 10−19 𝐽 and,
or, (𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭 ) = −(0.02 × 1.602 × 10−19 𝐽)
𝑻 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐊& 400 K
and, 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐊

To find: (𝑖) 𝒇(𝑬)𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐅𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢 𝐥𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐥 = ? To find: (𝑖) 𝒇(𝑬)𝐚𝐭 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐊 = ?&
& (𝑖𝑖) 𝒇(𝑬)𝐛𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐅𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢 𝐥𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐥 = ?
Solution: (i) We have, (𝑖𝑖) 𝒇(𝑬)𝐚𝐭 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝐊 = ?
𝟏 1 Solution: (𝑖) 𝒇(𝑬)𝐚𝐭 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐊; We have,
𝒇(𝑬) = 𝑬−𝑬𝑭 = 0.02×1.602×10−19
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 +𝟏 𝒆 1.38×10−23 ×200 +1 𝟏 1
𝒇(𝑬) = 𝑬−𝑬𝑭 = 0.02×1.602×10−19
1 1
𝒇(𝑬) = 𝑒 1.159 +1 = 3.188+1 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 +𝟏 𝒆 1.38×10−23 ×200 +1
1 1
𝒇(𝑬) = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒 𝒇(𝑬) = =
𝑒 1.159 +1 3.188 + 1
(ii) 𝒇(𝑬)𝐛𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐅𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢 𝐥𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐥: We have, 𝒇(𝑬) = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒
1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 = −(0.02×1.602×10−19 ) (ii) 𝒇(𝑬)𝐚𝐭 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝐤: We have,
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 +1 𝒆 1.38×10−23 ×200 +1 1 1
1 1 𝑓(𝐸) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 = 0.02×1.602×10−19
𝒇(𝑬) = −(1.159) = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 +1 𝒆 1.38×10−23 ×400 +1
𝑒 + 1 0.3137 + 1

𝒇(𝑬) = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟔 1 1
𝒇(𝑬) = =
𝑒 0.5797) +1 1.7855 + 1
Example 2.Calculate the probability that an
energy level at 0.2eV below Fermi level is 𝒇(𝑬) = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔
occupied at temperature 500K. (Model
QP2) Example 4.The Fermi level in silver is 5.5 eV.
Data: For the case of electron occupying the What are the energies for which the
probabilities of occupancy at 300 K are 0.99,
energy level 0.2 eV below the Fermi level;
0.01 and 0.5. (Given 1J = 6.24 X 1018 eV).
(𝑬𝑭 − 𝑬) = 0.2 𝑒𝑉
or, (𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭 ) = −(0.2 × 1.602 × 10−19 𝐽) Data: For Silver, EF = 5.5 eV

And, 𝑻 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝐊 Temperature T = 300 K

To find: 𝒇(𝑬)𝐛𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐅𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢 𝐥𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐥 = ? To find: The energies for which f(E) = 0.99,
0.01 and 0.5, are to be found.
Solution: We have,
Let them be E1, E2 and E3 respectively. i.e., (E-EF) = 0.5 eV = 0.5 X 1.6 X 10—19 J

Solution: We have the equation To find: Temperature; T= ?

Solution: We have the equation for the

1  E kTEF 
f (E)  → f ( E ) e  1  1 probability of occupation as;
E  EF
e kT
1   f (E) 
1
E  EF

E  EF
e 1
kT

i.e., f ( E )e kT
 f (E)  1 E  EF 0.5 1.6 1019 5797
Here,  
kT 1.38 1023  T T
E  EF
or, f ( E )e kT
 1  f (E) Substituting the above value and using the data
we have,
Taking natural logarithm on both sides, we 1
0.01 
have 5797
e T
1
E  EF
ln f ( E )   ln[1  f ( E )] T  1261.1K
kT
Numerical on Dielectrics
Or, E  EF  kT {ln[1  f ( E )]  ln F ( E )}
Example 1. Find the polarization produced in
a crystal by an electric field strength 500
Now, 𝑘𝑇 = (1.38 × 10−23 ) × 300 J/K
V/mm. if it has a dielectric constant of 6?
1.38 × 10−23 × 300
𝒌𝑻 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟖𝟓 𝐞𝐕/𝐊 Data: Applied field E= 𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 103 V/m
1.6 × 10−19
Dielectric constant
Substituting the values for EF and kT, we have,
Solution: 𝑃 = 𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 − 1)𝐸
E  5.5  0.02558{ln[1  f ( E )]  ln F ( E )}
P = 8.854 X 10—12 (6−1)𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 103
Let us consider the case of f(E) = 0.99
P = 2.21 X 10−5 C/𝑚2
E1  5.5  0.02558{ln[1  0.99]  ln 0.99}
Example 2. The dielectric constant of
E1  5.5  0.02558{4.605  (0.01)} sulphur is 3.4. Assuming cubic lattice for
its structure, calculate the electronic
E1 = 5.38eV
polarizability of Sulphur.
For f(E) = 0.01; Data Given: Number of atoms /unit
volume n=3.89 X 1028/m3. Electronic
E1  5.5  0.02558{ln[1  0.01]  ln 0.01} polarizability for =? For Sulphur,
Solution: Since the crystal structure of
E2 = 5.62eV Sulphur is cubic, we can apply Clausius -
Mossotti equation,
For f(E) = 0.5;
𝜀𝑟 − 1 𝑁𝛼𝑒
[ ]=
E3  5.5  0.02558{ln[1  0.5]  ln 0.5} 𝜀𝑟 + 2 3𝜀0

 5.5  0.02585(ln 0.5  ln 0.5) 3𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 − 1

𝛼𝑒 = [ ]
N 𝜀𝑟 + 2
E3 = 5.5eV
3 × 8.854 × 10−12 3.4 − 1
Example 5. Find the temperature at which 𝛼𝑒 = [ ]
there is 1% probability that a state with an 3.89 X 1028 3.4 + 2
energy 0.5 eV above Fermi energy is
occupied. 𝜶𝒆 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟑𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟎 𝑭𝒎𝟐

Data: Probability, f(E) = 1% = 0.01. Example 5: An elemental solid

dielectric material has polarizability
Energy above EF, 𝜶𝒆 = 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟎 𝑭𝒎𝟐 . Assuming the
 internal field to be Lorentz field. To find the critical field at 5 K;
Calculate the dielectric constant 𝑇 2
for the material if the material has 𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻0 [1 − ( ) ]
𝑇𝑐
3.89 X 1028/m3.
3
5 2
𝐻𝐶 = 64 × 10 [1 − ( ) ]
−40 7.26
Polarizability 𝛼𝑒 = 7 × 10 𝐹𝑚2
Number of atoms /unit volume 𝐻𝐶 = 33.644 × 103 Am−1
n=3 ×1028/m3.
Example 3. A superconducting tin has
To find: Dielectric constant of the a critical temperature of 3.7 K at zero
material?? magnetic field and a critical field of
Solution: 0.0306 Tesla at 0 K. Find the critical
field at 2 K. (Model QP2-2023)
𝜀𝑟 − 1 𝑁𝛼𝑒 Solution: Given: TC = 3.7K
[ ]=
𝜀𝑟 + 2 3𝜀0 H0 = 0.0306T
𝜀𝑟 − 1 3 × 1028 × 7 × 10−40
[ ]= To find the critical field at 2 K;
𝜀𝑟 + 2 3 × 8.854 × 10−12
𝑇 2
𝜀𝑟 − 1 𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻0 [1 − ( ) ]
[ ] = 0.7906 𝑇𝑐
𝜀𝑟 + 2
2 2
𝐻𝐶 = 0.0306 [1 − ( ) ]
3.7
𝜀𝑟 − 1 = (𝜀𝑟 + 2) × 0.7906
𝐻𝐶 = 0.022 T
Example 4. A superconducting
2.5812 material has a critical temperature of
𝜀𝑟 = = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟑𝟑
0.2094 3.7 K in zero magnetic field and a
critical field of 0.02 T at 0 K. Find the
critical field at 3 K.
Numerical on Superconductivity Solution: Given: TC = 3.7K
Example 1. Lead has a superconducting
H0 = 0.02T
transition temperature of 7.26 K. If initial
field at 0 K is 50 × 103 Am−1, calculate the To find the critical field at 3 K;
critical field at 6 K.
𝑇 2
Solution: Given: TC = 7.26K 𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻0 [1 − ( ) ]
𝑇𝑐
H0 = 50 × 103 Am−1 3 2
𝐻𝐶 = 0.02 [1 − ( ) ]
To find the critical field at 6 K; 3.7
𝑇 2 𝐻𝐶 = 0.013 T
𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻0 [1 − ( ) ]
𝑇𝑐 Example 5. The critical field for lead
6 2 is 1.2 × 105 A/m at 8 K and 2.4 × 105
𝐻𝐶 = 50 × 103 [1 − ( ) ] A/m at 0 K. Find the critical
7.26
temperature of the material.
𝐻𝐶 = 50 × 103 [1 − 0.623] Solution:
𝐻𝐶 = 18.834 × 103 Am−1 Given: T = 8K
Hc = 1.2 × 105 A/m
Example 2. A superconducting transition H0 = 2.4 × 105 A/m
temperature of lead is 7.26 K If initial TC = ?
field at 0 K is 64 × 103 Am−1 calculate the 𝑇 2
𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻0 [1 − ( ) ]
critical field at 5 K. 𝑇𝑐
Solution: Given: TC = 7.26K 5 5
8 2
1.2 × 10 = 2.4 × 10 [1 − ( ) ]
H0 = 64 × 103 Am−1 𝑇𝑐
 1.2 × 105 𝑇 2 Example7.The critical fields for lead are
=1 − (𝑇 )
2.4 × 105 𝑐 1.2 × 105 A/m & 3.6 × 105 A/m at 12 K &
64
Tc 2=0.5 10 K, respectively. Find its critical
TC=11.3K temperature & critical field at 0K & 3.2
Example 6. The critical field for K.
niobium is 1 × 105 amp/m at 8 K and Solution: Given : T1 = 12 K T2 = 10 K
2 × 105 amp/m at absolute zero. Find
the transition temperature of the
Hc1= 1.2 × 105 A/m
element.
Solution: Hc2 = 3.6× 105 A/m
Given: T = 8K TC = ? H0= ?
Hc = 1 × 105 A/m 𝑇 2
𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻0 [1 − ( ) ]
H0 = 2× 105 A/m 𝑇𝑐
12 2
TC = ? 1.2 × 105 = 𝐻0 [1 − ( 𝑇 ) ] … (1)
𝑐
𝑇 2 5 10 2
𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻0 [1 − ( ) ] 3.6 × 10 = 𝐻0 [1 − ( 𝑇 ) ]….(2)
𝑐
𝑇𝑐
On comparing equations (1) and (2)
8 2 we get
5 5
1 × 10 = 2 × 10 [1 − ( ) ] TC=12.8 K
𝑇𝑐
5
12 2
1× 105 𝑇 2 1.2 × 10 = 𝐻0 [1 − ( ) ]
=1 − (𝑇 ) 12.8
2 × 105 𝑐

64
Tc 2=0.5 1.2 × 105
𝐻0 =
12 2
TC=11.3 K [1 − (12.8) ]
𝐻0 =9.06 × 105 A/m
𝑇 2
𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻0 [1 − ( ) ]
𝑇𝑐
5
3.2 2
𝐻3.2 = 9.06 × 10 [1 − ( ) ]
12.88

𝐻3.2 = 8.5 × 105 A/m