@pichadarshan

~ANATOMY~

Upper limb

SAQ
1. Clavipectoral Fascia**(fascial sheet b/w clavicle & pec minor, enclosing subclavius
& pec minor; structures piercing 4- LPN, TAA, lymphatics, CV)
2. Cubital Fossa** (pronator teres, brachioradialis,imag line,MBBR)
3. Brachial plexus* (read that damn cadaver book; branches from cords- LML/M4U/
ULNAR)
4. Klumpke’s paralysis*
5. Erb’s point & Erb’s paralysis**
6. Rotator Cuff**
7. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome**
8. Pronation & Supination**
9. Claw hand - features & causative factors*
10. Serratus anterior*
11. Deltoid & structures under it*
12. Biceps brachii*
13. Triangular & Quadrangular spaces*
14. Superficial palmar arch
15. Anatomical snuff box*
16. Flexor retinaculum
17. Wrist drop**
18. Elbow Joint

LAQ
1. Shoulder Joint****
2. Mammary gland****(location, extent- 2nd to 6th rib, relations & structure- skin,
stroma, parenchyma; arterial supply- MA,LTA,PIA ,STA; venous drainage- AV, ITV,
PIV; nerve supply; lymphatics- AXLN, IMN, SCN, PIN, CPN, superficial & deep
lymphatics, plexus of sappey, metastasis of cancer; clinical- carcinoma, krukenberg
tumour, polythelia, retracted nipple, polymastia, gynecomastia)
3. Axillary artery* (save lions and protect the species; main art of upper limb, from
subclav art, from outer border of 1st rib to lower border of teres mj; cont as brachial
artery; div by pec minor into 3 parts, gives off STA, TAA, LTA, SBSA, ACHA, PCHA;
applied -collateral circulation, axillary pulsations & compression)
4. Mid-palmar spaces
5. Median Nerve* (C5-T1, max flexors)
6. Radial Nerve** (triceps, extensor compartment, post cord)
7. Ulnar Nerve*
8. Musculocutaneous nerve*
9. Axillary nerve

VIVA & PRACTICALS

Vivavoce/MiteshDave
1. Rough origin & insertion, nerve supply and action of muscles that are visible

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@pichadarshan

2. Scapula & humerus are easy and commonly asked, radius and ulna not commonly
asked , 3-4 points abt attachment and bony prominence
3. Names of bones in hand and types of joints in hand ,spiral law of ossification*

Thorax

SAQ
1. Thoracic duct***(45cm, largest lymphatic vessels, continuation of cisterna chyli at
T12 upto junc of left int jugular & left subclv vn at root of neck; course; tributaries;
clinical- injury to TD while surgery lead to chylothorax, obstruction by w.bancrofti;
devlpmnt )
2. Root of lungs*, relations & histology- right & left
(Right- azygos, phrenic nerve, vagus nerve, SVC;
Left- phrenic, vagus, aortic arch, thoracic aorta)
3. Azygos vein* (H shaped diagram, tributaries on left 5-8 acc hemi, 9-11+subcostal
vn, on right 2-11+ SCV + RALV + RBV; clinical- SVC obstructions)
4. SVC* - formation, tributaries & blocks (7X1.25cm, union of R/L brachiocephalic
veins; tributaries- R/L BCV, AV, mediastinal & pericardial veins; relations; blocks-
below azygos entry → BC axillary lat. thoracic thoracoepigastric sup. Epigastric great
saphenous femoral vein IVC)
5. Typical intercostal space - muscles & neuromuscular bundle
6. Typical intercostal nerve* (3-6, branches- rami comm/ muscular / collateral/ lat
cutaneous/ ant cutaneous branches; clinical- root pain, site of eruption of cold
abscess on body wall, herpes zoster)
7. Inlet of thorax, Thorax outlet/inlet syndrome (kidney shaped, plane of inlet is
directed downward and forward 45°, structures passing- muscles:
sternohyoid/sternothyroid/longus colli, arteries, nerves, veins, lymphatics, others;
inlet syndrome - compression of subclavian a/v/brachplex over first rib, outlet = space
b/w Clavicle and 1st rib, no pulse, edema, paresthesia etc)
8. Diaphragm- openings (major openings & structures passing -venacaval T8,
esophageal T10, aortic T12; minor openings )
9. Oesophagus - constrictions & applied (4 constrictions, 3 parts, achalasia,
portacaval anastomosis)
10. Define mediastinum & classify*
11. Posterior & anterior mediastinum*
12. Development of arch of aorta*
13. Development & interior of right atrium*
14. Coronary sinus**
15. Left coronary artery** (lt. Conus, ant. Interventricular, circumflex, lt. Post. aortic
sinus)
16. Atrial septal defects*
17. Arterial & venous drainage of heart** (R/L Coronary artery & their branches;
venous by coronary sinus, ant cardiac veins, thebesian vein, tributaries of coronary
sinus)
18. Coronary blood circulation

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@pichadarshan

LAQ
1. Arch of Aorta****(T4, upbackleft, relations, branches)
2. Bronchopulmonary segments***(smallest well-defined independent anatomical
functional & surgical unit of lungs, 10 lobes APALMSMALP, features- subdiv of lobe,
pyramidal, surr by connective tissue, segmental bronchus, own artery, pul artery &
lymphatics, drained by intersegmental veins, surgically resectable; infections
restricted to segment, cancer & TB may spread, asthma)
3. Right atrium** (sinus venarum (post), atrium proper (ant), auricle, fossa ovalis, torus
aorticus, triangle of koch → AV node, sulcus/crista terminalis → SA node, 4
openings- SVC/IVC/CS/AV)
4. Superior mediastinum* (thoracic inlet to manubrium, trachea and eso, SVC and
tributaries, aortic arch w branches, sternohyoid/thyroid, thymus, thoracic duct,
clinical- potential dead space, veins on right and arteries on left)

VIVA & PRACTICALS

Vivavoce/MiteshDave
1. Lungs and heart full from video
2. Osteo-1strib**,typical rib*,thoracic vertebrae (attachment not to be read)

Lower Limb

SAQ
1. Sartorius*** (origin ASIS, insertion pes anserinus, anteromedial surface of tibia; NS
by femoral n branches, many functions: hip extensor, ext rotator, abductor, knee
flexor, int rotator)
2. Popliteus** (origin: inferolat surface of femur, insertion: posteromed part of proximal
tibia; NS by tibial n L4-S1; forms floor of pop fossa; action: unlocking of knee jt, acts
on origin while standing- closed chain, on insertion while walking- open chain)
3. Soleus*
4. Gastrocnemius** (post compartment of leg, origin: 2 heads, med and lat condyles of
femur; insertion into achilles tendon along with soleus on post surface of calcaneum;
NS by tibial nerve; action: acts as plantar flexor, helps in walking and running, acts as
second gear as it is faster but less strong than soleus, applied: ankle jerk reflex by
tapping on achilles’ tendon)
5. Tibialis posterior*
6. Adductor magnus
7. Quadriceps femoris (rectus fem: only one to originate from hip, from AIIS and sup
margin of acetabulum; all 4 insert into quad tendon patella and tibial tuberosity; only
one to cause flexion at hip; vastus medialis: origin medial side of femur; stabilizes
patella; vastus intermedius: origin anterolat part of femur; vastus lateralis: origin
greater trochanter and linea aspera; stabilizes patella; all 4 are extensors of knee; NS
by femoral nerve; applied: testing for quads femoris)
8. Hamstrings (lateral to medial: biceps fem: origin from ischial tub, sacrotuberous lig,
short head from linea aspera; insertion on head of fibula; ext rotation, extension at
hip; flexion, ext rotation at knee; NS to long head by tibial n, short head by common
fibular n; semitendinosus: origin same; insertion on med aspect of tibia via pes
anserinus; extension at hip, flexion at knee, int rotation in both; NS by tibial nerve;

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semimembranosus: origin at ischial tub, insertion at medial condyle of tibia; action

same as semitendinosus; NS tibial n; applied: testing of hamstring muscles)
9. Gluteus medius
10. Gluteus maximus & structures under it** (origin: gluteal surface of ilium, lat portion
of sacrum and coccyx, thoracolumbar fascia, sacrotub lig; insertion: some on femur
greater trochanter, mostly on iliotibial tract; inf gluteal nerve supply; powerful extensor
of hip when flexed, also lat rotator; applied: testing for maximus, gluteal nerve
commonly gets injured in IM injection, etc; structures under muscles-9, vessels-7,
nerves-8, bones and joints-6, ligaments-3, bursae-3 & diagram)
11. Trendelenberg test & sign*
12. Foot drop* (injury to common peroneal n, mostly due to fracture of neck of fibula;
loss of eversion- peroneus longus and brevis, dorsiflexion- extensors, foot is plantar
flexed)
13. Femoral sheath*** (funnel shaped fascial space extending from inguinal lig to fem
triangle; blends into tunica adventitia of vessels: formed by transversalis and psoas
fascia; divided into 3 compartments: medial- fem canal, intermediate- contains
common fem vein, lat- fem art; diagram w abdominal muscle endings)
14. Femoral artery*
15. Femoral canal** (medial compartment of fem sheath, upper end has fem ring, canal
lies in upper medial part of fem triangle, allows fem vein to expand when needed)
16. Femoral hernia* (through fem canal, more common in females due to wider pelvis,
neck and sac, sac contents are usually bowel loop, course: down thru fem canal,
forward thru saphenous opening, up with superficial epigastric vessels; if
strangulation occurs then lacunar lig has to be cut)
17. Femoral nerve* (lumbar plexus L2-L4; course: enters fem triangle by passing behind
inguinal lig bet iliacus and psoas major, travels lat to fem art, separated into ant and
post divisions by lat circumflex fem art; innervates sartorius, quads and articularis
genu; sensory branches: medial and intermediate cutaneous n of thigh, post division
gives saphenous n; also supplies hip (rectus br) and knee (vasti br) joints, and fem
artery; applied: fem nerve injury due to stab, gunshot wounds, loss of knee extension
and weak hip flexion)
18. Obturator nerve*
19. Deep peroneal nerve
20. Adductor canal*** (15 cm intermuscular tunnel, boundaries- v.med, add.longus,
add.magnus, roof by fibrous membrane overlapped by sartorius; contents- fem art,
fem vein, saphenous vein, nv to vastus medialis, ant and oost div of obturator nv,
descending genicular artery; clinical- popliteal artery is ligated for aneurysm of
popliteal artery)
21. Superficial inguinal lymph nodes*
22. Inversion & Eversion*** (both take place at talocalcaneonavicular (B&S) and
talocalcaneal joint; inversion is elevation of great toe, eversion is elevation of 5th toe;
inversion by tibialis ant and post, ant supplied by deep peroneal n, post by tibial n;
eversion by peroneus longus & brevis, supplied by superficial peroneal n; applied:
fracture of neck of fibula injures common peroneal n affecting both inversion and
eversion)
23. Varicose veins**
24. Great saphenous vein* (longest vein in the body, starts with merging of dorsal
venous arch and medial marginal vein; travels upward in front of med malleolus,

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along med side of leg and behind the knee, pierces cribriform fascia in thigh at
saphenous opening and drains into fem vein; tributaries: ankle perforators, sup ext
pudendal, sup circumflex iliac, sup epigastric; applied: site for IV injection in front of
med malleolus)
25. Dorsalis pedis artery*
26. Popliteal artery
27. Flexors of knee joint ( chief- semimembranosus, semitendinosus, biceps femoris &
accessory- popliteus, sartorius, gracilis, gastrocnemius, plantaris)
28. Housemaid’s knee* (inflammation of prepatellar bursae due to friction of bursa
against patella when it comes in contact with ground)
29. Intra articular surface of knee joint (ACL PCL, lat and med menisci, popliteus
tendon, transverse lig, diagram showing synovial relations)

LAQ
1. Hip joint* (head of femur, acetabulum of hip; capsular ligament, ilio, ischio and
pubofemoral lig, transverse acetabular lig, acetabular labrum; blood supply by med
and lat circumflex femoral arteries; NS by branches of femoral, sciatic and obturator
nerve; movements: flexion extension abduction adduction med lat rotation and
circumduction; applied: dislocation, uncommon due to stability of joint, mostly
posterior)
2. Knee joint** (largest, most complex, formed by lat and med tibiofemoral joints and
femoropatellar joint; 11 ligaments: ACL PCL 2 menisci 2 collateral lig patellae fibrous
capsule oblique and arcuate popliteal lig transverse lig; relations like muscles nerves
and vessels on all 4 sides; blood supply from branches of popliteal, femoral, lat
circumflex fem, ant tibial, post tibial arteries; NS by branches from femoral, sciatic
and obturator nerves; movements: flexion extension, slight degrees of rotation,
locking and unlocking and their muscles; applied: meniscus tear, ACL PCL tear due
to dislocation of tibia etc)
3. Ankle joint (hinged synovial joint between tibia fibula and talus; articular surfaces: inf
surface of tibia and fibula and their malleoli, sup med and lat articular surfaces of
talus; 3 ligaments: fibrous capsule, deltoid/medial ligament and lateral ligament;
relations: anterior tibialis ant, ext hallucis longus, deep peroneal n, ant tibial vessels,
ext digitorum longus, peroneus tertius, posterior tibialis post, tibial n, post tibial
vessels, flexor digitorum longus, flexor hallucis longus, peroneus longus and brevis;
blood supply by tibial and peroneal arteries; nerve supply by tibial and deep peroneal
n; applied: sprain of ankle joint occurs in forced plantar flexion where joint is
unstable)
4. Venous drainage of lower limb** (3 types of veins: superficial deep and perforators,
superficial are short and long saphenous veins forming on lat and med ends of dorsal
venous arch, short drains into popliteal v, long drains into fem v; deep veins are same
as arteries: fem ← popliteal ← ant and post tibial ← dorsalis pedis, peroneal and lat
med plantar veins; perforators connect deep w superficial, total 6: lat perf, below
knee, upper med, middle med, lower med, adductor canal perf; applied: varicose
veins)
5. Sciatic nerve**** (L4-S2/S3, passes through greater sciatic foramen, under
piriformis and gluteus max, bed formed by body of ischium, obt int, sup and inf
gemelli, quad femoris, adductor magnus; formed by tibial and common peroneal
parts, tibial supplies all hamstrings except short head of biceps fem which is by

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peroneal; sensory supply to whole of foot except part of saphenous n; applied:

sciatica due to piriformis syndrome/herniated intervertebral disc, most commonly
injured n in IM injections)
6. Femoral triangle*** (ing lig med border of adductor long med border of sartorius;
roof by skin, cribriform fascia and fascia lata; floor by adductor longus, brevis,
pectineus and iliopsoas; content femoral NAV lat to med; vessels in fem sheath; med
compartment of sheath called fem canal; applied: femoral hernia, neck and sac, loop
of bowel, its path, down forward up through saphenous opening etc)
7. Popliteal fossa*** (diamond shaped, boundaries: bíceps fem semitendinosus
membranosus adductor magnus gracilis gastrocnemius plantaris; roof skin sup fascia
popliteal fascia, superficial contains short saphenous vein and cutaneous nerves;
floor by popliteal surface of femur, knee capsule, fascia covering popliteus; 8
contents: pop art vein tibial and common peroneal n lymph nodes fat post cutaneous
nerve & genicular branch of obturator n; crossing of artery from med to lat side, nerve
most superficial artery most deep; applied: popliteal artery used to measure BP of
lower limb)
8. Lateral longitudinal arch* (lat arch: features: low, less mobile, transmits weight,
small arc of big circle; ant end lat 2 metatarsals, post end lat tubercle of calc; summit
sup articular surface of calcaneus subtalar joint; ant pillar metatarsals + cuboid, post
lat half of calc; main jt: calcaneocuboid joint; wedge shaped bony factor;
intersegmental ties: long & short plantar ligaments; tie beams: lat part of plantar apo,
abd digiti minimi, lat part of flex digit brevis; slings: peroneus longus & brevis;
suspension: sling formed by TA and PL)
9. Medial longitudinal arch*** (10 points: ant end: med 3 metatarsals, post end: med
tubercle of calcaneus; features: higher, more mobile and shock absorbing; summit:
sup articular surface of talus; ant pillar: all bones except calc; post pillar: med half of
calc; main joint: talocalcaneonavicular; bony factor: wedge shaped; intersegmental
ties: spring lig; tie beams: plantar apo med part, abd hallucis, med part of flexor
digitorum brevis; slings: flexor retinaculum (flex hallucis longus, digitorum longus,
tibialis post); suspension: tibialis ant, peroneus longus; applied: flat feet, pes cavus)

VIVA & PRACTICALS

Vivavoce/MiteshDave
1. Rough origin & insertion, nerve supply and action of muscles that are visible on
dissection.
2. Identification Of Nerves And Arteries,saphenous and femoral vein
3. Osteology- all bones are imp Hipbone-Toughest ,Femur easiest, fibula most
confusion all three are commonly asked. The entire bone is not asked ,3-4 points
only
4. Name The Bones Of Foot And Arches

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Head Neck And Face

SAQ
1. Posterior triangle (on side of neck; boundaries ant- post border of scm, post- ant
border of trapezius, inf- middle ⅓ rd clavicle, apex- meeting point of scm & trapz,
floor- semispinalis capitis/ splenius capitis/ levator scapulae/ scalenus medius, roof-
investing ly &platysma pierced by LO GA TC SPC nv; contents(7)- bp, subclav art &
vein, occp art, spinal accessory nv, inf belly of omohyoid & lymph nodes; the inf belly
div the triangle into occipital & subclavian triangle; applied- tubercular abscess,
virchow nodes may enlarge, surgical damage to CN XI during biopsy of posterior
triangle)
2. Carotid triangle*** ( boundaries- post belly of digastric, sup belly of omohyoid, ant
border of scm; contents- ICA, CCA, ECA, hypoglossal nv, ansa cervicalis, spinal
accessory nv, vagus nv, sup laryngeal nv, symp chain, cervical lymph nodes, carotid
body, carotid sinus (ice clip has vss ccc), clinical- compression of CCA against
carotid tubercle, carotid pulse in CPR absence = card arrest)
3. Digastric triangle** (submandibular triangle; boundaries ant & post belly of digastric,
base of mandible, floor- mylo-hyoid/hyo-glossus/middle constrictor, roof by investing
layer and superficial fascia, contents(6)- submandibular gland/ submandibular LN,
submental art, mylo-hyoid m/s, facial art & vein; clinical- common site of swelling due
to involvement of submand gland & LN)
4. Sub-occipital triangle (inter muscular triangle in suboccp region; boundaries RCP
mj & min, OC sup & inf, floor- post arch of atlas & post atlanto occipital memb, roof-
semispinalis capitis, longissimus capitis, splenius capitis; contents- vertebral art,
suboccp nv, greater occp nv, suboccp plexus of veins; applied- cisternal puncture,
neurosurgeons approach post cranial fossa)
5. Carotid sheath*** (condensation of fibroareolar tissue p, from base of skull to arch of
aorta, ant wall is conn to pretracheal fascia & post to prevertebral fascia; thick around
CCA & ICA and thin around IJV to allow free exp; relations- anteriorly ansa cervicalis
and posteriorly symp trunk; contents- CCA, ICA, IJV, vagus nv; clinical- freq exposed
in block dissection of neck )
6. Dangerous area of face* (upper lip + lower part of nose w septum + adjoining part
of cheeks; cauz infective emboli from this area can reach cavernous sinus causing
cavernous thrombosis causing compression of CN; deep facial vein—pterygoid
venous plexus—emissary veins—cavernous sinus)
7. Orbicularis oris & its antagonist
8. Deep cervical fascia** (3: investing layer, pretracheal layer, prevertebral layer)
9. Sternocleidomastoid (large superficial m/s, obliquely on side of neck b/w ant & post
triangles origin sternal by upper part of manubrium sterni & clavicular by sup border
of middle ⅓ rd clavicle, insertion by tendon on mastoid process & by apo on SNL of
occpt bone; spinal accessory nv & ventral rami of C2 C3; actions- tilt head towards
shoulder of same side & rotate face to opp side, draw the head forwards &
downwards; clinical- spasmodic/reflex/congenital torticollis, sternomastoid tumour)
10. Ansa cervicalis* (U-shaped nerve loop from ventral rami of C1 C2 C3, in ant wall of
carotid sheath; sup limb by descends hypoglossi from C1 to sup belly of omo-hyoid &
inf limb by descends cervicalis from C2 C3 to inf belly of
omo-hyoid/sterno-hyoid/sternothyroid)

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11. Bell’s palsy* (LMN type of facial palsy, due to compression of fn into facial canal just
above the styloid foramen following its inflammation and swelling due to viral
infection, features- facial asymmetry, loss of wrinkles on forehead, inability to close
eyes, inability of angle of mouth to move up, loss of nasolabial furrow, accumulation
of food, dribbung of saliva, inability to blow cheek)
12. Nasal septum*** (median osseocartilagenous partition; bony part by vomer and
perpendicular plate of ethmoid, cartilag part by septal cartilage and septal process,
cuticular part by fibrofatty tissue; arterial supply by 1) ant ethmoidal art
2)sphenopalantine 3) superior labial 4) greater palatine; general sensory supply by 1)
ant ethmoidal 2) ant superior alveolar 3) branches of pterygopalatine ganglion,
special sensory by olfactory nerve; applied anatomy- DNS, septal cartilage support
dorsum of ant ⅔, little area, rhinitis, rhinoscopy)
13. Little area of nose* (area in anteroinf of septum where 4 art anastomose to form
kiesselbach’s plexus formed by septal branches of SP GP AEP SLA; common site of
epistaxis esp in children due to picking; septal branch of SPA is artery of nose
bleeding/rhinologist’s artery)
14. Lateral wall of nose*** (complicated, made of bones- nasal/lacrimal/inf nasal
concha & cartilages- upper&lower nasal/ minor alar cartilage; divided into 3
ant/mid/post, concha- sup/mid/inf, meatuses- inf/mid/sup; applied, arterial & nerve
supply same as nasal septum)
15. Muscles of mastication** (3+3 muscles; principal m/s- temporalis/masseter
/lateral/medial pterygoid, accessory m/s- digastric/buccinator/mylo-hyoid
/genio-hyoid, characteristics of principal m/s(5)- located in/around infratemp fossa,
inserted on ramus, common innervation, concerned w movem of mandible, develop
from mesoderm of 1st arch; nerve supply is by mandibular division of trigeminal nv;
clinical- tested by asking patient to repeatedly clench mouth and palpate temp &
masseter over temp fossa & over ramus resp)
16. Pterygoid muscles (lateral pterygoid key muscle of infratemp region, origin by upper
smaller head from infratemp crest & lower larger head from lateral surf of LP plate,
insertion into pterygoid fovea on neck of mandible, nerve supply by ant div of
mandibular nerve, actions- depression/protrusion of mandible /push chin to opp side;
medial pterygoid origin by superficial smaller head from maxillary tuberosity & deep
larger head from medial surf of LP plate, insertion into medial surf of ramus abv angle
of mandible, nv by nv to medial pterygoid branch from trunk of mandibular nv,
actions- elevation/protrusion of mandible/ push chin to opp side)
17. Muscles of pharynx (9muscles; 3paired outer circular layer of m/s coat- sup/mid/inf
constrictor, 3unpaired inner longitudinal layer of m/s coat-
stylo-/palato-/salpingo-pharyngeus; all supplied by cranial root of accessory nerve
CN XI via pharyngeal plx, except stylo-pharyngeus by glossopharyngeal nerve CN
IX; applied- pharyngeal pouch or zenker’s diverticulum- mucosa & submucosa may
bulge through potential gap between two parts(thyro-pharyngeus &
crico-pharyngeus) of inf constrictor due to neuromuscular in-coordination owing to diff
nv supply of both parts)
18. Palatine tonsils (almond shaped lymphoid tissue 2cm in tonsillar fossa on each side
in lateral wall of oropharynx; 2surface 2border 2ends lateral surf cov by hemicapsule;
tonsillar bed: pharyngibasilarfascia/supconst/buccopharyngealfascia; arterial by 5
tonsillar a & ascending palatine of facial a, descending palatine of maxillary, dorsal
lingual a of lingual a, ascending pharyngeal of ECA; paratonsillar vein into IJV; nerve

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by glossphyn & lesser palatine nv; jugulodigastric LN b/w post belly of digastric & IJV;
applied- tonsillitis, peri-tonsillar abscess, acute follicular tonsillitis, referred pain, PTV
bleeding after tonsillectomy; histo- crypts, strat non-kerat squam ep, lymph nodules,
mucous acini)
19. Waldeyer’s ring** (submucous aggregation of lymphoid tissue surr beginning of
respiratory & digestive tracts; by pharyngeal tonsil postero-superiorly, lingual tonsil
ant, tubal & palatine tonsil laterally; prevents invasion of microbes- defence
mechanism)
20. Flax cerebri (large sickle shape fold of dura matter, in median long fissure b/w
cerebral hemisp; 2ends 2margins 2surf; narrow ant end frontal crest & crista galli,
broad post end tentorium cerebelli, convex upper margin to sagittal sulcus, concave
lower margin is free, surf rel to creb hemisp; enclose sup/inf saggital & straight sinus;
applied- thrombosis of sup sagittal sinus)
21. Intracranial dural venous sinuses* ( venous channels b/w 2layers- endosteal &
meningeal layer of dura (except straight & inf sagittal sinus); features- devoid of sm
m/s & valves, lined by endothelium, drain csf, receive emissary veins,
noncompressive; 23sinuses 8paired- cavernous/ sup&inf petrosal/ transv/ sigmoid/
sphenoparietal/ petrosquamous/ middle meningeal vein 7unpaired-sup&inf sagittal/
straight/ occipital/ ant&post intercavernous/ basilar venous plexus)
22. Cavernous sinus**** (2X1cm, either side of pituitary fossa in body of sphenoid,
large venous space b/w endost & mening layers lined by endothelium; relation:
superiorly by op chiasma/ICA/ant perforated subst, inferiorly by f.lacerum & gwing of
sphenoid, medially by hypophysis cerebri & sphenoidal air sinus, laterally by temp
lobe &cavum trigeminale; contents: in lat wall(AP)- CN III—CN IV—CN VI—maxillary
nv, through the sinus- ICA & Abducent nerve; tributaries- sup&inf ophth veins/ central
retinal v, sphenoparietal sinus, middle meningeal vein, supf middle meningeal v/nf
cerebral veins; communications- sup&inf petrosal sinus, ant&post intercavernous
sinuses, emissary veins, ophthalmic v; applied- thrombosis, arteriovenous fistula)
23. Straight sinus* (lies in median plane within jn of flax cerebri & tentorium cerebelli;
begins as cont of inf sagittal sinus & ends into left tranv sinus)
24. Maxillary air sinus (paranasal sinuses: frontal/maxillary/ethmoidal/ sphenoidal;
3.5X2.5X3.25cm; largest paranasal sinus, in body of maxilla, first to develop 4th
month; pyramidal in shape, boundaries- roof by floor of orbit, floor by alveolar
process of maxilla below floor of nasal cavity, base by lateral wall, apex into
zygomatic process of maxilla, ant wall by ant surf of body of maxilla, post wall by
infratemporal surf; opening into h.semilunaris of mid metus; art/nerve by ant/mid/post
sup alveolar artery/nerve from maxillary and infraorbital arteries/nerve; into
submandibular LN; clinical- maxillary sinusitis, referred pain, disadv drainage,
carcinoma)
25. Sphenoidal air sinus (2X1.5X2cm, in the body of sphenoid bone, abv&behind nasal
cavity; sep each other by biny septum; assymtrical; relations- abv pitutary&opt
chaisma, below by roof of nasopharynx, laterally by cavernous sinus&ICA, behind by
pons&medulla, front by sphenoethmoidal air sinus which it drains into;
applied-sphenoidal sinusitis may affect pit&oc)
26. Ciliary ganglion (peripheral parasymp ganglion, pin head size 2mm, at apex of orbit
b/w optic nerve and LR, 3roots- parasymp root EW nucleus—inf div of CN III—nerve
to inf oblique—ciliary ganglion—short ciliary nerve—sp pupillae & ciliary m/s; symp
root T1–sup cervical gang—plx around ICA—no relay—short ciliary—dilator pup&

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blood vessels; sensory root by nasociliary nerve of ophthalmic nerve—no relay—

short ciliary—sensory innervation to whole eyeball except conjunctiva; clinical-
blocked in cataract extraction to prod dilation of pupil)
27. Otic ganglion** (parasymp ganglion, pin head size 2mm, in infratemporal fossa
below f.ovale, b/w mandibular nerve & tensor palati m/s; 4 roots- parasymp root inf
salv nuc— glossopharyngeal nv—tympanic plx—lesser petrosal nv—through
f.ovale—otic ganglion—AT nv— parotid; symp root T1/2–sup cervical gang—plx
around middle meningeal artery—no relay—AT nv—blood vessels of parotid, sensory
root from AT nv provide sensory innervation to parotid, somatic motor root is by nerve
to medial pterygoid which passes thru the ganglion to sup medial pterygoid/ tensor
palati/tensor tympani m/s)
28. Lacrimal Apparatus** (5: lac gland+conj sac+lac punta & canaliculi+lac sac
+nasolac duct; clinical-artificial tears, epiphora, dacryocystitis )
29. Extra-ocular muscles**** (2 groups; 7voluntary- S/I/L/M rectus, S/I oblique, LPS
LR6SO4; 3involuntary- S/I tarsal & orbitalis; nerve supply by CN III, except SO by CN
IV LR by CN VI; attachments & actions; applied: squint/strabismus- paralysis of LR
cause medial squint & MR cause lateral squint, paralysis of LPS cause complete
ptosis due involvement of oculomotor & partial ptosis due involvement of cervical
sympathetic chain)
30. Layers & development of retina* (10 layers- outer pigmented, rods&cones, ext
limiting, outer nuclear, outer plexiform, inner nuclear, inner plexiform ganglion cell,
nerve fibre,internal limiting membrane; develops from optic vesicle, inaginates
tovform optic cup which has 2 layers- outer pigmented & inner neural layer, neural
layer form rest of retina with photoreceptors on outside & ganglion cells on inside,
both layers remain separated, fuse in early foetal period, clinical- retinal
detachment,ophthalmoscope)
31. Branches of External carotid artery* (from upper border of thyroid cartilage to back
if neck of mandible; 8 branches: superior thyroid art, ascending pharyngeal art,
lingual art, facial art, occipital art, post auricular art, maxillary art, superficial temporal
art; Some Attendings Like Freaking Out Potential Medical Students)
32. Anastomosis between internal & external carotid* (4; b/w ST & OA, FA/SPA &
ETHA, corticotympanic branches & A/P div of tympanic a ,pterygoid branches &
GPA)
33. Subclavian arteries (beneath clavicle, main art for upper limb; right from bc trunk &
left from arch of aorta; course- arch laterally over ant surf of cervical pleura onto first
rib behind sc ant m/s at outer border of 1st rib cont a axillary artery; 3 parts- first part-
origin to medial border of sc ant gives off 4 braches- vertebral a/ thoracocervical trunk
(inf thy, tranv cerv, suprascapular)/int thorasic a/ costocervical trunk of the left,
second part behind sc ant gives costo cervical trunk of the right, thrid part from lateral
border of sc ant to outer border of 1st rib occasionally gives dorsal scapular a;
clinical- subclav pulse between middle & medial ⅓ rd of clavicle most superf part is
third part)
34. Hyoid bone (U-shaped bone, not a part of skull, corrsp 3rd cervical vertebrae b/w
mandible & larynx, doesn’t articulate with any other bone is suspended by stylo-hyoid
ligaments from styloid process; 5 parts- body, pair of greater cornu & pair of lesser
cornu; clinical- medicolegal significance fracture of hyoid suggest death by
strangulation, imp surgical landmark for locating lingual artery for ligation)

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35. Venous drainage of face* (by 2 veins mainly- FV & RMV; FV is largest vein of face,
union of ST & SO, it comm w cavernous sinus at point of origin and in cheek; RMV is
formed by union of ST & MV in parotid, A/P division, ant div + fv = cfv, post div + av =
ejv; clinical- dangerous area of face)
36. Cervical lymph nodes (300/800 LN are in face&neck region, 2grps- superficial &
deep; superficial: at craniocervical jn- submental/ submandibular/
pre-&retro-auricular/ occipital LN + others- nodes lying along FV/AJV/EJV; deep:
along IVJ- jugulo-digastric & -omohyoid nodes others- retropharyngeal/ prelaryngeal/
pre- & para- tracheal; clinical- some LN extend upto supra-clavicular fossa called
supra-clavicular LN or virchow’s LN are common site for metastasis for cancer of
stomach/testicles/oesophagus )

LAQ

1. Scalp**** (soft tissue covering vault, extent, layers- skin, connective

tissue,aponeurosis, loose areolar, pericranium; arterial supply by ST SO ST /PO OA
artery; veins corrsp, preauricular and postetior auricukar LN, 8 sensory nerves
innervate scalp ST SO ZT AT/ GA LO GO TO; 2 motor nerves temporal & post
auricular branch of facial nerve, applied anatomy- wounds heal quickly, profouse
bleeding, sebaceous cysts, dangerous layer of scalp, black eye, surgical layer of
scalp )
2. Tongue*** (apex/tip/body, body presents dorsal&ventral surface and lateral margins;
dorsum into two parts by sulcus terminalis, foramen caecum; ventral surface
presents frenulum linguae, plica fimbriata, prominences of deep lingual veins;
papillae- vallate,fungiform,filiform,foliate; muscles of tongue: intrinsic- sup&inf
longitudinal, transverse, vertical
extrinsic-genioglossus,hyoglossus,styloglossus,palatoglossus VITS GPS H; all
muscles are supplied by hypoglossal except palatoglossus, sensory supply by
internal lingual/ glossopharyngeal/ lingual/ chorda tympani nerve; blood supply by
lingual art of ECA, tonsillar & ascending palatine arteries of FA, lymphatic drainage
by marginal,central&posteior sets of vessels-
submental/jugulo-omohyoid/jugulodigastric LN; development from 1/2/3/4th
pharyngeal arches, tuberculum impar & two lingual swellings form ant 2/3rd,
hypobranchial eminence forms posterior ⅓ and posterior most part, muscles from
occipital myotome, connective tissue from local mesenchyme; applied- tongue tie,
drugs diffuse through sublingual region like sorbitrate in angina pec, carcinoma from
lateral margins of ant part, genioglossus is safety muscle, choking under
anaesthesia, testing of hypoglossal nerve, referred pain pf carcinoma to tmj/temporal
fossa/lower teeth)
3. Submandibular gland* (in digastric triangle; into two parts large superficial part
below myl-hyoid & small deep part below mylo-hyoid; enclosed b/w two layers of
investing layer of dcf; ext features- ant/post end, medial/lateral/inf surface; relations
of 3surfaces; nerve supply parasym by sup saliv nuc via submand gang & symp by
T1 segment via sup cervical gang, sensory by lingual nerve; applied- canaliculi
formation, excise the gland incision below angle of mandible, stone & submandibular
gland swelling be palpated bimanually in floor of mouth & oral diaphragm resp)

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4. Parotid gland**** (largest saliv gland in parotid region, 3 sided pyramid, apex
downward base upwards; 3 surfaces 3 borders; relations; nerve supply parasymp by
inf saliv nuc via otic ganglion, symp by T1 via sup cervical gang & sensory by AT &
GA nv, applied- mumps or viral parotitis, parotid swelling, parotid abscess, frey
syndrome, difficulty in probing, parotid sialogram, mixed parotid tumour )
5. Thyroid gland**** (endocrine gland in front of lower part of neck, R/L lobes joined by
isthmus, opp C5 C6 C7 T1 vertebrae, each lobe 5X2.5X2.5cm & isthmus
1.25X1.25cm; capsules- true&false false cap forms ligament of berry; each lobe-
apex/base/3surfaces/2borders & isthmus with 2borders/2surface ;their relations;
blood supply by sup&inf thyroid art, thyroid ima art, small accessory art; venous
drainage by sup/mid/inf thyroid vein & vein of kocher; developed from distal end of
thyroglossal duct which grow down from floor of primitive pharynx; clinical- goitre,
thyroidectomy & subtotal thyroidectomy, moves during swallowing, tumours of thyroid
compress adj structures, retrosternal goitre)
6. Larynx** (9 cartilages- 3 unpaired epiglottis/thyroid/cricoid 3 paired
arytenoid/corniculate/cuneiform; muscles oblique
arytenoids/aryepiglotticus/thyroepiglotticus, posterior&lateral
cricoarytenoids/transverse arytenoids, cricothyroid/vocalis/thyroarytenoid; vc
adducted-infaepiglottic pressure-forceofair open vc-air vibrates vc producing
sound-amplified-converted to speech; applied-1) cricothyroid is tuning fork of larynx
2) post cricoarytenoid is safety muscle 3) lesions in ELN/RLN 4)coughing reflex &
heimlich manoeuvre 5) laryngocele 6) damage to ILN cough reflex lost
7)laryngoscopy- direct&indirect 8)singer’s nodules)
7. Middle ear** (narrow slit like air filled petrous part of temporal bone, 15X6-2-4mm,
contents air/ tensor tympani & stapedius/ ear ossicles/ chorda tympani nerve and
tympanic plexus; boundaries roof/tegmental wall by tegmen tympani, floor or jugular
wall by jugular fossa of temporal bone,ant or carotid wall, medial wall presents
1)promontory 2) oval 3) round window 4)sinus tympani 5)prominence of facial canal
6) lateral semicircular canal, lateral or membranous wall, posterior or mastoid wall
presents 1)mastoid antrum 2)fossa incudis 3)pyramid 4)posterior canaliculus for
chorda tympani; nerve supply by tympanic branch of glossph; applied anatomy- otitis
media& csom(more common in children tube is shorter & horizontal), hyperacusis,
otosclerosis, referred pain of ear, mastoid abscess, bleeding due to fracture of middle
cranial fossa)
8. Maxillary artery (terminal branch of ECA, from neck of mandible to sphenopalatine
foramen where it cont as SPA; 3 parts by lateral pterygoid (inf head); branches first
part gives ATA,DAA,MMA,AMA,IAA second part gives muscular branches to
temporalis/pterygoid/masseter/buccinator ,third part gives PSAA,GPA,InfraOA,
pharyngeal branch, art of pterygoid canal, SPA; applied- extradural hematoma by
MMA, osteomyelitis of lower jaw by IAA, art of rhinologist SPA)
9. Temporomandibular joint*** (atypical complex synovial joint of condylar variety,
articular surfaces- articular fossa&tubercle w head of mandible, div in 2 parts by
articular disc- upper menisco-temporal & lower menisco-mandibular part; ligaments
main- capsular & lateral ligament accessory- stylo-mandibular & spheno-mandibular;
relations- M/L A/P S/I; nerve supply by AT & masseteric nv; movements- elevation,
depression, protrusion, retraction, chewing movements; clinical- inf alveolar nerve
IAN block, palpation of TMJ & associated muscles, dislocation,TMJ syndrome, during
surgery if TMJ facial nv must be protected )

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VIVA & PRACTICALS

Vivavoce/MiteshDave
1. SpecimenofTongueandLarynx**
2. Lateral Wall Of Nose
3. Sagittal Section
4. Osteo-Skulldoonlyvideos,Mandible**and nerve related to it
5. Hyoid bone
6. Atlas Axis pivot joint**
7. Typical cervical vertebra- video

Abdomen

SAQ

1. Male urethra* (18-20cm, S-shaped, parts- prostatic/membranous/penile, shapes,

mucosa; catherterization, hypospadias-
mgalndular/balanic/penile/penoscrotal/perineal, rupture cause extravasation of urine)
2. Female urethra* (4cmX6mm,IUO to embeded in ant vaginal wall into vestibule,
difference b/w male & female urethra; glands and lacunae aroundx ureytra glands,
paraurethral glands, urethral lacunae; clinical- easy catheterisation, UTIs are more
common, urninary incontinence is common)
3. StomachBed*** (8 structures: spleen & splenic art, trans meso and splenic
flexure,(ad)renal left, pancreas, left crus of diaphragm; Dr.S3 kills patients
mercilessly; separated by lesser sac except spleen)
4. Meckel’sDiverticulum* (remnant of VI duct, 2 inches long, 2%incidence, m:f ratio
2:1, 2 feet proximal to ileocaecal valve, 2 type of ectopic tisdue gastric mucosa &
pancreatic, apex could be free or attached to umb,intestinal obstruction& acute
appendicitis when infalmed, mostly asymptomatic,most common birth defect of GIT,
true diverticulum)
5. McBurney’sPoint* (pt of max tenderness in appendicitis, jn of med 2/3rd & lat 1/3rd
of line joining ASIS and umbilicus, base of appendix)
6. InteriorofUrinaryBladder** (muscular coat loosely attached to mucosa, folded, at
trigone (lower apex part) firmly attached hence smooth, ureters open in trigone, base
of trigone interureteric ridge trigone presents -anteroinferior angle, two
psoteriosuperior angle, uvula vesicae, intrauteric ridge, two uterourethral ridges)
7. Spleen-relations (2 surfaces diaphragmatic and visceral, visceral relations fundus of
stomach, tail of pancreas, ant surface of lt kidney,left splenic flexure of colon;
gastric/colic/pancreatic/renal impression; dimensions 1x3x5 inches, 7 ounces, bet
9-11 ribs, diaphragmaric relations diaphragm, costodiaphragmatic recesses, left lung,
9/10/11th rib of left side; peritoenal relations lineorenal & gastrosplenic ligament)
8. Types of incisions on Anterior abdominal wall** (1. Midline 2. Paramedian 3.
Mcburney 4. Kocher’s 5. Transverse incision)
9. Hysterosalpingography* (radiological technique, lipidol injected to see female repro
tract, used to examine patency of tubes or anomalies of FRT, done in first 5-10 days
of mens cycle)

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14

10. Ureters- constrictions & relations (abdominal & pelvic part wrt bifurcation of
common iliac artery/pelvic brim, realtions- colic & testicular/ovarian vessels , psoas
major & bifurcation of CIA, rt - duodenum, root of mesentry,iliocolic vessels, lt-
sigmoidal vessels& sigmoid mesocolon; 3 const sites- at pelviuretric jn, pelvic brim,
utero-vesicle jn)
11. Peritoneal relations of liver (bare area, fossa for GB, IVC, ligamentum venosum,
porta hepatis)
12. Perineal body* (fibromuscular node in midline of perineum; tip of urorectal septum,
10 m/s- 4 paired + 2 unpaired- bulbospongius/superficial&deep transverse
perini/levator ani, EAS/muscular coat of anal canal; applied- damage during deilvery,
epiostomy)
13. Superficial perineal pouch* (boundaries- colles fascia, perineal membrane,
ischiopubic ramus, fusion, cont w spaces of scrotum; contents- STP, branches of int
pudendal nerve&art, root of penis/clit, bulbourethral/bartholin glands; applied- rupture
of urethra)
14. Deep perineal pouch (thin space of urogenital region deep to the perineal
membrane; bound lat by ischiopubic rami, contains urethra, vagina, sphincter
urethrae, deep trans perinei, sphincter urethrovaginalis, dorsal n of clit/penis, bulbo
glands)
15. Umbilicus* (puckered scar, L3-4, attachment of umb cord, applied- supp by T10,
portacaval anastomisis, watershed line; clinical- imp landmark, cosemtic value,
referred pain, fetal/uriniary fistual, cong umb hernia)
16. Lesser sac (omental bursa, large recess behind stomach/liver/lesser omentum;
boundaries- ant by liver, lesser omentum, 3 layers of greater omentum post by 2
layers of greater omentum & stomach bed; 3 recess- sup inf splenic; functions-
facilitates movm of stomach, bursa; applied- pseudocyst of pancreas, internal hernia)
17. Caput medusae* (radiation of dilated&tortous veins, site of portacaval anastomosis;
paraumblical & subcutaneous veins if ant wall; resemble head of medusae)
18. Portacaval anastomosis*** (site of somm b/w pv & ivc, 3 sites- lower end of
oesophagus (portal-left gastric vein, caval-esophagal branches to azygous vein),
anal canal (sup rectal vein---inf mes vein---enters portal circulation through splenic
vein, middle and inf rectal vein---IVC), splenic flexure, umbilicus; portal pressure
increases in cirrhosis, varices, hematemesis)
19. Inguinal canal** ( transmission of spermatic cord, 4cm long, from DIR to SIR;
boundaries- IO&EO apo, fascia transv, inguional lgament, dir/sir; DIR- oval in f.transv
½ inch abv mid inguinal point, SIR triangular in apo of EO cura are margins;
contents- spermatic cord/round ligament, ilioinguinal nerve; protective mech-
flapvalve, slitvalve, shutter, ballvalve, ant/post guard; development from p.vag &
decent of testis; applied- inguinal hernia)
20. Inguinal hernia (IC is region of potential weakness; 2 types- indirect hernia via DIR
vaginal/congenital/bubonocele, direct hernia via post wall medial/lateral; difference
b/w the two)
21. Contents of spermatic cord* (9-vas def, tunica vag, remains of p.vag, test art, art of
ductus def, cremasteric art, pampiniform plx, genitofemoral nv, lymphatics)
22. Structures passing through SIR & DIR* ( males: SIR- sp cord & ilioinguinal nerve,
DIR(6)- ductus def, test vessels, remains of p.vag, geniatal branch of genitofem nv,
autonomic nv, lymphatics; females SIR- RL & ilioinguinal nerve, DIR(4)- RL, remains
of p.vag, genital branch of genitofem nv, lymphatics)

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23. Epiploic foramen* (for of winslow, 3cm, lesser sac comm w greater sac, applied-
internal hernia, compression of hep pedicle, spread of infection)
24. Transpyloric plane (addison’s plane, tip of 9cc to lower L1, structures(5)- pylorus,
neck of pancreas, hilum of kidney, pv formation, sup mesentric art)
25. Quadratus lumborum (thick quad m/s, 12th rid to iliac crest, ventral ramii of T12 &
L1-4 sp nv; actions- lat flexor of v.column, fixes 12th rib, extends v.column)
26. Pelvic diaphragm (m/s partition b/w pelvis & peritoneum, formed by 4 m/s lev ani &
coccygeus; lev ani - pubicoccygeus & iliococcygeus pernial branch of p nv and 4th
sacral nv, coccugeus- triangular behind lev ani 4th 5th sacral nv; openings- hiatus
urogenitalis & hiatus rectalis; relations- sup by pelvic fascia, bladder, rectum, prostate
inf by anal fascia; functions- support viscera, constrict vagina, elevate prostate,
facilitate parturation & defac, aid in micturation; applied- injury, hiatus of schwalbe)
27. Blood testis barrier* (sertoli cell barrier, tight junction b/w sertoli & basal lamina,
provides environment for development of spermatocytes)
28. Inferior Vena Cava* (formed at L5 by fusion of both common iliac veins, pierces
diaphragm at T8, related to post surface of liver, epiploic foramen, head of pancreas,
duodenum; tributaries(12)- common iliac, renal, hepatic, phrenic, lumbar, right
suprarenal, right testicular/ovarian vein; development- 8th wk, from 6 parts- RPCV,
RSPCV, RSBCV, RHCC and realted anastomosis; applied- compression,
developmental defectsx double & preuretic IVC)
29. Pudendal canal* (alcock canal, lateral wall of ischiorectal fossa, from sciatic notch to
perineal membrane; by splitting of obturator fasica; contents- pudendal nv, int
pudendal art, accompanying veins)
30. Vas deferens (45cmX3-5mm, 3parts- scrotum, spermatic cord, pelvis; art by artery to
va def, b/o sup/inf vesical art & middle rectal artery; venous by vesical venous plx
into int iliac veins; pelvic splanchinc nv; applied- vasectomy, congenital absence,
acquired obstruction)
31. Contraception: AnatomicalBasis* (IUD in uterus prevents implantation of fertilized
ovum)
32. RelationsofKidney**–diagram (common: suprarenal gland, ureter, post diaphragm,
arcuate ligaments, psoas major, quad lumb, trans abd, subcostal vessels an n,
iliohypogastric and ilioinguinal n; right: liver, duo, hep flexure colon, small int; left:
spleen, stomach, pancreas, splenic vessels, splenic flexure & desc colon, jejunum;
diagrams showing surfaces)
33. Peritoneal Reflections Of Liver (falciform lig dividing into lt and rt lobes, ant and
post coronary ligaments, connected at lt and rt triangular ligaments, reflect to the
diaphragm)
34. Appendix** (2-20cm,9cm avg, 5mm width, posteromedial wall of caecum,
base/body/tip, most common retrocolic(12 o clock) and pelvic(4), paracolic(11 o
clock), promonteric (3 o clock), mid-inguinal (6’o clock), appendicular a from ileocolic
a, appendicular vein into sup mesenteric veins, ileocolic lymp nodes, surface
anatomy- base 2cm below jn of transtubercular & rt lat plane,applied- subhepatic
appendix, appendicitis, mc burney point, appendectomy)

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LAQ

1. Pancreas**** ( fleshy appearance, head/neck/body/tail, retroperitoneal, relation of

diff parts : 3 parts of duodenum, pda artery, sup mesenteric vessels, pylorus, transv
colon, IVC, aorta, coeliac trunk, L/R crus of diaphragm; ducts- main or wirsung &
accessory or santorini, head supplied by sup pda & inf pda, neck/body/tail by splenic
art, venous drainage by sup & inf pda vein, develop from 2 buds- dorsal & ventral,
applied - annular pancreas/ ectopic/ divided pancreas/ inversion of ducts/ carcinoma
of head/ acute pancreatitis/DM)
2. Ischiorectal fossa*** (boundaries- ob int & ischial tuberosity, levt ani & EAS,
sacrotuberous ligament, perianal membrane; content- fat/ inf rectal n&v/ perianal
branch of 4th sacral nerve/ post sacral n&v; perianal space; clinical- abscesses,
rectal prolapse, herniate via hiatus of schwalbe)
3. Kidney** (T12-L3 11X6X3cm 150g, lt higher than rt,ext features-
poles/surf/borders/hilum, common relations: psoas maj, quad lumb,subcostal
vessels, suprarenal, hilus & vessels, iliac crest 2.5cm below, diaphragm;rt related to
liver, hep flexure, 2nd duo, small int; lt related to stomach, spleen,pancreas, splenic
flexure & desc colon, jejunum; fibrous cap, perirenal fat, renalfascia, pararenal body;
cortex, medulla, sinus: pyramids, renal columns, exc &collecting parts,layers-1)true
capsule 2)perinephric fat 3)renal fascia 4)paranephric fat; renal fascia splits; art
supply by renal artery from abd aorta which divide into segrmtals etc, venous by
renal vein Left vein is longern lymph into para aortic nodes at l2;nerve supply by
renal plexus; develop from metanephricduct;congenital anomalities-
lobulated,abberent artery,polycystic,agenesis,horseshoe; clinical anatomy-
canaliculi,floating kidney)
4. SuprarenalGland** (5g in weight, lt triangular, rt semilunar; relations stomach, liver,
coeliac ganglion, crus of diaphragm, spleen, IVC, etc; zones of cortex, medulla; 3
arteries: sup (inf phrenic) mid (abd aorta) & inf (renal), one vein: left renal v for left,
IVC for right; histo is imp; cortex develops from mesoderm, medulla from
neuroectoderm, chromaffin system in medulla; Cushing’s, Addison’s, benign tumor)
5. UrinaryBladder** (muscular reservoir of urine 220ml varying; relations: base to
uterus, seminal vesicles & vas def, apex median umbilical lig, neck is behind pubic
symph, sup surface peritoneum, uterine cervix, lat surfaces by puboprostatic lig,
levator ani, pubis; ligaments: lateral, lat & med puboprostatic, median umbilical,
posterior; false include umbilical folds; int irregular and folded, trigone smooth; art by
sup&inf vesical art and minor by obt/inf gluteal/uterine/vaginal artery, venous by
vesicoproastatic plexus in males & vesical venous plexus in females, lymph into ext
& int iliac nodes, filling beyond 220ml causes desire to empty, above 500 painful; PS
fibers motor to detrusor, S fibers inhibit detrusor and motor to int sphincter, pudendal
motor to ext sphincter, sensory by PS and S; appied- distended bladder, atonic
baldder, automatic bladder, stone formation)
6. Testes*** (5X2.5X3cm two poles, upper pole facing ant and med, lat & med surface,
ant andpost borders, tunica vaginalis albuginea vasculosa; sinus of epididymis;
mediastinum testis, fibrous septa form lobules,ST open into rete testis which is
connected to epididymis by efferent ductules; supplied by testicular art & art of vas
def from inf vesical art,pampiniform plexus of v, lt testi v into renal v, rt into IVC, pre
and para aortic L2; T10 sympathetic n supply by renal & aortic plexus; varicocele,

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hydrocele, tumor, torsion ,anorchism, undescended testes: cryptorchidism, couldbe

lumbar, iliac, inguinal, upper scrotal)
7. Prostate (accessory gland, 30% semen, in lesserorlvis below neck of bkadder,
inverted cone like chestnut,3X4X2cm; apex,base & 4 surfaces; relations: int & ext
sphincters; apex, base and 4 surfaces: ant post and two inferolat; 3 lobes
ant/post/middle ;3 zones peripheral (70%), central (25%) & transition (5%); 3 lobes 2
lat 1 median; false & true capsules, venous plexus bet the two; structures within:
urethra, ejac ducts, prostatic utricles; structural zones outer larger, inner smaller;
supply int pudendal, middle rectal, inf vesical art, venous plexus, int iliac & sacral
nodes, inf hypogastric plexus; develops from endodermal buds, central zone of
wolffian origin, mesenchyme forms stroma; applied-benign hyperplasia, senile
atrophy, freq carcinoma, prostatectomy)
8. RectusSheath*** (aponeurotic sheath enclosing RA & PY, 3 parts with various
formations, arcuate line; contents- RA PY S/I epigastric art&veins 6nerves viz
subcoastal nerve + lower 5 intercoastal nerves. function- maibtain strength of ant abd
wall & prevent bowing of RA, applied- divarication of RA in multiparous women,
laptotomy, hematoma of RS by blunt trauma, epigastric hernia, pedicle flap in upper
part of RA used in reconstructive breast surgery)
9. Duodenum–2ndPart*** (shortest,widest,most fixed part, diagram, 2nd part is
retroperitoneal, straight descends from L1 to lower border of L3, from upper duodenal
to lower duodenal flexure,relations: retroperitoneal & fixed, right lobe of liver, trans
colon, root of mesocolon, sm int, right colicflexure, IVC, psoas major, rt kidney &
suprarenal, head of pancreas, bile duct; development: upper half from foregut, lower
half from midgut, mucous membrane from endoderm and musculature from
mesoderm; interiors represent mj and min duodenal papilla art supply by sup&inf
pda; applied - duodenal carcinoma, ulcer, most vulnerable, diverticula, refered pain)
10. InternalIliacArtery* (from common iliac, gives post & ant trunk, post branches:
iliolumbar art, lateral sacral, sup gluteal; ant branches: obturator, uterine, umbilical &
sup vesical, inf vesical, internal pudendal, middle rectal, vaginal; all branches of ant
are visceral except IG&OB; & of post are parietal; MOUSIII Vaginal + PILS)
11. Stomach**** (diagrams, widest and most distensible part parts borders orifices,
blood supply of both curvatures - R/Lgastric,R/L gastroepiploic & short gastric artery,
veins corrsp to arteries, inner surface- rugae/pit/canal, histology with gastric glands
and muscularis mucosae, 7 structures of stomach bed, Dr.S3 kills patients
mercilessly; lymph from pancreatico-splenic, gastro-epiploic, R/L gastric, pyloric &
hepatic lymph nodes; symp by T6-9 & parasymp by vagus n; development from
caudal part of foregut, two 90° rotations along vertical and AP axis, applied: gastric
ulcers, gastric carcinoma, vagotomy, reffered pain)
12. Liver* (largest gland 1.5kg, right & lt hypochondrium, epigastrium, 5 surfaces: ant
post sup inf right, 3 areas not covered by peritoneum: bare area IVC groove &
gallbladder fossa; 6 impressions: esophageal, gastric, pyloric, duodenal, renal &
colic; anatomical & func lt and rt lobes, anatomical division by falciform lig, lig teres,
lig venosum, func division includes caudate & quadrate lobe in left lobe; also contains
lt and rt triangular ligaments & coronary lig; blood supply 20% hep art, 80% portal
vein, L/R & middle hepatic veins from sinusoids, caval hepatic coeliac LN, NS hepatic
plexus PS & S; right ant and post, left lat & med segments 1-8 clockwise, many
functions, histo shows portal triads, central v, sinusoids and hepatocytes; develops
from endodermal hepatic bud, pars hepatica & pars cystica; factors keeping liver in

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place- hepatic veins/intraabd prrssure/peritoneal ligaments; clinical- bare area of

liver, needle biopsy, cirhosis of liver)
13. Extra-HepaticBiliaryApparatus* (hep ducts, cystic duct,gallbladder, bile
duct;cystohepatic angle; gallbladder- 10X3 fundus/body/neck postmed wall has
hartnup pouch site for gallstone wall has layers-
serous/subserous/fibromuscular/mucous; relations- ant abd wall, inf sutface of liver, T
colon, first oart of duodenum; cystic duct 4cm spiral valve of heister; Bile duct
8cmX3mm hepatopancreatic duct 4 parts of bile duct:supra, retro, infra and
intraduodenaln sphincters of sp choledocys/sp pancreaticus/ sp of oddi; cystic art,
sup pancreaticoduodenal art, accessory cystic art, hepatic art proper; veins drain into
hep vein, cystic nodes; cysticplexus; cholecystitis- acute&chronic,
cholelithiasis,cholecystectomy)
14. Portal Vein (large vein 8X2cm formed by jn of sup mesenteric and splenic vein (inf
mesenteric drains into splenic), course divided into infra, retro and supraduodenal
parts, their relations; ends by dividing into right &left branches, ultimately mixes w art
blood in sinusoids; 5 tributaries: lt and rt gastric, sup pancreaticoduodenal, cystic vein
in rt branch, paraumbilical vein in lt branch; sites of anastomosis: umbilicus, anal
canal, esophagus, bare area liver, patent ductus venosus, veins of asc and desc
colon; applied: portal hypertension, esophageal varices, caput medusae)
15. Ovary**** (almond shaped in ovarian fossa, two surfaces, two borders, two poles,
realtions- peritoneal and visceral, arterial by ovarian and uterine a, right ovarian vein
into ivc & left ovarian into left renal vein; pre- and para- aortic lymph nodes; symp
from T10-11 parasymp from S2-4, applied- oophoritis, ovarian torsion, prolapse,
carcinoma, tertatina, cysts, dysgenesis, ectopic ovaries)
16. UterineTube* (medial&lateral end, infundibulum ampulla isthmus & inteamural
part,10cm total, ampulla lat 2/3rds, isthmus med 1/3rd; uterine a supplies med
2/3rds,ovarian → lat 1/3rd, veins corrsp to arteries; aortic preaortic and int inguinal
LN, salpingitis:inflammation of tubes, tubal pregnancy, tubectomy)
17. Uterus**** (piriform, 3parts- fundus/body/cervix; anteversion & anteflexion, realtions,
supports- primary&secondary, primary- muscular/ligament/visceral- RL TL USL PCL,
secondary- BL, UV&RV fold of peritoneum; arterial by two uterine & two ovarian
arteries, branches if uterine art; uterine & vaginal veins; pre-aortic, para-aortic, ext/int
iliac, scaral LN; aaplied- cervical carcinoma, fibriods, caesarean, prolapse,
hysterectomy; diagrams)
18. Anal canal**** (3.8cm, relation- ant by perineal body, memb urethra, lower vagina/
bulb of penis post by anococygeal lig & tip of cocyx; interior- 2 parts upper/lower by
pectinate line, upper part- simp column epi reddish anal columns anal sinuses, lower
part- transitional zone 15mm & cutaneous part 8mm; diff b/w upper & lower part; anal
sp- IAS, EAS- deep/supf/subcut part; arterial supp by sup/inf rectal artery; venous by
sup rectal vein of pv and inf rectal vein; nerve by inf hypo gastric plx, inf rectal nerve
of pudendal nerve; lymphatics int iliac & supf inguinal LN; applied- internal piles,
external piles, anal fissure, anal fistula)

in LAQs of organs generally gross, micro embryo & applied is asked, small branches of
arteries and nerves are not at all important

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VIVA & PRACTICALS

1. VideosofeitherVivavoceorMiteshdaveforalltheorgansandosteology
2. Osteology-Bony Pelvis,Difference Between Male And Female Pelvis*,sacrum,typical
lumbar vertebra
3. Spleenandstomacharethecommonestandeasiestorgansasked
4. Liver-Borders,peritoneal reflections and impressions
5. Difference Between Ileum And Jejunum**

Neuroanatomy

SAQ

1. TS Midbrain*- both
2. TS Medulla oblongata*** - all 3 (pyramidal decussation fascicles, sensory
decussation nuclei, upper part medial lemn)
3. TS Spinal cord** (3 horns, fissure and septum, central canal. H shaped grey matter)
4. TS Pons** - both (upper: MTSL, sup. & middle cerebellar, lower: nuclei pontis,
trapezoid body, 4 vestibular nuclei, facial colliculus, transverse & long. fibers)
5. Medial Medullary syndrome** (ant. Spinal artery, lat. CST, medial lemniscus,
contralat hemiplegia, CN XII, ipsilat hypoglossal pa)
6. Floor of fourth ventricle** (upper & lower triangular parts, median sulcus/eminence,
sulcus limitans, gracile and cuneate fasciculi, rhomboid shaped)
7. Circle of willis***
8. Corpus callosum** (parts, lobes connecting, function)
9. Brown sequard syndrome** (hemisection, ipsilateral paralysis, loss of
proprioception below lesion, contralateral pain temp loss)
10. Inferior cerebellar peduncle**
11. Basal ganglia* (GP, putamen - lentiform n., caudate n → corpus striatum, amygdala,
claustrum, Huntington’s/Parkinson’s, connections)
12. Papez circuit (hippocampus → fornix → mamillary body → thalamus ant. n. →
cingulate gyrus/cingulum → parahippocampal gyrus → hippo, episodic memory,
Alzheimer’s/Parkinson’s)
13. Third ventricle (Monro, bet. Thalami, lamina terminalis, ant. Commissure, floor by
optic chiasm, infundibulum, tegmentum, tela choroidea on roof)
14. Vermis (parts: lingula, central lobule, culmen, declive, folium, tuber, pyramid, uvula,
nodule)
15. Facial colliculus*
16. Classify white matter of cerebrum with examples***
17. Corpus Striatum- components, connections, functions
18. Fornix
19. Thalamus
20. Anterior horn of lateral ventricle

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LAQ

1. Glossopharyngeal nerve* (SVE stylopharyngeus, SVA taste of post 1/3rd → NTS,

GSA middle ear, inner tympanic membrane, tube → spinal n of CNV, GVE parotid
secretion otic ganglion, inf salivatory n, GVA oro and laryngopharynx, tongue post
1/3rd, uvula, soft palate, tonsil, carotid body & sinus NTS; jugular foramen)
2. Oculomotor nerve ((sup colli next to central canal, related to crus cerebri, red n,
Edinger Westphal, dcML, cavernous sinus, sup orb fissure, 2 branches, (4 extraoc +
levator palpebrae sup)GSE + (ciliaris + sphincter pupillae)GVE, weber syndrome
contra hemiplegia ipsi CN3, benedict synd contra proprio, ipsi CN3)
3. Facial nerve***
4. Trigeminal nerve*
5. Internal capsule*** ((5 parts, motor & sensory fibers, V shaped, relations, blood
supply, one end of all fibers is cortex)
6. Superolateral surface of cerebrum*** (central, precentral, SF IF lateral
parieto-occipital, ST IT sulci, corresponding gyri, line joining parieto-occipital and
preoccipital notch, post part of lateral sulcus before turning up, lines forming lobes)
7. Pons (facial colliculus, CN6, CN7, vestibular & cochlear nuclei, CN5 spinal,
salivatory, lacrimal nuclei, inf cerebellar peduncle at lower; CN5 motor & sensory
nuclei, MTSL lemnisci, sup peduncles, MLB at upper)
8. Midbrain (sup & inf colliculi, behind central canal is tectum, ahead crus cerebri, subs
nigra, tegmentum, red nucleus, edinger westphal & CN3 at sup coll, cerebellar
decussation, CN4 at inf coll)
9. Functional areas in frontal lobe (primary motor, premotor, suppli motor, broca’s,
frontal eye field, prefrontal cortex)
10. Cerebellum - lobes, connections, blood supply & histology
11. Ascending tracts (lat & ant spinothalamic exteroceptive pressure pain etc of
contralat side thru anterolat white column, gracile & cuneate fascicles in post column
of SC tactile, proprioceptive etc synapse at nuclei, ant & post spinocerebellar tract
ipsilat 2 neurons unconscious proprioception postural importance, post next to lat
CST, spino-olivary & spinotectal: reflexes)
12. Descending tracts (pyra & extrapyramidal; pyra: lateral & ant CST, lat decussate at
pyramidal decussation, ant decussate below; extra: rubro, med & lat reticulo, olivo,
lat vestibulo & tecto)

VIVA & PRACTICALS

1. All The Sections Of The Brain Are Very Imp,try to learn 4-5 visible and imp structure
of each section
2. Cerebellum-fissure,surface and vermis
3. Brain Stem-external visible features

Embryology (VS Embryology, IB Singh for some topics)

1. Phases of fertilisation (capacitation of sperm → sperm ZP binding → acrosome

reaction → egg activation and cortical reaction → zona reaction → decondensation
of chromatin → fusion)

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2. Twinning (mono/dizygotic, di just like siblings, mono → monozygotic, dichorionic,

diamniotic- same as di, but genetic composition is identical; monochorionic → similar
but grow in same chorionic cavity; monoamniotic → most dangerous can lead to
conjoint/parasitic twins, conjoint: thoracopagus, craniopagus, etc)
3. Placenta* (derived from trophoblast, functions, has a maternal and fetal part:
maternal from decidua basalis parietalis etc, fetal from chorionic villi, 500g in weight,
clinical: placentophagy)
4. Notochord ( primitive pit → cells go cranially towards oropharyngeal membrane →
prechordal plate → notochord is axial mesoderm derived rod of cells extending from
prechordal plate to primitive pit caudally, forms precursor for axial skeleton, persists
as nucleus pulposus on IV disc, helps in formation of neural tube)
5. Mesonephric duct (intraembryonic meso → intermediate meso → pro, meso and
metanephros → pro and meso degenerate, but duct connecting them to cloaca is
called mesonephric duct → acts as passage bet meso ie interim kidney and cloaca,
forms ureteric bud, under influence of testosterone it also develops into rete testis,
ejac duct, epididymis, ductus def, seminal vesicle, also forms trigone of bladder)
6. Primitive streak* (develops in 3rd week, helps define the cranial caudal and left right
ends of the body, it is a bunch of proliferating epiblast cells along its midline, helps
form the definitive endoderm and intraem mesoderm, diagrams)
7. Fate and derivatives of yolk sac*
8. Neural Tube Defects* (arise from failure to close anywhere along the length of tube,
include: anencephaly- absence of cranial vault and skin, brain missing; spina bifida-
spine defects, pocket of skin containing meninges, sometimes skin cover will not be
present, symptoms like paraplegia, hydrocephalus, rectal and urinary incontinence)
9. Pancreas** ((two buds from duodenal part of foregut, endodermal origin: dorsal and
ventral, ventral forms uncinate process, dorsal forms everything else, ducts develop
inside: Wirsung and Santorini)
10. Vitello-intestinal duct
11. Rotation of gut** (3 90o folds, first midgut protrudes out in vitelline duct, loop of
midgut folds 90o counterclockwise, caecal bulge develops on distal part of loop,
proximal folds to form folds of intestine, distal returns back away from vitelline duct,
then watch video; applied: omphalocele- content of SI can’t return back, baby born
with protruding gut)
12. Developmental anomalies of kidney (polycystic kidney, horseshoe shaped kidney,
pelvic kidney, unilateral hypoplasia/ aplasia meaning lack of development)
13. Urinary bladder (cloaca → divided into ant urogenital sinus and post rectum by
urorectal septum which later forms perineal body → urogenital sinus divided into two
parts by attachment of mesonephric duct- upper vesicourethral canal and lower
definitive UG sinus → bladder forms from upper dilated VU canal → opening of
allantois gets obliterated and forms median umbilical lig; thus bladder is endodermal,
but trigone is mesodermal due to MN duct origin)
14. Diaphragm** (4 elements for development: septum transversum, pleuroperitoneal
membrane, dorsal mesentery of oesophagus, mesoderm of lateral body wall; septum
transversum initially develops at C3-C5 level, which are roots of phrenic nerve; lower
IC nerves give sensory fibres due to lat body wall; applied: congenital diaphragmatic
hernia- more common on left side as it closes later, retrosternal hernia- morgagni,
hiatal hernia- stomach dragged up)

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15. Phases of lung development (laryngotracheal diverticulum → two

tracheoesophageal folds → tracheoesophageal septum → separates laryngotracheal
tube → it forms the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and lung tissue; phases of lung
dev: pseudoglandular phase → formation of major airways acinus and bronchial tree
with resp parenchyma, canalicular → epithelial differentiation into type 1 and 2 and
air blood barrier, saccular → expansion of air spaces and detection of surfactant,
alveolar → secondary septation)
16. Pharyngeal arches and pouches & their derivatives****
17. Descent of testis* (develop in relation to mesonephros: T10-T12; descends from
2nd month → iliac fossa 3rd month → deep inguinal ring 4th-6th month → inguinal
canal 7th → sup inguinal ring 8th month → scrotum 9th month)
18. Septal defects of heart****
19. Arch of aorta
20. Development of atria
21. Developmental defects in great veins
22. Remnants-MCQs
23. Development of genitals
24. Development of retina (develops from optic vesicle, inaginates tovform optic cup
which has 2 layers- outer pigmented & inner neural layer, neural layer form rest of
retina with photoreceptors on outside & ganglion cells on inside, both layers remain
separated, fuse in early foetal period, clinical- retinal detachment)
25. Development of stomach (as part of LAQ)

Histology

List of histology diagrams asked in theory papers of MUHS (2001-2023) frequency of

question is in brackets

Watch videos of shotgun histology by washington deceit for practicals & refer to shetty

PAPER 1

1. Thyroid gland (7 times)

2. Tongue (5 times)
3. Cerebellum (5 times)
4. Parotid gland (6 times)
5. Lung/ Right lung (5 times)
6. Thymus (2 times)
7. Retina (3 times)
8. Cerebral cortex (2 times)
9. Pituitary gland (2 times)
10. Arch of Aorta (2 times)
11. Cornea (once)
12. Superior Cervical ganglion (once)
13. Breast (once)
14. Cardiac muscle (once)

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PAPER 2

1. Suprarenal gland (10 times)

2. Pancreas (8 times)
3. Prostate gland (5 times)
4. Spleen (4 times)
5. Ovary (4 times)
6. Testis (4 times)
7. Stomach (4 times)
8. Duodenum (4 times)
9. Urinary bladder (3 times)
10. Muscular artery (twice)
11. Uterus (twice)
12. Uterine tube (once)
13. Vermiform appendix (once)
14. Compact bone (once)
15. Kidney (once)
16. Lymph node (once)
17. Ureter (once)
18. Hyaline cartilage (once)

Recommended : if very stressed for time, go through those that have come twice or more
often in past papers

Genetics

1. Barr body*
2. Kyon’s hypothesis
3. Karyotyping***
4. Prenatal diagnosis*- indications & techniques
5. Klienfelter syndrome*
6. Down syndrome*
7. Turner’s syndrome*
8. Structural chromosomal abnormalities**
9. Numerical chromosomal abnormalities
10. Mitochondrial inheritance*
11. Autosomal dominant inheritance
12. X-linked recessive inheritance- characteristics & pedigree

General anatomy

1. Classification of bones* (based on shape 6- long, short, flat, irregular, pneumatic,

sesamoid; developmental- intramembranous, endochondral, mixed; regional and
structural classification)
2. Blood supply of long bones (3 systems: nutrient artery system- begins from
nutrient artery entering in shaft and extends upto both ends; epiphyseal and

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metaphyseal systems- enter bone at epi and metaphyses, often anastomose with
NA; periosteal system- supplies outer 1/3rd of bone, covers entire length of shaft)
3. Sesamoid bones (bone embedded in tendon or muscle, helps in smoother
movement; example: patella in knee quadriceps tendon, pisiform in wrist flexor carpi
ulnaris)
4. Epiphysis** (ends of long bones which ossify from secondary centers; 4 types:
pressure- articular and transmits weight, eg femur head, lower end radius; traction-
nonarticular, no weight transmission, provides attachment to tendons, eg trochanters
of femur tubercles of humerus, atavistic- independent bone which fuses later, eg
coracoid process of scapula, aberrant- might not be present, eg head of 1st
metacarpal)
5. Types of cartilaginous joints*** (bones joined by cartilage, two types: primary-
synchondrosis, united by plate of hyaline cartilage, jt is immovable and strong, eg jt
between epi and diaphysis of growing long bone, first chondrosternal joint;
secondary- symphyses, covered by layer of hyaline, united by disc of fibrocartilage,
thickness related to range of movement, eg intervertebral, manubriosternal)
6. Pivot joint (eg radioulnar joint)
7. Synovial joints - classification, examples & diagram (plain- tarsal bones, hinge-
elbow, B&S- shoulder and hip, saddle- trapezium and 1st metacarpal, pivot- C1-C2
intervertebral, condyloid- radiocarpal)
8. Fibrous joints - classification (sutures- in skull, could be plain/serrate/squamous,
syndesmosis- connected by interosseous lig, eg inf tibiofibular jt, gomphosis- peg
and socket, eg root of tooth)
9. Secondary Cartilaginous joints (eg intervertebral, manubriosternal, pubic
symphysis)
10. Symphysis*
11. Sutures
12. Classification of muscles (features of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles- their
innervation, nucleus, striations, intercalated disks, refractory period, etc)

Multiple* indicates that the question was quite frequently asked in past years, this pdf also
contains question/imps from other universities (without any *). This pdf contains most of
MUHS pyqs.

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~PHYSIOLOGY~

General Physiology

SAQ
1. Homeostasis**
2. Osmosis
3. Negative & positive feedback mechanisms*
4. Na-K pump
5. RMP - ionic basis
6. Active Transport
7. Facilitated diffusion

LAQ
1. Transport mechanisms*** - describe & examples

Nerve muscle physiology

SAQ
1. Excitation-Contraction coupling*** (AP goes through T tubule, DHP receptors on T
tubule plugged into sarcoplasmic reticulum, AP causes spring mech of DHP to open,
Ca2+ released from SR, causes contraction by binding to TpC)
2. AP- define,compare ionic basis of large myelinated nv fibre & SAN**
3. End Plate Potential- define, generation (potential generated on muscle end plate
at postsynaptic terminal by ligand gated ion channels which travels along
sarcolemma)
4. Properties of nerve fibres* (excitability, conductivity, all or none law, un-fatigability,
refractory period, summation, accommodation)
5. Factors regulating force of skeletons muscle contraction, motor unit- define
6. Refractory period
7. Sarcotubular system
8. Red v/s white muscle fibres
9. Isotonic v/s isometric contraction*
10. Saltatory conduction*
11. Factors affecting conduction velocity* (temperature, myelination, diameter,
applied: velocity dec in peripheral neuropathy due to DM)
12. Compare and contrast AP & EPSP (EPSP is generated at the postsynaptic
membrane, AP runs across membrane)
13. Synapse**- properties
14. Neuron- diagram, define nerve impulse
15. Types of nerve damage*
16. Classification of nerve fibres**
17. Rigour mortis

LAQ
1. Action potential- generation & properties
2. Sarcomere**- define, diagram; explain sliding filament theory
3. RMP**- define, ionic basis of RMP in nerve fibre, factors contributing & phases

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4. Mechanism of synaptic transmission*

5. NMJ*- diagram, neuromuscular transmission, myasthenia gravis- cause &
treatments (diagram with axon terminal, ach vesicles, their exocytosis, synaptic cleft
containing ach-esterase, muscle end plate containing nicotinic receptors, ach binding
to them and initiating AP along sarcolemma using ligand gated ion channels;
autoimmune disorder in which antibodies destroy nicotinic receptors on sarcolemma,
mostly genetic )
6. Molecular basis of muscle contraction** (myosin: 2 heavy chains, 4 light chains
per molecule which form the head, several molecules per filament, heads point away
from centre; actin: 2 F-act twisted make one G-act, which is twisted with tropomyosin
which contains troponin, actin has myosin binding sites which are covered by
tropomyosin, TpC-Ca2+ binding causes exposed active site, ATP bound and cleaved
on myosin causes “cocked spring” myosin head, when site exposed head binds and
moves closer to arm and ADP and Pi are released, new ATP binds)

Blood physiology

SAQ
1. Intrinsic pathway of coagulation**
2. Role of B lymphocytes (antigen presenting, antibody generation, memory of
antigen)
3. Blood groups- classifications
4. Erythroblastosis Fetalis* - features & treatment (ABO, Rh; mother Rh -ve, baby
+ve, 2nd pregnancy antibodies, kernicterus, anaemia; rh+ve blood is removed, -ve
blood is transfused to control jaundice))
5. MismatchedBloodTransfusion* (antibody binds to antigen on membrane, has
multiple binding sites, causes agglutination, subsequent haemolysis)
6. FunctionsofPlasmaProteins (carriers, osmolarity, immunity, enzymes, coagulation
factors, buffers)
7. Immunity*- define, primary & secondary immune response & its role in
vaccination, role of T cells (state of having sufficient biological defences to avoid
infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion; naive t cells → recognize
MHC 1 or 2 → effector → cytotoxic(CD8)/helper(CD4) → cyto directly multiplies and
kills, helper releases IL to activate and multiply B cells and other cells, memory get
activated sooner in second infection)
8. Landstiner’s law* & importance of Rh blood group (antigen antibody law; rhesus
factor, predict reactions during mixing of blood, fetalis)
9. CD4 Cells
10. Platelets- normal count & functions
11. Hemostasis*
12. BleedingTime,ClottingTime-define
13. Types of anaemia**

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LAQ
1. Erythropoiesis** - erythropoietin, factors regulating & stages
2. Coagulation**-define,flowchart;BleedingandClottingDisorders
differences,examples
3. Immunity**-define,classify;CellMediatedImmunity;Humoral
Immunity,Vaccination
4. Clotting-define;MechanismofBloodCoagulation-flow chart;
Anticoagulants-name
5. WBC-classify,morphology,function

Cardiovascular physiology

SAQ
1. Heart sounds*
2. Conduction of cardiac impulse- origin & spread, role of SAN, AVN & Purkinje
3. Heart block**- explain types
4. Connections of unipolar & bipolar limb leads while reading ECG
5. CNS Ischemic response
6. Bainbridge reflex
7. Properties of cardiac muscle* & why it can’t be tetanized
8. Ionic basis of autorhythmicity in SAN
9. Role of JGA in regulation of blood pressure*
10. Renin-angiotensin mechanism*
11. Angina pectoris*
12. Myocardial infarction*
13. Ejection fraction*
14. Peripheral resistance
15. Fick principle
16. Poiseuille’s law- significance
17. Venous return
18. Stroke volume- define & factors affecting*
19. Cardiorespiratory changes during exercise*

LAQ
1. Cardiac cycle***- define, diagram, pressure & volume changes in LV
2. Coronary circulation*- anatomy, factors affecting, peculiarities*
3. Blood pressure*- define, short term & long term regulations
4. Circulatory shock***- define, classify, stages & management
5. ECG**- define, diagram & explain lead II
6. Mean arterial pressure- define, enumerate mechanisms regulating;
baroreceptor mechanism**- describe
7. Cardiac output*- define & factors affecting; stroke volume & cardiac index
8. Heart rate- define & factors regulating

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Respiratory physiology

SAQ
1. Oxygen-Haemoglobin dissociation curve**- draw, label & factors affecting &
role of 2,3-BPG
2. Herring breuer reflex
3. Bohr’s effect
4. Haldane effect
5. What is P50 ?
6. Characteristics/Peculiarities of pulmonary circulation (short, 1/3rd thickness of
aorta, huge compliance, bronchial vessels, 0-25mm Hg, alveolar vessels constrict if
O2 is low (opp systemic which dilates), more blood flow going from top to bottom of
lung, 3 zones)
7. Acclimatisation to high altitudes- physiological changes & significance
(ascending mountain slowly desensitises respi centre to changes in CO2, thus
decreased CO2 DOESN’T inhibit respi, ventilation increases 400% instead of 70% if
ascend in few hours, as decreased O2 is more potent stimulator; AMS occurs in
rapid ascent; cerebral & pulm edema, cerebral due to vasodilation due to hypoxia,
immediate treatment necessary)
8. Peripheral chemoreceptors*- characteristics & functions (mostly carotid bodies
CN IX, some aortic CN X, carry impulses to dorsal respi centre, receive huge blood
supply compared to size so O2 conc is unaffected, mostly detect changes in O2 conc
and inc firing rate, CO2 stimulates central respi centre more potently, imp in
acclimatisation)
9. Factors affecting composition of alveolar air
10. Hypoxia***- define, classify, describe hypoxic hypoxia
11. Surfactant*- functions & RDS (type 2 alveolar epithelium,
dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, decreases surface tension to 1⁄5; RDS in preterm
babies, surfactant production starts in 6th-7th month)
12. Explain work of breathing*- applied importance (against 3 forces:
compliance/elastic work, tissue resistance work, airway resistance work; becomes
limiting to heavy exercise)
13. Enumerate muscles of respiration (ext int innermost intercostals, abs, scm,
serratus ant, scaleni)
14. Functional residual capacity- physiological significance
15. Acute mountain sickness
16. Periodic breathing & Ondine’s curse*
17. Obstructive lung diseases
18. Describe various lung volumes & capacities
19. Ventilation perfusion ratio*
20. Kussmaul breathing*
21. Asphyxia, cyanosis & dyspnea

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LAQ
1. Neural regulation of respiration**
2. Chemical control of respiration**
3. Lung compliance**- describe, factors affecting; hyaline membrane diseases
(change in volume per change in pressure of lungs, surface tension responsible for
2/3rds, elastic force for 1/3rd; HMD: RDS, deficient surfactant, undeveloped type 2
alveolar epithelium)
4. Respiratory membrane*- describe, factors affecting gaseous exchange;
principle of CO method
5. Pulmonary ventilation- mechanism, positive pressure breathing
6. Transport of oxygen
7. Transport of CO2

Temperature regulation

1. Heat stroke- treatment & pyrexia*

2. Heat loss***- enumerate methods & mechanisms (conduction 15%+3%,
convection, radiation 60%, evaporation 22%; glands are tubular, innervated by
cholinergic nerves, less sweat has low NaCl, high urea conc, profuse sweating
→ less reabsorption, acclimatisation)
3. Response of body when exposed to extreme cold**
4. Hypothermia & use of induced hypothermia
5. Role of hypothalamus in temperature regulation
6. Shell & core temperature
7. Different thermoreceptors

Exercise physiology

1. Effect of exercise on respiration

2. Explain Increased HR in exercise
3. VO2 max (v(volume) O2(oxygen) max(maximum consumption): it is the maximum
rate of consumption of O2 by the body in incremental exercise)
4. Oxygen debt* (excess consumption, inc respi lasts for few mins upto an hour, O2
used to regenerate ATP, creatineP, lactate to glucose, reestablish alveolar air conc,
replace oxygen associated with myoglobin)

Gastrointestinal physiology

SAQ
1. Functions & composition of saliva*
2. Regulation of salivary secretion*
3. Deglutition reflex*
4. Phases of deglutition- enlist & explain
5. Functions & Mechanism of secretion of HCl by parietal cells** & factors
regulating secretion***

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6. Peptic ulcer***- aetiology & treatment

7. Gastric emptying- explain & regulation
8. Emptying of gallbladder
9. Function of bile salts** & its composition*
10. Absorption of fat
11. Functions of liver
12. Movements of small intestine
13. Peristaltic rush
14. Movements of large intestine
15. Defecation reflex*
16. Enumerate hormones of GIT**
17. Note on Gastrin*
18. Note on CCK***
19. Regulation of gastric motility*
20. Achalasia cardia**

LAQ
1. Deglutition
2. Gastric glands- enumerate, secretion & function
3. Gastric juice- composition,
4. Pancreatic juice- composition, function & regulation

Renal physiology

SAQ
1. JGA- diagram & functions**
2. Countercurrent mechanisms***
3. Role of kidney in acid base balance
4. Transport maximum
5. Mechanism of glucose reabsorption in renal tubules
6. Tubular Glomerular Feedback & glomerular tubular balance
7. Cystometrogram & Cystometrography* (intravesical pressure against volume,
pressure inc is less due to plasticity of detrusor muscle, steep rise after 400ml,
micturition reflexes start at 200ml)
8. PCT- functions (cuboidal brush border epithelium w more mitochondria,
transporters; max reabsorption: 65% h2o, 98% glu SGLT, 100% AA co-trans, 90%
HCO3-, H+/Na+antiport for drugs, h2o by osmosis, secretion; RCC)
9. DCT- functions (early and late parts, func similar to ascending limb, early absorbs
NaCl cotrans, late: principal & IC cells, principal IC K-H antiport & produces HCO3-,
ADH affects water permeability, aldosterone inc Na reabsorb)
10. Innervation of urinary bladder
11. Micturition reflex***
12. Atonic bladder

LAQ
1. GFR*- define, factors, methods of measurement & regulation
2. Milieu interior- define; role of kidney in maintaining osmolarity of body fluid**

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3. Endocrine physiology

SAQ
1. Dwarfism, gigantism & acromegaly*
2. Difference between pituitary & thyroid dwarf
3. Enumerates hormones of anterior pituitary
4. ADH*- role, factors stimulating secretion, regulation*
5. Diabetes insipidus v/s Diabetes mellitus**
6. Physiological basis of polyuria in diabetes
7. Oxytocin- functions
8. Insulin- functions & factors affecting secretion
9. Hyperthyroidism*
10. Cretinism*
11. PTH*- functions & regulation (cAMP mediated, acts on bone, intestine, kidney,
regulated by blood calcium levels)
12. Tetany**- signs & treatment (hypocalcemia, Ca maintains RMP, muscle twitch,
Chvostek’s, Trousseau’s sign, Vit. D calcium treatment)
13. Cushing syndrome*- clinical features (moon face, hirsutism, tissue breakdown,
weak immunity, central obesity, high blood glu → high insulin)

LAQ
1. Growth hormone***- mechanism of action, regulation & applied
2. Thyroid hormones*- synthesis, release, diagram & antithyroid drugs & their
action
3. Calcium**- importance, regulation; tetany, osteoporosis & rickets
4. Aldosterone- regulation & functions
5. Glucocorticoids*- regulation, mechanism of action, function & deficiency

Reproductive physiology

SAQ
1. Spermatogenesis***- stages & hormonal
2. Actions of testosterone
3. Ovulation*- define, mechanism & indicators
4. Contraception methods***
5. Functions of placenta
6. Physiology of lactation & ejection of milk- role of oxytocin & prolactin (progest
and estro develops breasts’ fat and duct system but inhibits milk formation, prolactin
forms milk, stimulation causes oxy release, milk ejection)
7. Physiological changes in pregnancy*** (hCG from syncytio maintains luteum for
estro and progest until placenta takes over, increased blood volume, cardiac output,
respiration, metabolism)
8. Parturition- explain & role of oxytocin
9. Circulatory changes at birth (closure of ductus art, ductus ven, foramen ovale,
pulmonary circulation increases, systemic pressure more than pulmonary)

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LAQ
1. Menstrual cycle**- phases & hormonal control
2. Cyclic changes in uterus during reproductive life & its hormonal regulation

Central nervous system

SAQ
1. Synapse*- properties
2. Advantage of presynaptic inhibition
3. Synaptic transmission
4. Occlusion & subliminal fringe
5. Receptors*- types & properties (properties: transduction, adaptation, summation,
facilitation, convergence & divergence, excitation/inhibition, labelled line principle,
explain with diagrams/flow charts)
6. Classify reflexes
7. Stretch reflex*- define, role in maintaining tone, draw & label
8. Fast v/s slow pain
9. Transmission of pain*- both slow & fast
10. Different types of pain, referred pain- examples***
11. Analgesia system of brain*
12. Thalamic syndrome
13. UMN v/s LMN lesions (UMN up everything up and more, LMN down and low; UMN
hypertonic, spastic, hyperreflexic, disuse atrophy, +ve babinski sign, LMN opposite;
LMN is a motor neuron that carries impulses from spinal cord to muscle; LMN
paralysis: everything goes DOWN: hyporeflexia, hypotonic, denervation atrophy, -ve
babinski sign- toes point down)
14. Decerebrate rigidity
15. Cerebellar ataxia
16. EEG*- explain & waves
17. Sleep*- REM & NREM
18. Wernicke’s area
19. Aphasia*- define, difference b/w motor & sensory aphasia
20. Parkinsonism** (destruction of dopaminergic neurons, failure to inhibit GP externa
and excite interna by putamen, thus thalamus gets inhibited because GP interna
continues to inhibit it, thus bradykinesia and lack of controlled movement)
21. Alzhimer’s disease (synthesis of beta amyloid proteins in different parts of brain
leading to impaired memory formation and other neurodegenerative symptoms)
22. Memory*- classify & explain mechanisms
23. Gate control of pain*

LAQ
1. Ascending tracts***- enumerate; DCML-origin, course, termination & phantom
limb; pathway for touch sensation- describe; pathway for fine touch sensation
& law of projection
2. Pyramidal tracts**- origin, course, termination, function & applied
3. Muscle spindle**- diagram, functions & regulation (2 types of fibres, 2 types of
sensory nerves: nuclear bag and chain fibres which are both intrafusal fibres present

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in muscle spindle and are devoid of contractile elements in the centre but periphery is
innervated by GMN, primary (1a) and secondary (type 2) nerves; primary wraps
around both nuclear bag and chain fibres, secondary only around chain; only primary
detects rate of change of length in spindle; nuclear chain fibre helps detect position
and steady state; functions: regulate muscle tone, damping to smoothen muscle
contraction, coactivation prevents spindle reflex from opposing contraction as it
prevents shortening of spindle during contraction)
4. Functions of hypothalamus**- enumerate, explain any 3 (sleep wake cycle-
preoptic and lateral nuclei, body temperature- ant and post nuclei, satiety and
feeding- ventromedial nucleus, memory- mamillary body, circadian rhythm-
suprachiasmatic n, ADH- supraoptic n, oxytocin- paraventricular n, aggression-
dorsomedial nuclei)
5. Basal ganglia*- connections & functions; parkinsonism- clinical features &
treatment
6. Cerebellum**- connections, functions & applied importance
7. Complete transection of spinal cord- effects (3 phases, phase of spinal shock-
paralysis, areflexia, atonia, fatal above C5; phase of reflex activity- +ve babinsky,
mass reflex, muscle tone, skin, vasomotor; phase of reflex failure- muscle wasting,
deterioration due to malnutrition, infection toxaemia etc, increased threshold for
reflex)
8. Lobes of neocortex functions- functions

Special senses

SAQ
1. Visual pathway**- diagram & lesions (retina opp sides reflect opp vision → optic
nv→ optic chiasm,temporal halves cross sides → optic tract → LGB → optic radiation
in parietal (lower vision from upper quad) and temporal (opp) halves → occipital lobe)
2. Dark adaptation**- define, significance & curve (process of pupillary dilation and
sensitisation of rods and cones to lower levels of light by forming photosensitive
pigments aka rhodopsin)
3. Presbyopia (it is the gradual loss of ability of lens to focus, corrected using bifocal
lenses)
4. Errors of refraction- myopia & hypermetropia; astigmatism- features &
correction
5. Argyl robertson pupil & its basis
6. Pitch discrimination**
7. Place principle
8. Impedance matching**
9. Attenuation & its significance*
10. Causes of conductive deafness (fibrosis due to repeated infection, otosclerosis )
11. Olfactory pathway* (olfactory receptors → olfactory rootlets in CN1 → synapse at
olfactory bulb → mitral relay stations → olfactory tract → divides into medial and
lateral striae → medial to ant commissure then contralateral, lateral to olfactory
cortex → consists of piriform cortex, amygdala and entorhinal cortex)
12. Taste sensation pathway- basic modalities & types of papillae (CN 7/9/10 →
geniculate/superior/inf ganglion → NTS → medial lemniscus → posteroventral
nucleus of thalamus → Brodmann 3,1,2 postcentral gyrus)

@pichadarshan
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LAQ
1. Photochemistry of vision*
2. Accomodation*- define, mechanism, neural pathway
3. Colour vision- mechanisms & colour blindness
4. Describe the mechanisms of hearing
5. Middle ear**- role; organ of corti- structure & diagram (cochlea, scala tympani
vestibuli media, perilymph endolymph, inner & outer hair cells, olivocochlear bundle,
tectorial membrane, K+ influx)

***VIVA & PRACTICALS***

1. Refer to VD Joshi practical book & journal
2. More details of clinical physiology from PJ Mehta

Multiple* indicates that the question was quite frequently asked in past years, this pdf also
contains question/imps from other universities (without any *). This pdf contains most of
MUHS pyqs.

@pichadarshan
 35

~BIOCHEMISTRY~

Carbohydrates

1. Hyaluronic acid - biomedical importance

2. GAGS***- significance
3. Reducing property of monosaccharide

Proteins

1. Biologically important peptides* (glutathione, TRH, ADH, oxytocin, GI hormones,

enkephalin, bradykinin, aspartame, angiotensins)
2. Functional & nutritional classification of proteins
3. Secondary & Tertiary structures of proteins** (alpha helix: right handed more
stable, proline & acidic basic AA disrupts helix, H2 bonds bet CO and NH groups
stabilise; beta pleated sheet, parallel or antiparallel, also CO and NH bonds;
diagrams, eg haemoglobin myoglobin; tertiary is 3D, hydrophilic parts surround
hydrophobic, H2 bonds, disulfide Van der Waals electrostatic and hydrophobic
interactions help in stabilising, domains)
4. Immunoglobulins- describe & diagram
5. Functions of plasma proteins
6. Conjugated proteins
7. tRNA & its functions

Lipids

1. Classification of phospholipids with examples***

2. Lipoproteins*
3. Biologically important steroids
4. Essential fatty acids
5. Niemann-Pick’s disease

Nucleotides

1. Biochemical functions of nucleotides*(DNA, RNA, coenzymes of B complex

vitamins (FAD), energy carriers (ATP))
2. Structure of DNA (right handed double helix, antiparallel strands, 2nm diameter,
3.4nm per turn with 10 nucleotides, complementary bp, hyd bonds G-C triple A-T
double, purine-pyrimidine, Chargaff’s rule A=T, template/sense strand & antisense
strand)

Enzymes

SAQ
1. Isoenzymes* & clinical applications (LDH H4 MI, CPK MB MI, ALP liver disease,
ADH Ab1 Ab2 flushing in Orientals due to high Ab2)
2. Enzymes & isoenzymes in myocardial infarction** (first CPK 6-18h, SGOT 48h,
LDH 3 days, cardiac troponins, myoglobin)

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3. Enzymes of diagnostic, analytic & therapeutic importance

4. Km value (Michaelis-Menten, conc of subs at 1⁄2 vmax)
5. Activation of energy of enzyme & ES complex
6. Coenzyme

LAQ
1. Enzymes**- definition, factors affecting enzyme activity (biocatalysts, formed in
cell, colloidal, thermolabile, specific, protein; pH, temp, inhibitors, concentrations of
ESP, metals)
2. Enzyme inhibition**- types & explain
3. Enzyme classification & examples (O:alc dehydro T:SGOT H:trypsin L:succinate
thiokinase I:phosphoglucomutase L:DNA ligase, acetyl coA carboxylase; 7 points,
LDH, CPK, ALP)

Biological oxidation

SAQ
1. Substrate level phosphorylation
2. Oxidative phosphorylation***
3. Thermogenin
4. Malate aspartate shuttle*
5. Uncouplers*

LAQ
1. ETC**- describe, diagram & functions
2. Inhibitors of ETC***

Carbohydrate metabolism

SAQ
1. Significance of HMP Shunt*
2. Rapoport Luebering cycle
3. Glycogen storage diseases*
4. Galactosemia
5. Cori’s cycle & its importance
6. Lactose intolerance
7. Glycosuria
8. Metabolic changes during DM

LAQ
1. Glycogenolysis*- regulation & diseases
2. TCA Cycle* & its amphibolic nature
3. Metabolism of glycogen & hormonal regulation
4. Gluconeogenesis
5. Hormonal regulation blood glucose levels**- significance

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Protein metabolism

SAQ

1. Metabolism of tyrosine**
2. Metabolism of phenylalanine**
3. Metabolism of glycine
4. Biogenic amines
5. Phenylketonuria*
6. Alkaptonuria*- biochemical basis & tests (black urine, homogentisate oxidase
deficiency, alkapton bodies, ochronosis, not dangerous, but diet low in PhA
recommended)

LAQ

1. Inborn errors of tyrosine & phenylalanine metabolism

2. Formation & fate of ammonia**
3. Urea cycle & abnormalities***
4. Glycine- synthesis, inhibition & specialised products formed
5. Transamination*, deamination & ammonia toxicity

Lipid metabolism

SAQ

1. Cholesterol- metabolism, function & biomedical importance

2. Lipoproteins*
3. Fatty Liver**
4. Lipotropic factors*
5. Ketosis
6. Digestion & absorption of lipids

LAQ

1. Cholesterol synthesis***- name regulatory enzyme, functions, role in CAD (3x

acetyl coA → HMG CoA → mevalonate → 6x isoprenoid units (5C) → squalene
(30C) → cholesterol (27C), regulated by HMG CoA synthase, normal 2g/kg of body
weight, 125-200 mg/dl, func steroid synthesis, cell membrane integrity, lipoproteins,
transport of FA, deposition in vessel walls, LDL bad HDL good)
2. Ketosis, synthesis & fate of ketone bodies
3. Beta Oxidation of palmitic acid- regulation & energetics** (activation: 2 ATP,
coASH & Mg, FA → acyl CoA; carnitine shuttle: carnitine acyl coA using carnitine
transferase I & II; oxidation proper: oxi FADH2, hydration, oxi NADH, cleavage, acyl
CoA(-2C) + acetyl CoA)
4. Role of LDL & HDL in cholesterol transport
5. Fatty acid synthesis & fate of acetyl coA

@pichadarshan
 38

Nucleotide metabolism

1. Purine salvage pathway**

2. Hyperuricemia
3. Gout***- primary & secondary, signs & treatment
4. Catabolism of purines*
5. Biologically important nucleotides**

Heme metabolism

SAQ
1. Hemoglobinopathies* & examples
2. Abnormal haemoglobin**
3. Biochemical basis of sickle cell anaemia

LAQ
1. Biosynthesis & degradation of heme with regulation****
2. Formation & fate of bilirubin
4. Jaundice** - types & identification
5. Porphyrias**

Integration of metabolism & starvation

SAQ

1. Short term starvation- metabolic changes

2. Biochemical changes in starvation***
3. Most severe phase of starvation - biochemical changes

LAQ

1. Starvation metabolism**

Vitamins

SAQ
1. Coenzymes of thiamine,pyridoxine, folic acid & Vit B12 - 2 functions of each
2. Functions of folic acid
3. Deficiency manifestation of Vit A*
4. Wald Visual Cycle
5. Activation of cholecalciferol & its justification as a hormone

LAQ
Vitamin A, C, D, B1, B2, B3, B6, B9, B12

@pichadarshan
 39

Minerals

SAQ
1. Regulation of calcium levels**
2. Role of calcium as secondary messenger
3. Absorption of Iron*
4. Phosphorus*
5. Copper
6. Zinc*
7. Iodine

LAQ
1. Calcium***- functions, regulation & deficiency manifestation
2. Iron*

Nutrition

1. Role of dietary fires*

2. BMR-define factors
3. PEM***
4. Kwashiorkor*- biochemical alterations & treatment

Organ function tests

1. Creatinine Clearance Test**- explain & significance

2. Urea clearance test
3. Role of various enzymes in LFT*
4. Tests based on detoxification* -excretory function of liver
5. Liver Function Tests- enumerate & describe

Acid Base Balance & disorders

SAQ
1. Buffers***
2. Role of kidney in acid base balance*
3. Metabolic Acidosis & Alkalosis* - its compensation

LAQ
1. Blood pH- maintenance, disorders, associated with acid base balance
2. Acid Base Balance, Imbalance & causes

Water Electrolyte Balance

1. Water & Electrolyte balance*

2. Note on dehydration***- primary & secondary

@pichadarshan
 40

Molecular biology & Biotechnology

SAQ
1. Different types of RNA*
2. Structure of tRNA- diagram & functions
3. Genetic Code*** - salient features & wobble’s hypothesis
4. Mutation*- causes & types
5. Recombinant DNA Technology Application*
6. Reverse Transcription
7. DNA Replication*
8. Post-translational modification
9. PCR***
10. Lac Operon**
11. Chargaff’s rule

LAQ
1. Protein biosynthesis* & inhibitors, regulation
2. DNA Replication*** & its inhibitors
3. Transcription, post transcriptional modifications & two antibiotics inhibiting
the process

Antioxidants & free radicals

1. Antioxidants
2. Antioxidant enzymes*, vitamins & minerals
3. Free radicals
4. Lipid peroxidation

Xenobiotics

1. Conjugation**-examples
2. Detoxification by oxidation & hydrolysis
3. Metabolism of xenobiotics*

Cancer

1. Tumour markers**** with examples

2. Oncogenes**and proto-oncogenes
3. Chemical carcinogens*

Immunity

Extracellular matrix

@pichadarshan
 41

Hormones

1. Group II hormones- diagram, mechanism & example

2. Name different types of messenger hormones
3. Role of cAMP*
4. Mechanism of hydrophilic hormones
5. Mechanism of steroid hormones*

Tools of biochemistry

1. Electrophoresis*-application,principle
2. Chromatography*-principle,application,type
3. ELISA -principle,application,type
4. FlamePhotometer-principle,parts,importance
5. Radioactive isotopes- diagnostic & therapeutic use

Biomedical waste & it’s management*

CSF- properties & composition**

Urine: screening of inborn errors

***CLINICAL BIOCHEMISTRY***

1. At Least Refer to jambhulkar’s case oriented approach to biochemistry

2. Refer To the cases given behind Satyanarayan,they come out of imps as well
3. Refer the booklet that comes along with senghal,do all the Cases from it

***VIVA & PRACTICALS***

Open the journal 2 days before exams & mug it up
Lab technicians are very helpful during exams, they will help you get results

Multiple* indicates that the question was quite frequently asked in past years, this pdf also
contains question/imps from other universities (without any *). This pdf contains most of
MUHS pyqs.

AETCOM :
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1eqa-WC35AjDuLWlTBDEw79patqXs2mIY/view?usp=drivesd
k

@pichadarshan