Edexcel GCSE (9-1) Science

Scheme of work overview

Year 1
Unit Strand Teacher Hours

Autumn half term 1

Baseline Tests Baseline Test 0

SB1 Key Concepts Biology 18

in Biology
SB1 End of Unit End Unit Test 0
Tests

Autumn half term 2

0

Spring half term 1

SC1 States of Chemistry 2
Matter
SC2 Methods of Chemistry 10
Separating and
Purifying
Substances
SC1-2 End of Unit End Unit Test 0
Tests
SC3 Atomic Chemistry 6
Structure
SC4 The Periodic Chemistry 6
Table
SC3-4 End of Unit End Unit Test 0
Tests
SC5 Ionic Bonding Chemistry 6

SC6 Covalent Chemistry 2

Bonding
SC7 Types of Chemistry 8
Substance
SC5-7 End of Unit End Unit Test 0
Tests
Spring half term 2
SP1 Motion Physics 8

SP1 End of Unit End Unit Test 0

Tests
SP2 Forces and Physics 18
Motion
SP2 End of Unit End Unit Test 0
Tests
SP3 Conservation Physics 12
of Energy
SP3 End of Unit End Unit Test 0
Tests

Summer half term 1

SP4 Waves Physics 14

SP4 End of Unit End Unit Test 0

Tests
SP5 Light and the Physics 18
Electromagnetic
Spectrum
SP5 End of Unit End Unit Test 0
Tests
SB2 Cell and Biology 18
Control
SB2 End of Unit End Unit Test 0
Tests

Summer half term 2

SB3 Genetics Biology 22

SB3 End of Unit End Unit Test 0

Tests
SC8 Acids and Chemistry 14
Alkalis
SC8 End of Unit End Unit Test 0
Tests
Revision and Revision 0
assessment
End of Year Tests End Year Test 0

Year 2
Unit Strand Teacher Hours
Autumn half term 1
SB4 Natural Biology 18
Selection and
Genetic
Modification
SB4 End of Unit End Unit Test 0
Tests
SB5 Health, Disease Biology 24
and Development
of Medicines
SB5 End of Unit End Unit Test 0
Tests

Autumn half term 2

SC9 Calculations Chemistry 6
Involving Masses
SC10 Electrolytic Chemistry 4
Processes
SC11 Obtaining and Chemistry 8
Using Metals
SC12 Reversible Chemistry 2
Reactions and
Equilibria
SC13 Transition Chemistry 8
Metals, Alloys and
Corrosion
SC9-13 End of Unit End Unit Test 0
Tests
SC14 Quantitative Chemistry 10
Analysis
SC15 Dynamic Chemistry 4
Equilibria,
Calculations
Involving Volumes
of Gases
SC16 Chemical Chemistry 2
Cells and Fuel Cells
SC14-16 End of End Unit Test 0
Unit Tests

Spring half term 1

SP6 Radioactivity Physics 26

SP6 End of Unit End Unit Test 0

Tests
SP7 Astronomy Physics 10

SP7 End of Unit End Unit Test 0

Tests
SP8 Energy Forces Physics 4
Doing Work
SP9 Forces and Physics 6
their Effects
SP8-9 End of Unit End Unit Test 0
Tests

Spring half term 2

SB6 Plant Biology 14
Structures and
their Functions
SB6 End of Unit End Unit Test 0
Tests
SB7 Animal Biology 18
Coordination,
Control and
Homeostasis
SB7 End of Unit End Unit Test 0
Tests

Summer half term 1

SC17 Groups in the Chemistry 8
Periodic Table
SC18 Rates of Chemistry 6
Reaction
SC19 Heat Energy Chemistry 4
Changes in
Chemical Reactions
SC17-19 End of End Unit Test 0
Unit Tests
SC20 Fuels Chemistry 12

SC21 Earth and Chemistry 8

Atmospheric
Science
SC20-21 End of End Unit Test 0
Unit Tests

Summer half term 2

SP10 Electricity Physics 18
and Circuits
SP11 Static Physics 6
Electricity
SP10-11 End of End Unit Test 0
Unit Tests
SP12 Magnetism Physics 6
and the Motor
Effect
SP13 Physics 6
Electromagnetic
Induction
SP12-13 End of End Unit Test 0
Unit Tests
Revision and Revision 0
assessment
End of Year Tests End Year Test 0

Year 3
Unit Strand Teacher Hours

Autumn half term 1

SB8 Exchange and Biology 10
Transport in
Animals
SB8 End of Unit End Unit Test 0
Tests
SB9 Ecosystems Biology 28
and Material Cycles
SB9 End of Unit End Unit Test 0
Tests

Autumn half term 2

SC22 Hydrocarbons Chemistry 6

SC23 Alcohols and Chemistry 6

Carboxylic Acids
SC24 Polymers Chemistry 8

SC22-24 End of End Unit Test 0

Unit Tests
SC25 Qualitative Chemistry 6
analysis: tests for
ions
SC26 Bulk and Chemistry 6
Surface Properties
of Matter Including
Nanoparticles
SC25-26 End of End Unit Test 0
Unit Tests

Spring half term 1

SP14 Particle Physics 10
Model
SP15 Forces and Physics 8
Matter
SP14-15 End of End Unit Test 0
Unit Tests

Spring half term 2

Revision and Revision 0
assessment

Summer half term 1

Revision and Revision 0
assessment

Summer half term 2

0

Baseline Tests
Pearson published resources
Baseline Tests
• Biology Baseline Tests (Standard)
• Biology Baseline Tests (Higher)
• Biology Mark Schemes
• Chemistry Baseline Tests (Standard)
• Chemistry Baseline Tests (Higher)
• Chemistry Mark Schemes
• Physics Baseline Tests (Standard)
• Physics Baseline Tests (Higher)
• Physics Mark Schemes

SB1 Key Concepts in Biology

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SB1 Word Sheet
SB1 End of Unit Tests
Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SB1 End of Unit Test (Standard)
• SB1 End of Unit Test (Higher)
• SB1 Mark Schemes

SC1 States of Matter

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC1_2 Word Sheet

SC2 Methods of Separating and Purifying Substances

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC1_2 Word Sheet

SC1-2 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SC1_2 End of Unit Test (Standard)
• SC1_2 End of Unit Test (Higher)
• SC1_2 Mark Schemes

SC3 Atomic Structure

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC3-4 Word Sheet

SC4 The Periodic Table

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC3-4 Word Sheet
SC3-4 End of Unit Tests
Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SC3/4 End of Unit Test (Standard)
• SC3/4 End of Unit Test (Higher)
• SC3/4 Mark schemes

SC5 Ionic Bonding

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC5/6/7 Word Sheet

SC6 Covalent Bonding

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC5/6/7 Word Sheet

SC7 Types of Substance

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC5/6/7 Word Sheet

SC5-7 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SC5/6/7 End of Unit Test (Standard)
• SC5/6/7 End of Unit Test (Higher)
• SC5/6/7 Mark schemes

SP1 Motion
Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SP1 Word Sheet
SP1 End of Unit Tests
Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SP1 End of Unit Test (Standard)
• SP1 End of Unit Test (Higher)
• SP1 Mark Schemes

SP2 Forces and Motion

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SP2 Word Sheet

SP2 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SP2 End of Unit Test (Standard)
• SP2 End of Unit Test (Higher)
• SP2 Mark Schemes

SP3 Conservation of Energy

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SP3 Word Sheet

SP3 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SP3 End of Unit Test (Standard)
• SP3 End of Unit Test (Higher)
• SP3 Mark schemes

SP4 Waves
Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SP4 Word Sheet
SP4 End of Unit Tests
Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SP4 End of Unit Test (Standard)
• SP4 End of Unit Test (Higher)
• SP4 Mark Scheme

SP5 Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SP5 Word Sheet

SP5 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SP5 End of Unit Test (Standard)
• SP5 End of Unit Test (Higher)
• SP5 Mark Scheme

SB2 Cell and Control

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SB2 Word Sheet

SB2 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SB2 End of Unit Test (Standard)
• SB2 End of Unit Test (Higher)
• SB2 Mark schemes

SB3 Genetics
Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SB3 Word Sheet
SB3 End of Unit Tests
Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SB3 End of Unit Test (Standard)
• SB3 End of Unit Test (Higher)
• SB3 Mark Scheme

SC8 Acids and Alkalis

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC8 Word Sheet

SC8 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SC8 End of Unit Test (Standard)
• SC8 End of Unit Test (Higher)
• SC8 Mark Scheme

Revision and assessment

End of Year Tests
Pearson published resources
End of Year
• Biology Paper 2 End of Year Tests (Standard)
• Biology Paper 2 End of Year Tests (Higher)
• Biology Paper 2 Mark Schemes
• Chemistry Paper 2 End of Year Tests (Standard)
• Chemistry Paper 2 End of Year Tests (Higher)
• Chemistry Paper 2 Mark Schemes
• Physics Paper 2 End of Year Tests (Standard)
• Physics Paper 2 End of Year Tests (Higher)
• Physics Paper 2 Mark Schemes
SB4 Natural Selection and Genetic Modification
Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SB4 Word Sheet

SB4 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SB4 End of Unit Test (Standard)
• SB4 End of Unit Test (Higher)
• SB4 Mark Scheme

SB5 Health, Disease and Development of Medicines

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SB5 Word Sheet

SB5 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SB5 End of Unit Tests (Higher)
• SB5 End of Unit Tests (Standard)
• SB5 Mark Schemes

SC9 Calculations Involving Masses

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC9-13 Word Sheet

SC10 Electrolytic Processes

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC9-13 Word Sheet
SC11 Obtaining and Using Metals
Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC9-13 Word Sheet

SC12 Reversible Reactions and Equilibria

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC9-13 Word Sheet

SC13 Transition Metals, Alloys and Corrosion

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC9-13 Word Sheet

SC9-13 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SC9-13 End of Unit Tests (Standard)
• SC9-13 End of Unit Tests (Higher)
• SC9-13 Mark Schemes

SC14 Quantitative Analysis

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC14-16 Word Sheet

SC15 Dynamic Equilibria, Calculations Involving Volumes of Gases

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC14-16 Word Sheet
SC16 Chemical Cells and Fuel Cells
Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC14-16 Word Sheet

SC14-16 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SC14-16 End of Unit Tests (Higher)
• SC14-16 End of Unit Tests (Standard)
• SC14-16 Mark Schemes

SP6 Radioactivity
Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SP6 Word Sheet

SP6 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SP6 End of Unit Tests (Higher)
• SP6 End of Unit Tests (Standard)
• SP6 Mark Schemes

SP7 Astronomy
Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SP7 Word Sheet

SP7 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SP7 End of Unit Tests (Higher)
• SP7 End of Unit Tests (Standard)
• SP7 Mark Schemes
SP8 Energy Forces Doing Work
Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SP8-9 Word Sheet

SP9 Forces and their Effects

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SP8-9 Word Sheet

SP8-9 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SP8-9 End of Unit Tests (Standard)
• SP8-9 End of Unit Tests (Higher)
• SP8-9 Mark Schemes

SB6 Plant Structures and their Functions

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SB6 Word Sheet

SB6 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SB6 End of Unit Tests (Standard)
• SB6 End of Unit Tests (Higher)
• SB6 Mark Schemes

SB7 Animal Coordination, Control and Homeostasis

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SB7 Word Sheet
SB7 End of Unit Tests
Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SB7 End of Unit Tests (Standard)
• SB7 End of Unit Tests (Higher)
• SB7 Mark Schemes

SC17 Groups in the Periodic Table

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC17-19 Word Sheet

SC18 Rates of Reaction

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC17-19 Word Sheet

SC19 Heat Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC17-19 Word Sheet

SC17-19 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SC17-19 End of Unit Tests (Standard)
• SC17-19 End of Unit Tests (Higher)
• SC17-19 Mark Schemes

SC20 Fuels
Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC20-21 Word Sheet
SC21 Earth and Atmospheric Science
Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC20-21 Word Sheet

SC20-21 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SC20-21 End of Unit Tests (Standard)
• SC20-21 End of Unit Tests (Higher)
• SC20-21 Mark Schemes

SP10 Electricity and Circuits

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SP10-11 Word Sheet

SP11 Static Electricity

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SP10-11 Word Sheet

SP10-11 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SP10-11 End of Unit Tests (Standard)
• SP10-11 End of Unit Tests (Higher)
• SP10-11 Mark Schemes

SP12 Magnetism and the Motor Effect

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SP12-13 Word Sheet
SP13 Electromagnetic Induction
Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SP12-13 Word Sheet

SP12-13 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SP12-13 End of Unit Tests (Standard)
• SP12-13 End of Unit Tests (Higher)
• SP12-13 Mark Schemes

Revision and assessment

End of Year Tests
Pearson published resources
End of Year
• Biology Paper 3 End of Year Tests (Standard)
• Biology Paper 3 End of Year Tests (Higher)
• Biology Paper 3 Mark Schemes
• Chemistry Paper 3 End of Year Tests (Standard)
• Chemistry Paper 3 End of Year Tests (Higher)
• Chemistry Paper 3 Mark Schemes
• Physics Paper 3 End of Year Tests (Standard)
• Physics Paper 3 End of Year Tests (Higher)
• Physics Paper 3 Mark Schemes

SB8 Exchange and Transport in Animals

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SB8 Word Sheet

SB8 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SB8 End of Unit Tests (Higher)
• SB8 End of Unit Tests (Standard)
• SB8 Mark Schemes

SB9 Ecosystems and Material Cycles

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SB9 Word Sheet

SB9 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SB9 End of Unit Tests (Standard)
• SB9 End of Unit Tests (Higher)
• SB9 Mark Schemes

SC22 Hydrocarbons
Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC22-24 Word Sheet

SC23 Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC22-24 Word Sheet

SC24 Polymers
Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC22-24 Word Sheet

SC22-24 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SC22-24 End of Unit Tests (Standard)
• SC22-24 End of Unit Tests (Higher)
• SC22-24 Mark Schemes
SC25 Qualitative analysis: tests for ions
Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC25-26 Word Sheet

SC26 Bulk and Surface Properties of Matter Including Nanoparticles

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SC25-26 Word Sheet

SC25-26 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SC25-26 End of Unit Tests (Standard)
• SC25-26 End of Unit Tests (Higher)
• SC25-26 Mark Schemes

SP14 Particle Model

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SP14-15 Word Sheet

SP15 Forces and Matter

Pearson published resources
Wordsheet
• SP14-15 Word Sheet

SP14-15 End of Unit Tests

Pearson published resources
End of Unit
• SP14-15 End of Unit Tests (Standard)
• SP14-15 End of Unit Tests (Higher)
• SP14-15 Mark Schemes
Revision and assessment
Revision and assessment

SB4d Classification
This unit explains how organisms are classified
Objectives
B4.7 Describe how genetic analysis has led to the suggestion of the three domains
rather than the five
kingdoms classification method.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to answer the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet and
to score their confidence levels. This gives students their own baseline with which to
measure their own
learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. Locating students
Ask students to suggest how a visitor to the area might be able to find an individual
student in a school. Give
groups of students five minutes to come up with a plan of how the visitor would do this.
Make sure that students
understand the concept of finding things using groups of items which are themselves
within groups. The groups
for a student might be: school > year group > form > workgroup > individual.
Exploring Tasks
1. Sorting students
Ask students to sort themselves into two groups and then think of another way of
dividing themselves into two
or more groups. This process can be repeated a number of times. Ask students to
explain their reasoning
behind their classification systems each time and suggest which system was the best
and why. Elicit the idea
that scientists group organisms into large groups based on differences between the
characteristics, and these
groups are called kingdoms.
Support: Give students a way of splitting themselves into two groups to begin with (e.g.
boys/girls, those who
wear glasses/those who do not).
Stretch: Ask students to sort themselves into nested groups (so that one or more
subgroups are entirely within
another larger group). If students get down to the level of having single students in
groups at the bottom of their
classification systems, challenge them to come up with binomial names for themselves.

2. Kingdoms and domains

Worksheet SB4d.1 provides drawings of, and information about, various organisms for
students to classify, first
using kingdoms and then using the idea of domains. The sheet could be used at the end
of study of the
Student Book material on SB4d Classification, or students could do question 1 after
studying the material about
the five-kingdom model of classification and then do questions 2 and 3 after studying
the material on domains.
For most students, remove the lowest table (showing the names of the kingdoms) from
the sheet before
printing/copying.
Extend this activity by asking students to find out which organism has the binomial
name Equus ferus.
Support: Allow students access to table C in the Student Book, showing the main
characteristics of the
different kingdoms (or display the table on the board). Also provide access to the bullet
point list in the Student
Book describing the three domains (or display them on the board). Leave all the names
of the kingdoms and
the domains on the bottom of the sheet.
Stretch: Remove the names of the kingdoms and domains from the sheet before
printing/copying.
Equipment
scissors

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB4d Classification
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
We have considered African elephants to be one species, but some biologists split them
into two: Loxodonta
cyclotis (African forest elephant) and Loxodonta africana (African bush elephant). This
can make a good
discussion point in that it is likely that these two groups of animals are slowly evolving
to be more suited to their
habitats, but that when groups start to diverge along different evolutionary pathways it
is difficult to decide when
to split them into new species.
There is much debate over the use of the term ‘protist’ versus ‘protoctist’. They are
fundamentally different
words for the same kingdom of organisms, with different bodies preferring one term
over the other.
The basis on which Archaea are split into a distinct domain includes a similarity in some
of their genes to those
of eukaryotes rather than prokaryotes, notably the genes for their ribosomes. This
suggests that Archaea
evolved independently of prokaryotes, although they share features (such as the lack of
a nucleus). Other
notable differences include the fact that bacteria all contain peptidoglycan in their cell
walls, whereas this is not
found in the cell walls of Archaea. The cell membranes of Archaea are also markedly
different from those of
either Bacteria or Eukarya.
The ALDS presentation SB4d Classification – kingdoms and domains explains how
classification has been
done traditionally and how the advent of genetic analysis is changing this.
Support: Use a supermarket analogy to help students see how classification is done.
Things are first put into
broad groups (such as fresh produce, frozen foods) and then there are smaller and
smaller divisions between
those things, such as fresh produce > fruits > citrus fruits > oranges.
Stretch: Challenge students to find out the names of the other groupings in classification
in diagram A
(kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species).
2. Classification in detail
Take students through the classification of several plants and animals, showing how the
number of organisms
in each group gets smaller and smaller and how the similarities between the organisms
increase. Students do
not need to remember the names of the classification groups. Ask students to suggest
other members of the
groups as you work through the classifications. Possible examples are given in the table.
Ensure that students understand that the closer a group is to the genus or species
grouping, the more closely
related the organisms will be and the more similar their DNA will be. Point out that in
the past scientists looked
at the characteristics of organisms that they could see, but today classification is usually
done according to how
similar the DNA of organisms is.

Classification Dog House fly Common sunflower

group
kingdom animal animal plant
phylum vertebrates – have arthropod – jointed Tracheophyta –
backbones legs plants
with xylem vessels

class mammals – have insect – six legs dicot – has two

hair ‘seed
leaves’ in its seeds
• includes all plants
with branching
arrangement of
veins in leaves
order Carnivora – four to Diptera – flies using Asterales – many
five one miniflowers
toes on each leg or pair of wings grouped together
arm • includes midges, • includes
and sharp canine gnats, mosquitoes, bellflowers,
teeth stable flies, house Lobelia, daisies,
• includes cats, flies, faceflies dandelions,
bears, Jerusalem
weasels, ferrets, artichoke,
raccoons, foxes, common sunflower
wolves, coyotes,
jackals, domestic
dogs
family Canidae – five toes Muscidae – large Asteraceae – heads
on bodies of
the forefeet and and large eyes mini-flowers
four toes • includes stable surrounded
 on the hind feet, flies, by large ‘ray’ petals
nonretractile house flies, face • includes daisies,
claws flies dandelions,
• includes foxes, Jerusalem
wolves, coyotes, artichoke,
jackals, domestic common sunflower
dogs
genus Canis – tall skulls Musca – feet end in Helianthus – tall
• includes wolves, claws containing with
coyotes, jackals, sticky hairy stems
domestic dogs hairs • includes
• includes house Jerusalem
flies, artichoke, common
face flies sunflower
species familiaris – domestica – house annuus – common
domestic dog fly sunflower

Support: Challenge students to find out the species names for some of the other
organisms in the genus
groups. This will help to reinforce the binomial system.
Stretch: Ask students to prepare their own diagrams to show the full classification of an
animal (e.g. a lion).

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB4d Classification in the Student Book
and assess whether
students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident students should use
the ‘Strengthen’
activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’
activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet
SB4d.2. Question 1 on the worksheet provides help and scaffolding for answering
question S1. The rest of the
sheet contains questions covering the rest of the material from this spread. Once pairs
have completed their
answers they should join with another pair to discuss their responses and refine them.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to make a table showing the three domains,
the features of the
genes of each domain, and the kingdoms that are contained in each domain. Encourage
students to check
each other’s tables and make corrections as necessary.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet
SB4d.3. Question 1 on the worksheet provides help and scaffolding for answering
question E1. The rest of the
sheet contains questions covering the rest of the material from this spread. Once pairs
have completed their
answers they should join with another pair to discuss their responses and refine them.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to make a simplified copy of diagram D in
the Student Book,
showing only the names of the domains and the kingdoms that they know. Ask them to
write a paragraph under
the diagram to explain the advantages of this system of classification. After they have
finished writing their paragraphs, tell students that they should have included the
following: the system takes account of the
differences between the genes in different groups of organisms and it more clearly
shows the (probable)
evolution between different groups of organisms. Allow time for students to alter their
work accordingly.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB4d Classification.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB4d.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Go through the features of the different kingdoms and domains again (using
the Student Book)
before asking students to complete the sheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB4d.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question.
 SB4e Breeds and varieties
This unit explains how selctive breeding and genetic engineering are carried out
Objectives
B4.8 Explain selective breeding and its impact on food plants and domesticated animals.
B4.10 Describe genetic engineering as a process which involves modifying the genome
of an organism
to introduce desirable characteristics.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to answer the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet and
to score their confidence levels. This gives students their own baseline with which to
measure their own
learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. Animal breed requirements
Tell students that there are about 800 breeds of cow in the world, and point out that
these are all the same
species, but each breed has slightly different characteristics. Challenge students to
produce a list of useful
characteristics for cattle on a UK farm (e.g. good meat, quick growing, produce a lot of
milk, docile). Then ask
what other characteristics might be useful for cattle being farmed in northern Scotland
(e.g. thick fur) or Africa
(thin fur, less requirement for water). If time allows, ask students to use similar
reasoning to suggest useful characteristics for sheep. Establish the idea that new breeds
of animals (and new varieties of plants) are
produced to allow the most use/yield to be had out of a farmed animal/plant in a
certain set of environmental
conditions.
Exploring Tasks
1. Investigating acidity in fruit varieties
Worksheet SB4e.1 provides instructions for this practical, which could be linked to
ideas about neutralisation
reactions and titration in CC9. Knowledge of these reactions is not needed to do this
practical, although
students may need instruction on how to use burettes carefully and safely.
The practical measures the amounts of acid in the juice of different varieties of the same
fruit, which is an
important factor for plant breeders. The worksheet assumes that a citrus fruit is being
used, the major acid in
which is citric acid. 1 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm−3 sodium hydroxide will neutralise 0.0064 g of
citric acid, hence the
multiplication factor of 0.064 on the worksheet. If you are using apples the
multiplication factor should be 0.067
(for malic acid), or for grapes use 0.075 (for tartaric acid).
Another variable which could also be investigated is sugar content. This is usually
measured in degrees Brix
(°Bx), which is the number of grams of sucrose dissolved in 100 cm3 of liquid. This can
be measured using a
refractometer or by working out the density of the juice to three decimal places (which
will need a very accurate
balance) and using this value as an estimate for specific gravity. Specific gravity is then
converted into Brix
using an online calculator or conversion chart, or approximately using 231.61 × (S −
0.9977), where S is the
specific gravity. This will not give very accurate numbers but should be sufficient to
rank the juices in order.
Worksheet SB4e.1 suggests that the juices could be filtered; however this may not be
necessary, especially if
specific gravity is not going to be measured.
Safety
0.1 mol dm−3 sodium hydroxide is irritating to eyes and skin. Ensure eye protection is
worn and any spills
are diluted with water and mopped up immediately. Students must wash their hands
after doing the
experiment. Students must not eat any of the fruit. Ensure that burettes are well
secured. It is advisable
to make up the juice before the lesson to give to students.
Support: Students use the second page of the worksheet to record their results.
Encourage them to think
about environmental variation for the evaluation section, in terms of whether the acid
in the different varieties
may change with ripeness or storage conditions/age, and the need to ensure that the
different varieties were all
harvested when ripe and kept under the same conditions in order to perform a fairer
test. Other factors could
include difficulties with using the burette and adding too much sodium hydroxide, or
considering whether
repeating the measurements for each variety would have been useful.
Stretch: Students should be able to draw up their own tables of results and draw
conclusions on their own.
Skills Sheets RC6, TR5, PI8 and/or PI9 may be useful.
Expected results
There should be obvious differences in acidity between different varieties of orange (or
lime), which are
probably the easiest fruits to source.
Equipment
eye protection, juices made from different varieties of the same species of fruit (e.g.
orange, lime) using a
fruit juicer/squeezer, two pipettes or syringes or small measuring cylinders, burette,
clamp and stand, filter
funnel, filter paper, small beaker, conical flask, phenolphthalein indicator, 0.1 ml dm–3
sodium hydroxide
solution, distilled water
Optional: refractometer, accurate balance (for Brix measurements)

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB4e Breeds and varieties
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the
checkpoint.Note that the term ‘variety’ has been used to describe different varieties of
the same species of plant. Plant breeders, however, use the term ‘cultivar’ (‘cultivated
variety’).
The ALDS video SB4e Selective breeding explains how selective breeding is carried out
to produce new
breeds and varieties, and the impact that this can have on species. The ALDS
presentation SB4e Farm breeds
and varieties gives details of some different breeds and varieties of common animals
and plants that are
farmed for food (see Explaining Tasks 2).
Support: Remind students of their work on natural selection and how this process
works, referring back to
graph B in SB4b Darwin’s theory. Then use the graph (or a version of it) to show how
this relates to artificial
selection, where organisms have a spread of variation for a characteristic, and humans
only choose organisms
that have a certain range of values for that characteristic. Those chosen are the ones
that humans then use to
breed, and the others are not bred.
Stretch: Challenge students to find out some other examples of GMOs that are currently
being developed and
how they are being propagated (through cloning).

2. Farm breeds and varieties

The ALDS presentation SB4c Farm breeds and varieties gives details of some different
breeds and varieties of
common animals and plants that are farmed for food, and how their characteristics
make them suitable for
farming in certain locations. Each slide is presented twice – once with characteristics
and again with an
explanation of why those characteristics are suitable. It is recommended that students
suggest why the
characteristics are useful before being given the answer.
Support: Before starting, go through some useful characteristics for crop plants to have
(e.g. high yield,
resistance to disease, good taste) and some useful characteristics for farm animals to
have (e.g. produce a lot
of milk, produce good quality meat). Ensure that students understand that breeders are
still developing new
breeds that are better than old ones.
Stretch: Challenge students to create a slide of their own for use as part of the
presentation.

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB4e Breeds and varieties in the Student
Book and assess
whether students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident students
should use the
‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to
the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet
SB4e.2. Question 1 on the worksheet provides help and scaffolding for answering
question S1. The rest of the
sheet contains questions covering the rest of the material from this spread. Once pairs
have completed their
answers they should join with another pair to discuss their responses and refine them.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to think of a breed of farm animal or variety
of crop that a breeder
might like to develop. They should state which characteristics are being bred for, and
why those characteristics
are useful. They should then outline the two ways in which their breed or variety could
be created (using
selective breeding and genetic engineering). Invite random students to share their
breed/variety ideas with the
class, together with outlines of how they would create them. Correct remaining
misconceptions as they arise.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Once pairs
have arrived at an
answer, they should join with another pair to discuss their responses and refine their
ideas.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to compare and contrast selective breeding
and genetic
engineering. Encourage them to work individually on bullet points and then to get
together in small groups to
prepare a table with their ideas. If time allows, encourage students to use their tables to
write full paragraphs
(possibly using Skills Sheets ET3 and/or TS12).

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB4e Breeds and varieties.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB4e.3 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Make sure students recognise and understand the acronym GMO and the idea
behind genetic
engineering before they start the sheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB4e.4 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question.
 SB4f Tissue culture
The process of tissue culture
Objectives
B4.9B Describe the process of tissue culture and its advantages in medical research and
plant breeding
programmes.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet
and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a baseline with which to
measure their own learning
during the lesson.

Starters
2. Creating a windpipe
Write the following words on the board: mitosis, differentiation, cell culture, aseptic
technique. Then tell
students that a scientist wants to grow some cells to use in making a replacement
windpipe. For each of the
terms on the board, ask students to write one sentence that is related to making the
windpipe. Take examples
from around the class, comparing sentences for the same term and discussing which
sentence conveys the
most accurate and useful information.

Exploring Tasks
1. Cauliflower tissue culture
Worksheet SB4f.1 provides a method for the tissue culture of cauliflower explants.
Tubes containing explantson growth medium will need to sit in bright light, for example
on a sunny windowsill, for about two weeks to
show obvious greening and growth.
The key to success in this practical is the use of aseptic techniques in the preparation of
all materials before
and during the lesson. The sterilising agent is SDICN (sodium dichloroisocyanurate),
commonly used to
sterilise babies’ bottles, and to sterilise drinking water in emergency situations. SDICN
is gentle enough that it
does not need to be rinsed off the explant. It is also included in the growth medium to
help reduce growth of
microorganisms in the tube. Use Milton® sterilising tablets or water-sterilising tablets
(not ready-made Milton
solution, which contains a different sterilant).
To make 1 dm3 growth medium (sufficient for about 100 small tubes), carefully
measure and prepare the
following:
• 4.44 g MS (Murashige and Skoog) medium (store in fridge)
• 20 g granulated cane sugar
• 7 g plain agar powder (not nutrient agar)
• kinetin stock solution (10 mg dissolved in 10 cm3 70 per cent ethanol)
• SDICN 0.5 per cent solution (e.g. one Milton tablet containing 800 mg SDICN in 100 ml
distilled water)
Measure 960 cm3 of water into a large beaker or jug (so that it is no more than half full).
Add the MS medium
and stir until fully dissolved. Add the sugar and stir until dissolved. Add 2.5 cm3 kinetin
solution using a pipette.
Measure the pH (e.g. with pH paper or meter) and adjust to pH 5.7 using 0.1 mol dm–3
hydrochloric acid or
0.1 mol dm–3 potassium hydroxide as needed. Then stir in the agar thoroughly.
Separate the mixture into two
500 dm3 batches in separate large, heat-resistant containers. Cover each container with
cling-film, pierced to
prevent build-up of steam. Cook the mixture in a microwave for half the recommended
time (depending on
power, e.g. 8 min per dm3 in a 850 kW microwave). Stir the mixture, re-cover and heat
for the remaining time.
When the agar is fully dissolved, allow to stand until it cools to 45 °C. Add 20 cm3 of the
0.5 per cent SDICN
solution to the 500 cm3 agar mixture and stir well. Dispense the medium immediately
into small tubes with
screw-top lids. Before doing this, wipe down the working surface with 70 per cent
alcohol or bleach solution.
Place the inner surfaces of the lids face down on the surface when adding the mixture to
the tube. Add
approximately 10 cm3 of the mixture to the tube. Place the lid on the tube, leaving it
slightly ajar. After about
one hour (when the mixture has set), screw on the lids. Store the tubes in a fridge until
needed. The mixture will
last about six weeks in the fridge.
Safety
SDICN is toxic, so do not inhale vapours from it. SDICN is also a bleaching agent. Eye
protection should be
worn, as well as a protective apron or lab coat, and gloves, when handling bottles
containing the sterilant.
Take care with sharp knives. Scalpel blades should be disposed of in a sharps bin or
equivalent.
When preparing media, take care when handling hot liquids. Follow CLEAPSS guidelines
when weighing
substances, including wearing a mask and gloves. Make sure the heated medium is
cooled to 45 °C before
adding SDICN – ideally do this in a fume cupboard and avoid breathing any vapours
released. Pour the
medium into the tubes in a well-ventilated, draught-free area.
Support: Students could record their results by taking a photo. Make sure students
understand the remaining
questions before asking them to complete the worksheet.
Stretch: Students should complete their own write-up of the practical, explaining fully
the aseptic techniques
that were used and why they were needed. They should also explain why the process
produces genetically
identical plants. If students have covered unit SB6, you could mention that kinetin is a
type of plant hormone.
Expected results
If aseptic techniques have been followed carefully, the explants should show growth
and greening, with
possible shoots, after two to three weeks.
Equipment
Preparation: MS (Murashige and Skoog) medium, granulated cane sugar, plain agar
powder, kinetin solution,
SDICN (Milton sterilising or water-sterilising tablets), 70 per cent ethanol or bleach
solution, 1 dm3 or larger
heat-resistant beaker or jug (to fit in microwave), cling-film, microwave, balance, pH
paper or meter,
0.1 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, 0.1 mol dm–3 potassium hydroxide, measuring
pipettes, stirrer, eye
protection, clothes protection, disposable gloves, access to fume cupboard
Per student or group: tube with screw-top lid containing sterile growth medium,
chopping board or tile,
forceps, scalpel or sharp knife, marker pen, sterilising solution in small jar with lid,
beaker of sterilising
solution, 70 per cent ethanol, paper towels, small cauliflower floret in Petri dish
Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB4f Tissue culture
Work through the Student Book pages, answering questions up to the checkpoint.
There are issues in using tissue culture, but students do not need to cover these. They
include problems with
developing organs for transplant, which has not been very successful so far although the
technology is
improving. For example, with reference to photo A in the Student Book, Andemariam
Beyene (who, in 2011,
was the first person to receive a tissue-engineered synthetic organ) died in 2014. The
procedure used by the
surgeon has since been called into question, including the idea that the stem cells used
(from the patient’s
bone marrow) were able to differentiate. The organ failed, which appears to be the
result of it becoming detached and forming scar tissue. However, the general idea of
creating tissue-engineered organs using
scaffolds and stem cells that can differentiate is still an active area of research and
development.
One challenge with animal cell cultures is maintaining cell lines over time, which is
discussed further in topic
SB5l in relation to hybridoma cells.
Note the topic refers to viruses, the immune system and stages in the testing of new
medicines, which are all
covered further in unit SB5.
The ALDS interactive hotspot activity SB4f Tissue culture describes the stages of tissue
culture in plants.
Support: Work with students to answer the questions.
Stretch: Challenge students to find out about HeLa cells and their importance in animal
cell culture.

2. Tissue culture in plant breeding

Discuss a few examples of the use of tissue culture in plant breeding with students, such
as:
• the production of large numbers of plants with desirable features (including those that
have arisen by a
chance mutation) for sale as house or garden plants – i.e. the production of large
numbers of identical and
relatively cheap plants
• the production of plants for sale that are difficult to grow from seed (e.g. orchids and
Nepenthes, which are
sold as house plants or for plant conservation)
• the production of plants free of viruses, such as banana plants grown in Africa where
plantain is a staple
food and virus infection has a significant impact on the yield of a plant (new banana
plants are usually
produced by separating offshoots of older plants, but these will contain infection if the
older plant is
infected)
• the conservation of endangered species, as done by the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew,
where only one or
a few plants of that species are available for reproduction
• the production of GM plants that all contain the new gene (since traditional breeding
will produce variation
in offspring, so that some will lack the new gene).
Use images or video from the Internet to introduce and describe the examples, asking
students in each case to
identify the advantage of using tissue culture compared with traditional breeding
methods or methods of
artificial cloning (e.g. taking cuttings).
Support: Remind students of the differences between asexual and sexual reproduction,
and their effect on the
amount of genetic variation between parent plant and offspring, to help them
understand where lack of variation
is an advantage in tissue culture.
Stretch: Give students one of the examples above that you have not covered and ask
them to research why
tissue culture is an advantage in that case.
Equipment
Internet access

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB4f Tissue culture in the Student Book
and assess whether
students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident students should use
the ‘Strengthen’
activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’
activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work together to answer questions S1 and S2 in the Student Book
and/or the questions on
Worksheet SB4f.3. Questions 1 and 2 on the sheet provide help and scaffolding for
answering question S1,
and question 3 on the sheet provides the same for question S2. Students could work in
pairs to complete
questions 1 and 2 on the sheet, and then test each other on the meanings of words that
they have looked up in
question 2. Check around the class for any words that are commonly misunderstood, as
there are several that
are important for topics in this and other units. Pairs could then move on to completing
the card sorting task in
question 3 in order to build up an answer for S2. Take examples from around the class
to check that all pairs
have sorted correctly.
Alternatively, ask students to construct their own summary tables using information in
the Student Book. They
should use the Student Book or their own research to provide examples for the
advantages of tissue culture.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. It might help
to remind students of
vaccinations that they have had in the past, and to check that they understand why
vaccinations are given, as
this topic is not covered until unit SB5. Students may also need reminding that viruses
are not considered
living, as they can only replicate inside living cells. This links to why tissue culture is
needed for the study of
viruses, so be careful not to give too much away. Students should work together to
suggest how tissue culture
could be used to check that the harmless particles do not cause disease in the cells, and
to explain why using
tissue culture is an advantage in this process.

4. Reflect
Ask students to look at the exam-style question at the end of SB4f Tissue culture in the
Student Book and
encourage them to develop a mark scheme for the question before answering it. This
will ensure that students
consider a variety of advantages of tissue culture, and think more deeply about the
question.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB4f.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Check that students understand the questions and the key terms before
completing the sheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB4f.5 is suitable for homework and contains some more challenging
questions about this topic.
Stretch: Students complete the Extra challenge question at the end of the sheet.

SB4g Genes in agriculture and

medicine
Genetic engineering: benefits and drawbacks
Objectives
B4.11 H Describe the main stages of genetic engineering including the use of:
a restriction enzymes
b ligase
c sticky ends
d vectors.
B4.14 Evaluate the benefits and risks of genetic engineering and selective breeding in
modern
agriculture and medicine including practical and ethical implications.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to answer the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet and
to score their confidence levels. This gives students their own baseline with which to
measure their own
learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. Selective breeding
Tell students a plant breeder wishes to produce a new variety of orange. Ask students to
come up with a list of useful
features for the orange to have (e.g. producing lots of oranges [high yield], resistance to
disease, fast growth, good
flavour, lots of juice, able to cope with drought). Take suggestions from students and
then challenge them to write a
series of short bullet points to describe how the variety would be created using selective
breeding. Ask random
students to read out their list of bullet points, and correct misconceptions as they arise.
Exploring Tasks
1. Recombinant DNA [H]
Worksheet SB4g.1 provides some cards showing the stages in the process of making
recombinant
microorganisms. Ask students to work in groups, and give each student one card. They
should work together to
produce the correct order of cards.
Support: Go through the sentences on the worksheet first, and relate the idea of a
marker gene back to the
opening page for this unit in the Student Book (SB4 Natural selection and genetic
modification). Allow access
to the higher section ‘Genetic engineering of bacteria’ in SB4g Genes in agriculture and
medicine to help them
complete their diagrams.
Stretch: Challenge students to research some of the bacteria that have been genetically
engineered in this
way and the useful substances that we now obtain from them.
Equipment
scissors
Optional: Internet access

2. Benefits and risks

Worksheet SB4g.2 asks students to think about the benefits and risks of a range of
selectively bred/genetically
engineered organisms. They should use the cards to prepare paragraphs to evaluate the
benefits and risks of
the examples given. It may be helpful to give students an example to work from:
Golden Rice is a GMO that produces beta-carotene, which people need to make vitamin
A. This could
help people in parts of the world where vitamin A deficiency is a problem. Some people,
on the other
hand, think that GM foods such as this may cause health problems. However, there is no
evidence that
this happens, and the health problems are unlikely to be as bad as vitamin A deficiency,
so I think that
the benefits of Golden Rice outweigh the risks.
Support: At its simplest level, students can use Worksheet SB4g.2 to match up an
example of genetic
engineering or selective breeding with a benefit and a risk. This can be done by cutting
out the cards and
arranging them or shading the cards that belong with one another in the same colour.
Stretch: Some of the risk cards are applicable to more than one example. Challenge
students to use this fact,
together with the Student Book and/or their own research, to write fuller evaluations of
the benefits and risks of
the examples given.
Equipment
Optional: scissors, coloured pencils, Internet access

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB4g Genes in agriculture and medicine
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
This page introduces the term ‘allele’, which students may be familiar with from
studying SB3. However, if
students have not yet studied SB3, spend a bit of extra time helping students to get the
hang of this concept,
possibly with reference to diagram B in SB3c Alleles in the Student Book.
The ALDS interactive SB4g Genetic engineering explains how genetic engineering is done
in order to produce
useful substances such as human insulin.
Support: Work with students to produce a list of issues/risks posed by selective
breeding and genetic
engineering. Help students extract the information from the paragraphs under the
‘Selective breeding risks’
subheading in the Student Book and from the first paragraph under the ‘Genetic
engineering issues’
subheading.
Stretch: Challenge students to design an idea for a physical model or stop-motion
animation that would show
the process of genetically engineering a bacterium.

2. Sticky ends [H]

Students will need an appreciation of base pairing and DNA structure (from SB3) to
fully access this activity.
Use the ALDS interactive SB4g Genetic engineering to remind students of the overall
process of genetic
engineering. Then go into more detail about sticky ends using a model made from
coloured plastic building
bricks. Use four different colours of individual bricks (to represent bases and base
pairing) attached to four
longer sections so that a break can easily be made. Break the model as shown below:
Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB4g Genes in agriculture and medicine in
the Student Book and
assess whether students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident
students should use the
‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to
the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet
SB4g.3. Question 1 on the sheet provides help and scaffolding for answering question
S1. The rest of the
sheet contains questions covering the rest of the material from this spread. Once pairs
have completed their
answers they should join with another pair to discuss their responses and refine them.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to summarise the information from SB4d
Breeds and varieties and
SB4g Genes in agriculture and medicine from the Student Book as a series of lists:
examples of selective
breeding, examples of genetic engineering, benefits of selective breeding, risks of
selective breeding, benefits
of genetic engineering, risks of genetic engineering. Students could work on a single list
individually (or in a
small group) before combining their work into a master set of lists.
3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Once pairs
have arrived at an
answer, they should join with another pair to discuss their responses and refine their
ideas.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to prepare points for a debate on ‘this house
believes that new
breeds and varieties should only be allowed to be selectively bred and not genetically
engineered’. Challenge
students to each prepare a list of points that people who are in favour of the motion
would use and those who
are against the motion would use. If time allows, conduct a short debate, choosing
students to speak and telling
them whether they need to speak for or against the motion. The use of Skills Sheet RC5
may help.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB4g Genes in agriculture
and medicine.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB4g.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Remind students of some of the benefits and risks of selective breeding and
genetic engineering
before they answer the questions.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB4g.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic. Students will require some knowledge of DNA structure (from SB3) to
be able to fully answer question 3.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question.

SB4h GM and agriculture

This unit explains why GMOs are used in agriculture
Objectives
B4.12B Explain the advantages and disadvantages of genetic engineering to produce GM
organisms
including the modification of crop plants, including the introduction of genes for insect
resistance
from Bacillus thuringiensis into crop plants.

Maths requirements
2c Construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and histograms.
4a Translate information between graphical and numeric form.
4c Plot two variables from experimental or other data.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet
and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a baseline with which to
measure their own learning
during the lesson.

Starters
2. GM food issues
Download a negative image about GM foods from the Internet to display on the board,
such as a headline
about ‘Frankenstein foods’, or a label from a food that has GM content but is not on sale
in the UK. Ask
students to come up with a set of three questions that they think a government
committee should ask a GM
company when deciding whether or not to give the company a licence to sell GM crop
seeds for planting in the
UK. Take examples for discussion, such as ‘Why is the food not on sale in the UK?’ (e.g.
lack of demand) or
‘How safe is it to eat a GM crop compared with its non-GM equivalent?’
Equipment
negative image about GM foods from the Internet, e.g. headline about ‘Frankenstein
foods’, or a label from a
food that has GM content but is not on sale in the UK (GM foods are on sale in the USA
and other parts of
the world where they are not banned)
Exploring Tasks
1. Plant modification for insect resistance
Worksheet SB4h.1 provides a cut-and-stick activity on the process of modifying crop
plants with the Bt toxin
gene to make them resistant to insect pests. For most students, cut off the text labels at
the bottom before
handing out the sheet.
Note that students are not expected to recall the details of how Agrobacterium
tumefaciens is used in the
genetic modification of many crop plants. This sheet is intended to deepen students’
understanding of what
genetic modification is, together with reminding them of the idea of plasmids carrying
genes (met in topic
SB1d). Students are also not expected to recall the name of Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
Support: Leave the captions at the bottom of the sheet for students to use when
labelling their diagrams.
Stretch: For students working on Higher tier content, expect them to include
terminology in their labelling from
their learning of the stages of genetic engineering (in SB4g Genes in agriculture and
medicine), including
restriction enzymes, ligase, sticky ends and vector, to explain how the modified plasmid
was created.
Equipment
scissors, glue or sticky tape

2. GM papaya production
Worksheet SB4h.2 provides a data analysis sheet that looks at advantages and
disadvantages of growing GM
papaya in Hawaii. Students could draw a graph of the data given in the table, but this is
not essential for
answering the questions.
Support: Display the graph from the worksheet on the board, and discuss the parts of
question 1 as a group
before students attempt to answer them. If needed, discuss question 2 to make sure
students understand
which parts of the table are needed to answer each question. Questions 3 and 4 could be
covered by
discussion so that students identify the disadvantages of growing GM crops as well as
the advantages.
Stretch: Students should answer the Extra challenge questions. Question 5 links to
learning in SB3j Gene
mutation, and in SB5k Antibiotics, where development of bacterial resistance is
described. Question 6 links to
learning in topic SB5j on the herd effect in immunisation of people against infectious
diseases.
Equipment
graph paper

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB4h GM and agriculture
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
Note that there are other methods for producing GM crops other than using
Agrobacterium, including the
particle gun method. This method fires metal particles coated with copies of a selected
gene into plant cells.
Once inside the cells, the gene may be taken into the nucleus and combine with the plant
DNA. The problem
with this method is that many plant cells are destroyed in the process.
Some of the explanation of advantages and disadvantages of insect-resistant GM crops
involves considering
the effect of the interrelationships of organisms in food chains and food webs, which is
covered in Starter 1.
This is covered further in unit SB9.
The ALDS presentation SB4h Growing GM crops: advantages and disadvantages contains
a set of slides that
cover a range of issues with growing GM crops. Students should keep notes of
advantages and disadvantages
on each slide, and which are more important. This could lead to a class debate on
whether or not GM crops
should be grown in the UK. Skills Sheet RC5 could be used to support this.
Support: Work with students to answer the questions.
Stretch: If students have covered the work in topic SB3a, then challenge them to
compare and contrast the
development of resistance by insects to GM crops with the development of resistance to
antibiotics by bacteria.

2. How Bt toxin works

The way Bt toxin works provides an opportunity for making links to many other areas
of learning. The following
identifies appropriate links that can be discussed with students if they have already
covered those topics. Ask
questions at appropriate points to check learning in that topic.
Bt toxin is a protein, coded for by the Bt toxin gene (topic SB3b). As all organisms use
the same DNA code and
the same processes in their cells for using that code to make proteins (SB3b/d),
practically any cell containing the
Bt gene will produce Bt toxin. The Bt gene is naturally found in a plasmid (SB1d) in the
Bacillus thuringiensis
bacterium. Genetic engineering has transferred this gene into a range of crops to protect
against attack by
caterpillar pests.
The Bt toxin protein affects caterpillars by binding to the cells in the gut lining. This
happens when the protein
attaches to molecules in the cell membrane that have the right shape (similar to the way
that substrates match
the shape of the active site of enzymes – SB1g).
Binding of the Bt toxin protein to the gut cells stops the caterpillar from eating. It also
causes the gut wall to
break down, allowing the toxin and gut bacteria into the body of the caterpillar, which
are then able to digest it.
Support: Select a part of the Bt toxin story that links to one topic that students have
already studied, and use it
to exemplify what they have learnt. Take time to ask appropriate questions on their
earlier learning to check
that they have understood it.
Stretch: There are different strains of Bt toxin caused by mutations (topics SB3i/j) that
change some of the
bases in the DNA. Ask students to explain how mutation could lead to a different shape
of protein. Then explain
that the molecules in the gut cell membranes of caterpillars also vary. Ask students to
explain why it is
important for the farmer to choose the GM crop variety with the right strain of Bt toxin.

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB4h GM and agriculture in the Student
Book and assess
whether students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident students
should use the
‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to
the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book. Pairs then join
up into groups of four
to compare and add to/amend their lists of ideas. For students requiring more support,
Worksheet SB4h.3
provides cards for sorting and a set of questions that provide scaffolding for question
S1. Students could work
in pairs to sort the cards for questions 1–4, comparing their card sorting and discussing
the best way to arrange
the cards. They could then compare their sorting with that of another pair.
Alternatively, take examples from
around the class to compare responses. Students should then work in pairs to form an
answer for question S1.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to use information in the Student Book to
consider the effect of the
interrelationships of organisms in food chains and webs (as described in Starter 1
above). Ask them to draw a
food web (or give them one to use) and then to label the food web with advantages and
disadvantages of using
insect-resistant GM crops.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. They should
start by listing potential
problems for the environment with growing GM crops. Ask pairs to compare their list of
problems with those of
other pairs, or take examples from around the class to compile a master list on the
board. Students should
return to their pairs to consider how each problem could be addressed before the GM
variety is released to
farmers.
The task could be extended by asking students to place the problems in order of
importance (e.g. starting with
those that are the most damaging) and to explain their criteria for prioritisation. They
could then suggest how
they would decide at what point in their list it would be acceptable to release a variety,
given that not all
problems are likely to be solved.

4. Reflect
Ask students to design a mark scheme for the exam-style question at the end of SB4h
GM and agriculture in
the Student Book. Then ask each student to individually answer the question. Each
student then takes the
answer from one student and the mark scheme from another and gives the answer a
mark. Students then work
together to resolve issues in the answer, the mark scheme or both. This way of tackling
the questions works
best if students can work in groups of three.
Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB4h.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Check that students understand the questions before completing the sheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB4h.5 is suitable for homework and contains some more challenging
questions about this topic. Check
that students know how to present the three sets of data on one set of axes before they
tackle question 5a.
Stretch: Students complete the Extra challenge question at the end of the sheet.

SB4i Fertilisers and biological

control
This unit explains why fertilisers and biological control are used in agriculture
Objectives
B4.13B Explain the advantages and disadvantages of agricultural solutions to the
demands of a growing
human population, including use of fertilisers and biological control.
Maths requirements
2c Construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and histograms.
4a Translate information between numerical and graphical forms.
4c Plot two variables from experimental or other data.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet
and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a baseline with which to
measure their own learning
during the lesson.

Starters
2. Plant growth
Find two images of a plant, one grown with plant fertiliser and one without (such as
those used in adverts for
home or garden plant ‘food’). First show the image of the plant grown without fertiliser
and ask students why
the plant increases in size over time, to remind them of photosynthesis. Ask them what
is made in the process,
to revise the idea that sugars are formed. Then ask what other substances are found in
plants. (If needed,
remind them of different food groups, such as lipids and proteins.)
Show students the other image, of the plant that has had ‘plant food’/fertiliser, and say
that both plants have
had the same amount of light, warmth and water, so why is this plant different?
Students should be able to
answer that it has been given the other substances/nutrients that plants need to make
lipids, proteins and other
substances from the sugars formed in photosynthesis. Then ask what would happen in a
field if no fertiliser
were added every year. You may need to explain that because the crop is removed from
the field at the end of
the year, nutrients are removed too.
Equipment
two images of a plant, one grown with plant fertiliser and one without (such as those
used in adverts for plant
‘food’ used on plants in the home or garden)

Exploring Tasks
1. Effect of fertiliser on plant growth
Worksheet SB4i.1 provides a practical for investigating the effect of fertiliser on plant
growth, using duckweed
(Lemna). Duckweed can be floated on distilled water until the lesson. Once the practical
has been set up,
duckweed will need four to eight weeks in a warm, bright area to show a clear increase
in the number of leaves
and a possible change in leaf colour.
If duckweed is not available (e.g. in winter), you could use barley seedlings about a
week after germination. If
using barley seedlings, one seedling should be held firmly in the top of a test tube with a
piece of cotton wool.
The tube should be filled with water/nutrient solution and covered with foil or black
card to reduce algal growth.
The tubes will need regular topping up with solution. After about three weeks, growth
can be assessed by
measuring dry mass. Note that the worksheet does not contain the instructions for
using barley seedlings.
For the duckweed practical, discuss as a class a suitable range of ‘concentrations’ of
fertiliser to use (e.g. no
drops, one drop, two drops …). Share the concentrations between student groups,
depending on how many
beakers or jars there are, and so that there are repeats of each concentration.
Guide students in the collection and sharing of results for the different fertiliser
concentrations, including the
identification of outliers or calculation of means if needed.
Safety
Take care when collecting pond plants. Wash hands thoroughly after handling pond
plants.
Support: Work together with students during the collection and recording of results.
Discuss the answers for
the other questions as a group before students complete the worksheet.
Stretch: Students should complete the recording of results, evaluation and conclusion
without the support of
page 2 of the worksheet.
Expected results
Students should find that there is a ‘concentration’ below which plant growth is reduced
by lack of sufficient
nutrients. Above that concentration there should be no further increase in growth, as
plants will have enough
nutrients to be growing as quickly as other conditions allow.
Equipment
Per group: duckweed (Lemna) plants, small beakers or jars (one for each concentration
studied), distilled
water, liquid plant fertiliser, pipette, thin plastic film, marker pen, access to light.
Alternatively, week-old
barley seedlings, distilled water, liquid plant fertiliser, pipette, cotton wool, test tubes,
test tube rack, marker
pen/labels, foil or black card to cover the test tubes, access to light.

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB4i Fertilisers and biological control
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
You could add to the discussion of fertilisers by displaying a graph from the Internet
showing the relationship
between increasing world fertiliser use and the growing human population.
The problems of adding fertiliser to crops and its impact on the environment will be
covered further in unit SB9,
in relation to eutrophication and pollution from human activity.
Some organisms that are used in biological control are effective because they are
parasites of the pest
organism. This has links to topic SB9f, which includes examples of parasitism.
The ALDS video SB4i Biological control presents examples of biological control, some of
which were
successful and others not. Questions within the video check understanding of the
content.
Support: Work with students to answer the questions in the Student Book.
Stretch: Students should work together to produce a table of different examples of
biological control, and begin
to design the column headings for their table.
Equipment
Optional: graph from the Internet showing the relationship between increasing world
fertiliser use and the
growing human population

2. Good biological control

Ask students to work in pairs or small groups to look at the examples of biological
control in the Student Book,
to identify why some were successful and others not. Some further examples are
presented in the ALDS video
SB4i Biological control, including ladybirds and parasitic wasps to control aphids, and
cane toads in Australia,
introduced to control herbivorous pests in sugar plantations (which failed because the
toad eats and poisons
many native species and so has become a pest itself). Additional examples can be found
on the Internet, such
as the use of predatory mites in glasshouses to control herbivorous mites and aphids
(which was successful
because the predator and prey are in a confined space).
Students should then use what they have identified as good or bad features to suggest
which characteristics
they would look for when trying to find a possible new organism for use in the
biological control of a pest. Take
examples from groups to collate on the board and discuss with the class. If needed, hint
at particular features
that might be useful, such as high reproductive rate, good searching ability, host
specificity, adaptability to
different environmental conditions, and having a life cycle that is synchronised with
that of the pest (a particular
issue with insects that may have a non-predatory stage of their life cycle). Discuss how
each of these could
impact on the pest, and what the advantages and disadvantages of each feature might
be.
Support: Discuss the examples of biological control with students to help them identify
which features of the
control organism are linked to the success or failure of biological control.
Stretch: Students could research their own examples of successful and failed attempts
at biological control.
Equipment
Optional: additional examples of biological control, including some that were successful
and others that failed

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB4i Fertilisers and biological control in
the Student Book and
assess whether students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident
students should use the
‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to
the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book. For students
requiring more support,
Worksheet SB4i.3 provides a set of questions that support and extend question S1 and
can be used instead of
that question or as a precursor to students working on the S1 question.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to use information in the Student Book to
design a summary table
to show the advantages and disadvantages of both biological control and fertilisers.
Work with students to help
them design the table headings before encouraging them to look back through the text
to pick out the points.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Students could
use information from the
Student Book to support this, or research on the Internet. They should compare their
list of criteria with those of other
students, to justify their choices and to select which are the most important criteria.
Take a range of examples from
the class to display on the board and ask students to select what they think are the most
important and why.
4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB4i Fertilisers and
biological control in the
Student Book. You can extend this slightly by asking students to work in small groups to
design a mark scheme
for the exam-style question, which will mean that they need to think up more than one
advantage/disadvantage.
Go through some mark schemes with randomly selected groups and identify any
lingering misconceptions.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB4i.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Check that students understand the questions before completing the sheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB4i.5 is suitable for homework and contains some more challenging
questions about this topic.
Stretch: Students complete the Extra challenge question at the end of the sheet.

SB5a Health and disease

This unit helps us to understand what we define health and disease
Objectives
B5.1 Describe health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and
not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity, as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO).
B5.2 Describe the difference between communicable and non-communicable diseases.
B5.3 Explain why the presence of one disease can lead to a higher susceptibility to other
diseases.
Maths requirements
2c Construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and histograms.
2d Understand the principles of sampling as applied to scientific data.
2g Use a scatter diagram to identify a correlation between two variables.
4a Translate information between graphical and numeric form.
4c Plot two variables from experimental or other data.
Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet
and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their own baseline with which
to measure their own
learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. Health and disease concepts
Write the word ‘health’ on the board and give students several minutes to try to define
it. Take some
suggestions and then share the WHO definition with them: a state of complete physical,
mental and social wellbeing
and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Compare similarities and differences
with the WHO
definition to identify what students need to learn.

Exploring Tasks
2. Developing a health-promoting school
Ask students to work in groups to look at the WHO’s definition of health and think about
how they would assesshow well their school promotes and supports the health of
students. Remind them that they need to think
beyond the idea of just being free of disease and also need to consider social and mental
well-being. They
should list what they know is being done, and also what should be done and anything
they need more information about. For the latter, they should choose what they
consider is the most important item and decide
the questions that need answering and who needs to answer them. If there is time to
ask these questions, the
answers could then be discussed to decide whether the school needs to do anything
more.
Alternatively, students could identify something in their lists that they feel should be
done to improve students’
health, and write an action plan that outlines what should be done.
Support: Discuss the three areas of well-being in the WHO definition, and work with
students to identify
examples of what each means. Students could then list one example of each that they
know is happening in
the school, and suggest one example of each that the school might develop, giving a
reason for their
suggestions.

Stretch: Local Action: Creating Health Promoting Schools is a guidance document from
the WHO to support
schools across the world in promoting health. The document can be found on the
Internet. Chapter 1 outlines
six key features of a health-promoting school. Students could compare their lists with
these key features to
extend their ideas of health. They may find that some of the issues in the lists seem
inappropriate, but remind
them that the guidance is intended for schools across the world and to consider how
priorities may differ in
schools in different countries.

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB5a Health and disease
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
Graph B may need additional discussion to help students understand it. Start by asking
students to read off the
values of income and life expectancy for each country shown and to compare the values
for the countries.
Encourage them to think of as many reasons as possible for the correlation between
average income and life
expectancy by considering how lifestyle is different in the countries shown.
Discuss the impact of sampling on the conclusions that might be drawn from graph B by
asking what
conclusion might be drawn from considering only developed countries (those mainly in
the right half of the
diagram) or only African countries (most are on the left of the diagram). Ask students to
suggest how the
impact of sampling on the conclusion could be reduced. You could also use the
opportunity to introduce the
concept of bias, when sampling changes the result from data analysis and so the
conclusion that can be drawn.
Remind students that they need to think about the effect of data sampling when
considering other people’s data
and conclusions.
Before working on the checkpoint questions, make sure students can distinguish clearly
between correlation
and causation. This can be done using a more familiar example. For example, if a study
in a seaside resort
shows that as sales of ice-creams increase so does the number of people with sunburn,
is this correlation with
or without causation? Students should identify this as correlation with an un-named
cause that correlates with
both factors, i.e. an increase in exposure to sunshine.
Note that further work on correlations between diseases will be covered in SB5b Non-
communicable diseases
and SB5d Pathogens. SB7e Control of blood glucose and SB7f Type 2 diabetes provide
further opportunities
on correlation between diabetes and a range of other diseases.
The ALDS presentation SB5a Disease correlations gives two examples of correlation
between diseases, for
use in Explaining Tasks 2.
Support: Work with students as a group to complete the answers to the questions.
Stretch: Discuss the shape of graph B in more detail, by asking students to describe how
the correlation
between income and life expectancy changes across the graph. They should try to
suggest why the slope is
steepest in lower incomes than in higher (e.g. other factors, such as lifestyle, begin to
have a greater impact on
life expectancy in regions where average income is higher).

2. Disease correlations
The ALDS presentation SB5a Disease correlations provides an opportunity to discuss the
correlations between
diseases. An alternative is to find a graph or chart on the Internet that shows
coinfections, such as HIV and TB
or Kaposi’s sarcoma. The presentation gives two examples of correlations between
diseases. One slide has a
bar chart showing a link between gum disease and heart disease. Ask students to
compare the heights of each
pair of bars in the chart, and give them a minute or two to discuss with a partner or in a
small group what the
height differences mean. Take suggestions from around the class and, if needed, lead
students to the idea that
a greater proportion of people in the heart disease group have gum disease than in the
healthy group, which
suggests the two diseases are correlated. Remind students that correlation does not
identify which disease
leads to a greater risk of developing the other. Ask students to suggest how that might
be investigated.
If students have already covered positive and negative correlations in maths, ask
whether the correlation is
positive or negative, and ask them to explain their answer. They should identify that it is
a positive correlation
because those with gum disease are more likely to have heart disease.
The other slide in the presentation contains a table showing the relationship between
HIV infection and
infection with four other viruses. Discuss with students which values in the table should
be compared to identify
whether there is a correlation between infection with HIV and with a different virus.
Then allow a few minutes
for students to work in pairs to compare the percentages and draw conclusions. Share
these with the class, to
agree that infection with HIV is strongly correlated with infection by cytomegalovirus
and Epstein–Barr virus.
The correlation with human herpes virus 1 is weaker, and there is a negative
correlation (more people without
HIV than with) between HIV infection and human herpes virus 8 infection.
Support: Adjust the table to blank out the values in the number columns and just
present the percentages.
Stretch: Explain that, for the gum disease/heart disease example, the sample size was
15 people with heart
disease and 15 healthy people of similar age. Students should consider the importance
of this small sample on
the strength of the conclusion drawn from differences shown in the chart. For the table,
students should again
consider sample sizes to suggest which result they think is the most repeatable (the
largest sample sizes, for
human herpes virus 1).

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB5a Health and disease in the Student
Book and assess
whether students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident students
should use the
‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to
the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer the questions on Worksheet SB5a.2. Work
through the questions one
at a time. Take answers to question 1a as a show of hands then select students to
provide their explanations.
Check that students know how to calculate percentages before they attempt question 2.
Then ask pairs to
share answers to question 2c with the class, to check that they understand the term
correlation. Question 3
provides scaffolding for question S1 in the Student Book. Encourage discussion of
question 4, by asking pairs
to suggest one example of each kind of well-being given in the WHO definition. Take
examples from different
pairs and compare them with the bullet point list on SB5a Health and disease in the
Student Book. Ask
students to assess how well the examples match the descriptions.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to consider which age group (children,
teenagers, adults, elderly
people) they think is the healthiest, in terms of the WHO definition of health. This will
probably generate a wide
range of suggestions, but students only need to justify their choices in terms of physical,
mental and social wellbeing.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. They could
consider the effect of
living in a developed country compared with living in a rapidly developing country, or
urban and rural areas of
the same country. They could use the bullet list of states of well-being on SB5a Health
and disease in the
Student Book to compare the two areas and so suggest the impact of region on health.
From this they should
suggest the impact on life expectancy. Share examples between pairs and encourage
discussion about which
factors of where a person lives correlate with life expectancy and which reduce life
expectancy.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB5a Health and disease in
the Student Book.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB5a.3 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Check that students understand the questions before asking them to complete
the worksheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB5a.4 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Students will need a sheet of graph paper to complete question 4. If students are unsure
about drawing scatter
graphs and lines of best fit, give them a copy of Skills Sheet PD6.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question at the end of the
worksheet.

SB5b Non-communicable diseases

Non-communicable human diseases
Objectives
B5.23 Describe that many non-communicable human diseases are caused by the
interaction of a
number of factors including cardiovascular diseases, many forms of cancer, some lung
and liver
diseases and diseases influenced by nutrition.
B5.24 Explain the effect of lifestyle factors on non-communicable diseases at local,
national and global
levels, including:
a diet on malnutrition
b alcohol on liver diseases.
Maths requirements
1a Recognise and use expressions in decimal form.
1c Use percentages.
2c Construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and histograms.
2d Understand the principles of sampling as applied to scientific data.
2g Use a scatter diagram to identify a correlation between two variables.
4a Translate information between graphical and numeric form.
4c Plot two variables from experimental or other data.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet
and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their own baseline with which
to measure their own
learning during the lesson.
Starters
2. Effects of alcohol – brainstorm
Ask students to jot down as many facts about the effects of alcohol as they can. Students
should work
individually for a couple of minutes and then work in small groups to organise their
ideas in a more systematic
way. A spokesperson for each group should then share with the class how the members
of his or her group
have organised the information and what information they know. Use the activity to
identify gaps in knowledge
and understanding, such as the long-term effects.

Exploring Tasks
1. Alcohol data analysis
Ask students to use Worksheet SB5b.1 to analyse data related to alcohol consumption
and deaths due to liver
disease in the UK between 1970 and 2009. Students are expected to draw a scatter
graph from a table. Some
students may need guidance with this; Skills Sheet PD6 may be useful.
Support: Students may need help with drawing a graph from the data and reaching
conclusions from the
evidence. You could use the graphs as the basis for group or class discussion in order to
answer the questions
on the worksheet.
Stretch: Tell students that, while alcohol consumption has decreased for all adults over
the past 10 years, the
younger the age group the greater the decrease. (Further information can be found on
the Internet by
searching for ‘trends in alcohol UK’.) Ask students to suggest what might have caused
this trend and how that
might be used to help further decrease the alcohol consumption in all adult age groups.
Equipment
graph paper

2. Vitamin debate
Show students the nutrition information from a cereal box or white loaf packaging and
point out the additives
that are vitamins. If you did not carry out Starter 1, take a few minutes to make sure that
students remember
what vitamins are and why they are needed in the diet. Students should then carry out
research to prepare for
a debate on the question ‘Should vitamins be added to more prepared foods (such as
ready meals or bread)
than at present?’ If needed, help students start their research by giving them some of
the following questions:
• Which vitamins are added to foods?
• In which natural foods are these vitamins usually found?
• Is there any evidence for people in general or in particular groups who are deficient in
these vitamins?
• Is a deficiency of these vitamins harmful to health?
• Are there any risks from adding vitamins to foods?
Students could work in pairs or small groups to collect answers and prepare an
argument for or against the debate
question. Students should write a series of bullet points that clearly support their
decision. If there is time, ask each
group to present its three best points to the class, at the end of which allow a class vote
on the question.
Skills Sheets RC1, RC2 and RC5 may be helpful for supporting research and preparation
for debate.
Support: Work with students to identify exactly which questions to answer and where
to find the information for
the answers. They may need guidance in deciding whether information supports or is
against the idea that
vitamins should be added. Write up arguments for the idea on one side of the board and
arguments against on
the other side, before asking students to decide how to vote.
Stretch: Students should work in their groups to identify which questions they need to
answer. Make sure they
include both benefits and risks in their research. They should justify their final decision
for or against with
suitable evidence from their research.

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB5b Non-communicable diseases
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
Although students may not know the example of sickle cell disease as a genetic disease,
they should remember
that genes are passed on during reproduction and so be able to explain why genetic
diseases are noncommunicable.
Note that table B shows only a selection of deficiency diseases. If appropriate, other
deficiency
diseases could be considered, such as night blindness (vitamin A), beriberi (vitamin B1)
and spina bifida (folate).
Note that several different diseases fall within the category of alcoholic liver disease,
including alcoholic fatty
liver disease, alcoholic hepatitis and cirrhosis. Fatty liver disease may be caused by
excessive short-term or
long-term drinking, but hepatitis and cirrhosis are usually indicative of excessive
drinking over a long period.
Not all cases of liver disease are caused by alcohol. For example, similar damage can be
caused by some
infections, including hepatitis C. Explaining Tasks 2 provides more detail about the role
of alcohol in liver disease and
its correlation with other diseases of the body.
Map D could be used to introduce the ideas of risk and probability. Ask: if in a group of
10 people at a
restaurant two choose curry, what percentage of the group has curry? (20 per cent) If
another group of 15
people eat at the restaurant, with similar food preferences, how many would you
predict will have curry? (three)
Explain that the probability in both cases of curry being chosen is 20 per cent or 0.2. For
the original 10 diners,
this is an experimental probability because it is based on actual data. The prediction for
the other diners is a
theoretical probability, because it is being used to make a prediction for something that
is not certain to happen.
Then ask students to explain what the death rate on map D for Russia means. (On
average, 48.7 people die of
liver disease for every 100 000 people in Russia.) Explain that this value can be
converted to an average risk,
or theoretical probability of death from liver disease, for any person in Russia by
dividing 48.7 by 100 000
(0.000487, or 0.0487 per cent). Ask students to calculate the risk of death from liver
disease in the other four
countries on map D.
The ALDS interactive SB5b Lifestyle factors is a sorting task that provides an opportunity
for students to
identify which factors that can cause disease are lifestyle factors and which are not.
Support: Work with students to answer the questions.
Stretch: An additional category of non-communicable diseases is autoimmune diseases,
such as asthma,
type 1 diabetes and eczema. Students will cover more on the immune system in a later
topic, but the role of the
immune system in autoimmune diseases (attacking cells of the body rather than
pathogens) could be
introduced here.

2. Liver disease
Demonstrate the importance of the liver in the breakdown of toxic substances in the
following way. Wear eyeprotection while carrying out the demonstration.
• Place a small piece of fresh liver in a blender with about twice the volume of water,
and blend until smooth. (If the solution is prepared ahead of the lesson, store it in a
fridge for no more than two days until needed.)
• Pour about 1 cm of hydrogen peroxide into a test tube, and explain that this substance
is made in many cells as a by-product of many processes. Also explain that it is highly
reactive and therefore potentially damaging (toxic) to many cell reactions.
• Use a pipette to add several drops of liver solution to the hydrogen peroxide, and ask
students to note what happens. They should see a vigorous reaction, releasing gas from
the mixture. The gas is oxygen, because the hydrogen peroxide is broken down to
oxygen and water – neither of which is toxic to cells. (Note, in the body the oxygen is
captured by a haem group in the catalase enzyme. So cells do not literally fill up with
oxygen gas!)

Explain that the liver breaks down many toxic substances, including ethanol (alcohol)
and aldehyde, which is a
toxic breakdown product of ethanol. So liver cells are more exposed than other cells to
toxins, and more likely
to be damaged, which results in disease. As a result of the liver’s central role in the body,
liver disease is
correlated with a wide range of other diseases, including anaemia (blood disease),
circulatory diseases and
kidney disease, as well as cancer in the liver.
Stretch: Students should be able to explain the correlation between liver disease and
other diseases in terms
of the build-up of toxic substances in the body.
Equipment
small piece of fresh liver, blender, water, access to fridge (optional), pipette, 3%
hydrogen peroxide
(available from pharmacies)

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB5b Non-communicable diseases in the
Student Book and
assess whether students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident
students should use the
‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to
the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Question 1 on Worksheet SB5b.2 provides scaffolding for question S1 in the Student
Book. The remaining
questions reinforce other key ideas in this topic.
Ask students to work in pairs or small groups to answer the questions on the
worksheet. They should discuss
their answers for question 1 and justify their choices. Groups should then compare
answers and discuss any
differences in responses to decide whether they are valid and worth combining to
produce better answers.
Allow a few minutes more for students to improve their answers before taking
examples to share with the rest
of the class.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to write bullet-point notes to answer the
progression questions for
the topic for a student who missed the lesson. They should then compare notes to
improve their answers.

3. Extend
Before students answer question E1 in the Student Book, you may need to remind them
that vitamin D is not
only taken into the body in food; it is also made in the skin by the action of sunlight.
People with fair skin make
vitamin D more rapidly this way than people with dark skin. Ask students to work in
pairs to discuss the
question. Pairs should then join into fours to discuss and compare their responses and
to identify how they could improve them. Take examples from around the class to make
sure students have considered not only
changes in diet, but also behaviour (time spent outside), of children in the age group.
Each student could then construct a three-mark question and mark scheme on the
relationship between alcohol
and liver disease and alcohol’s effects on people and the society they live in. Students
could test their question
and mark scheme on a partner and compare responses to see how the question and
answer could be
improved.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB5b Non-communicable
diseases in the
Student Book.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB5b.3 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Check that students understand the questions before asking them to complete
the worksheet. Skills
Sheet PD5 could be used to support this.
Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB5b.4 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Students complete the Extra challenge question at the end of the sheet.

SB5c Cardiovascular disease

About cardiovascular disease and how it can be reduced or prevented
Objectives
B5.24 Explain the effect of lifestyle factors on non-communicable diseases at local,
national and global
levels, including:
a exercise and diet on obesity, including BMI and waist : hip calculations
c smoking on cardiovascular diseases.
B5.25 Evaluate some different treatments for cardiovascular disease including:
• life-long medication
• surgical procedures
• lifestyle changes.

Maths requirements
1a Recognise and use expressions in decimal form.
1c Use ratios.
1d Make estimates of the results of simple calculations.
2c Construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and histograms.
2d Understand the principles of sampling as applied to scientific data.
3b Change the subject of an equation.
4a Translate information between graphical and numeric form.
4c Plot two variables from experimental or other data.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet
and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their own baseline with which
to measure their own
learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. Smoking demonstration
Note that this demonstration should not be carried out in Scottish schools, where it is
illegal.
Use a smoking machine to demonstrate the substances that are taken into the lungs
while smoking tobacco.
Set up the machine as shown below in a fume cupboard.

First run the machine without a cigarette by switching on the pump. After a few
minutes, ask students to note
the temperature of the air entering the apparatus and the colours of the glass wool,
indicator solution and
limewater. Ask students to suggest what changes may occur with a lit cigarette. Then
repeat the activity with a
lit cigarette in place as shown above. Ask students to describe and, if possible, explain
any changes.
Emphasise that tobacco smoke contains many substances, and that many are colourless
and so not visible.
Ask what happens to the substances when the smoke is taken into the lungs. Encourage
students to think
beyond the lungs and consider the role of blood in distributing substances around the
body.
Safety
Carry out the demonstration in a fume cupboard, which should be switched off until
after the demonstration.
Glass wool should be handled with care, wearing gloves. Cleaning out the apparatus
after use is hazardous
and needs to be done in a fume cupboard while wearing nitrile gloves. See the CLEAPSS
guidance in
publication L195 ‘Safer chemicals, safer reactions’.
Equipment
for smoking machine: U-tube, bung with single hole and bung without hole (for U-tube),
two test tubes, two
bungs with two holes (for test tubes), thermometer, glass or polymer wool, cigarette
without filter, universal
indicator solution, limewater, glass tubes and connectors, vacuum pump, fume
cupboard

Exploring Tasks
1. Risk factors for cardiovascular disease
Worksheet SB5c.1 presents a graph and table related to risk factors for cardiovascular
disease, including
smoking and obesity. Students could discuss the worksheet in pairs or small groups
before answering the
questions. Remind students of the link between body mass index (BMI), waist : hip ratio
and obesity before
they answer question 2c.
Support: Work with students to analyse the graph, before they try to answer question 1.
Ask similar questions
to those in the worksheet, but using a different age and percentage survival, to model
how to find the answers.
Support question 2 by working as a group with students, but allow them to complete
their own bullet points for
2c after discussion.
Stretch: Students should consider the sample size and its effect on the repeatability of
the two studies.

2. Treatments for cardiovascular disease

Students should work in pairs or small groups to research one of the following
treatments for cardiovascular disease:
• life-long medication, such as beta-blockers or blood-thinning medicines
• surgical procedures, such as bypass or stent surgery
• lifestyle changes, such as giving up smoking, increasing exercise and improving diet.
This will identify that there are different kinds of cardiovascular disease, such as heart
attack (myocardial
infarction), stroke, thrombosis and angina. Students should research the advantages
and disadvantages for
each kind of treatment, including which kind of patient responds best to that treatment.
They should summarise
their research as bullet points, including two benefits and two problems.
Bullet point lists should then be shared with the class, to allow discussion about which
treatment is best used
and when, and also when it should be avoided.
The ALDS video SB5c Cardiovascular disease contains information on treatments for the
condition that could
provide a starter for this activity. Students could then extend their knowledge through
research.
Support: Give students suitable pieces of text from the Internet about two or three
treatments. Suitable sites
include the NHS or British Heart Foundation. Work with students to identify one benefit
and one problem for
one treatment then encourage them to complete the other example(s) in pairs.
Stretch: Students should summarise the outcomes of the research as simple guidance
for doctors about how
to decide which treatment should be used with patients suffering different kinds of
cardiovascular disease.

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB5c Cardiovascular disease
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
When discussing BMI, point out to students that this calculation is only appropriate for
adults, as younger
people have different proportions in terms of body mass and height. Make sure that
students understand that
BMI removes the effect of height on mass. This could be explained by comparing images
of three people of
differing height and waist measurement, and asking students to suggest which has the
greater BMI and why.
You could also display a BMI chart for adults (available on the Internet) and explain that
this is what health
professionals use when assessing the health of their patients.
Note there are other methods that can be used to assess obesity, including simply waist
circumference, and
also waist : height that compares waist circumference with height. All methods aim for a
simple measurement
that can reasonably predict the risk of lifestyle diseases in later life.
The ALDS video SB5c Cardiovascular disease illustrates causes and effects of
cardiovascular diseases.
Support: Work with students to complete the answers to the questions.
Stretch: Challenge students to suggest why waist : hip ratio is a better indicator for risk
of heart disease than
BMI.
2. Health check
Present students with a list of measurements that a health professional may take when
monitoring the health of
people who are very obese. The measurements should include BMI, waist : hip ratio,
heart rate and breathing
rate at rest and after a few minutes of simple exercise. Check that students understand
the purpose of
measuring BMI or waist : hip ratio, as a simple assessment of the proportion of fat in the
body, and why too
much fat is a problem.
Using yourself as a test subject, or a fit student who does not mind the attention, take
measurements of heart
rate and breathing rate at rest, after two minutes of gentle exercise and after two
minutes of moderate exercise.
(Remember to leave enough time between tests to allow raised values to return to
resting rates before testing
again.) Heart rate can be measured at the wrist, by counting the number of pulses in 15
seconds, or by using a
digital heart rate monitor. Breathing rate should be measured as the number of breaths
taken in 15 seconds.
Values can be multiplied by four to get rates per minute.
Explain that the heart rate and breathing rate of people who are very unfit and/or obese
usually increase more
rapidly than those of fitter people. So, the health professional needs to assess what level
of exercise is
appropriate and safe – too high a rate puts extra strain on the body and may be harmful.
Support: Check that students understand the terms BMI and waist : hip ratio and how
they are measured.
Stretch: Students should suggest other factors that a health professional might include
in a health assessment
of someone who is obese, giving explanations for their suggestions. Suitable answers
include whether the
patient is a smoker and the person’s blood pressure, diet (how healthy it is), and alcohol
consumption per
week, as all of these relate to risk factors for cardiovascular disease.
Equipment
Optional: stop clock, digital heart monitor, tape measure, height measurer, bathroom
scales

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB5c Cardiovascular disease in the Student
Book and assess
whether students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident students
should use the
‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to
the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Questions 1–7 on Worksheet SB5c.2 provide scaffolding for question S1 in the Student
Book. The remaining
question reinforces another key idea in this topic.
Ask students to work in pairs to answer the questions on the worksheet. They should
then identify how
confident they feel about their answers, such as by giving each answer a score out of 5
(from 1 for ‘think it is
wrong’ to 5 ‘sure it is right’). Each pair could then compare answers and confidence
scores with another pair
and decide which answers they could improve. Take examples from around the class of
questions that rated 3
or less, and discuss the answers as a group.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to suggest a list of questions and
measurements that a doctor
would make of an obese patient, and lifestyle changes that a doctor might suggest to the
patient in order to
reduce their risk of developing cardiovascular disease.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Then ask pairs
to join into fours to
discuss and compare their responses and to identify how they could improve them.
Alternatively, ask students to sketch a poster to define cardiovascular disease, the risk
factors for the disease,
and lifestyle changes that could be made to reduce the risk of developing the disease.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB5c Cardiovascular
disease in the Student
Book.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB5c.3 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Check that students understand the questions before asking them to complete
the worksheet. Skills
Sheets TR1 and PD5 could be used to support this.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB5c.4 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic. Check
that students understand how the data for the graphs were split into quartiles. If
needed, describe a quartile as
the point at which a quarter of the data is cut off. So, in the charts on the sheet, quartile
1 contains the quarter
of the data set with the lowest values, quartile 2 the quarter of the data set with values
between the lowest
quartile and the median value, and so on. Explain that quartiles are often used in
analysing large data sets to
help see whether there is any relationship between variables.

Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question at the end of the sheet.

SB5d Pathogens
Pathogens and the diseases they cause
Objectives
B5.4 Describe a pathogen as a disease-causing organism including viruses, bacteria,
fungi and protists.
B5.5 Describe some common infections, including:
a cholera (bacteria) causes diarrhoea
b tuberculosis (bacteria) causes lung damage
c chalara ash dieback (fungi) causes leaf loss and bark lesions
d malaria (protists) causes damage to blood and liver
e HIV (virus) destroys white blood cells, leading to the onset of AIDS.
f stomach ulcers caused by Helicobacter (bacteria)
g Ebola (virus) causes haemorrhagic fever

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet
and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their own baseline with which
to measure their own
learning during the lesson.

Starters
2. Pathogen groups
Write the names of the four pathogen groups (bacteria, protists, fungi, bacteria) on the
board and ask students
to write one sentence about each group. Each student should compare sentences with a
partner and discuss
how they could be improved. Take examples of improved sentences from around the
class, to help revise what
students have previously learned about these groups.

Exploring Tasks
1. Growth of bacteria in yoghurt
Worksheet SB5d.1 provides a method for measuring the growth of bacteria in UHT milk
at different temperatures.
This will require water baths set at different temperatures within a range of 30–55 °C –
set one at around 43 °C.
Make sure that students understand the relationship between pH and bacterial
population size before they do the
experiment.
The method could be adapted so that students investigate the effect of fat content of
milk on bacterial growth
using skimmed, semi-skimmed and full-fat versions of UHT milk. The beakers or flasks
will need incubating in a
water bath at about 43 °C for four hours. In this case, challenge students to explain their
results by carrying out
further research on the effect of yoghurt bacteria on fat in milk. (Note that the bacteria
do not digest the fat. The
difference in consistency is an interaction between the fat and the protein – the higher
the fat content, the
thicker the gel. The different milks should show the same drop in pH as bacteria digest
the lactose.)
Use UHT milk, which is sterile. All equipment will need sterilising before the lesson.
Cover beakers or flasks
with foil until students use them. The beakers of milk/yoghurt should remain in the
water baths for about four
hours. If students are unable to take the final measurement during the lesson, place the
covered beakers in a
fridge (to halt bacterial growth) until the next lesson.
Give students sheet 1 of the worksheet and challenge them to write up this investigation
by displaying their
results in a suitable way, drawing a conclusion based on the evidence, and evaluating
the method and results.
They should also explain their results in terms of the effect of temperature on enzymes,
including the impact of
an optimum temperature.
Support: Give students sheets 1 and 2 of the worksheet. Students may need guidance
with using their results
to draw a line graph of pH change against temperature. They may also need reminding
of their work on
enzymes and how enzymes are affected by temperature, in order to answer question 7.
Stretch: Students could plan their own experiment using just the apparatus list and
safety information on
sheet 1 of the worksheet. Challenge students to explain why increasing acidity in the
milk causes a change in
its thickness (it causes a change in milk proteins, which thickens the yoghurt – a link
back to work on the effect
of pH on enzymes (proteins) in unit SB1).
Safety
Wear eye protection while handling milk samples. Make sure students do not drink any
of the milk. Any cuts
should be covered with a waterproof plaster. Wash hands thoroughly with soap and
water after handling milk
samples.
Expected results
The pH of all samples should decrease over the four hours as more milk sugar is broken
down to an acid. The pH of
the yoghurt at 43 °C should decrease the most, because this is the optimum temperature
for yoghurt bacteria. At
even higher temperatures, bacterial growth is likely to stop because of the denaturing of
bacterial enzymes.)
Equipment
Per student group: access to water baths at different temperatures (within the range
30–55 °C); UHT milk,
live yoghurt starter culture, sterile beakers or conical flasks with foil covers (one per
water bath), sterile
250 cm3 measuring cylinder, sterile stirring rods (one per beaker), sterile syringe, pH
probe + buffer to
recalibrate, beaker of clean tap water, marker pen, plastic film
Per student: eye protection
Optional: UHT milks of different fat content (e.g. skimmed, semi-skimmed, full fat),
water bath at 43 °C

2. Infectious diseases
The loop cards on Worksheet SB5d.2 can be used in a variety of ways to reinforce
learning of facts in this
lesson. The cards could be used as a class activity. Share the cards between students –
you may need several
sets of cards so that each student can have at least one card. If necessary, split the class
into teams, with each
team sharing one set of answers. Score the teams according to which team holds up the
correct answer first.
Ask one student to ask the question on his or her card. The student with the answer
should stand up and read
out the answer. If students agree that this is the correct answer, then that student asks
the question on the
card. This proceeds until the original student stands up to read out the answer on his or
her card.
Alternatively, students could cut out the cards and arrange the questions with the
answers, then compare their
choices with those of a partner to identify what is right or wrong.
Support: Work with students to help them identify the correct answer to each question.
Stretch: Ask students to write down the correct answer to each question before the
answer is read out.
Equipment
scissors

Explaining Tasks
2. John Snow and cholera
The ALDS presentation John Snow’s cholera map contains a series of slides that help
students understand
how John Snow’s work changed the way people thought about the way cholera is
transmitted. Questions within
the slides check relevant facts that students should have gained from their learning so
far, and help them
analyse Snow’s findings.
Support: Before showing students the presentation, check that students understand
that some bacteria are
pathogens, and that they remember the ways in which pathogens are spread (including
by water).
Stretch: Explain that John Snow had looked at water from the Broad Street pump under
a microscope but had
not seen anything. Ask students what other evidence could have been used to prove that
cholera came from a
pathogen in water.
Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB5d Pathogens in the Student Book and
assess whether
students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident students should use
the ‘Strengthen’
activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’
activity.

2. Strengthen
Questions 1–6 on Worksheet SB5d.3 provide scaffolding for question S1 in the Student
Book. The remaining
question reinforces the other key idea in this topic.
Ask students to work in pairs to sort the cards on the worksheet into the correct layout.
You may need to guide
some students on how to set out the first few cards, but let them continue with the
remainder. Pairs should then
compare layouts with another pair to identify any differences. They should refer to the
Student Book pages to
help correct any errors.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to research some additional diseases to add
to the table.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Then ask pairs
to join into fours to
discuss and compare their responses and to identify how they could improve them.
Alternatively, ask students to write down how they would prove that tuberculosis is
caused by a particular
species of bacterium. They should compare answers in pairs to identify which part of
their proof would show
correlation and which would show causation.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB5d Pathogens in the
Student Book.
Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB5d.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Check that students understand the questions before asking them to complete
the worksheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB5d.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question at the end of the
worksheet.

SB5e Spreading pathogens

Pathogens and how their spread can be reduced or prevented
Objectives
B5.6 Explain how pathogens are spread and how this spread can be reduced or
prevented, including:
a cholera (bacteria) – water
b tuberculosis (bacteria) – airborne
c chalara ash dieback (fungi) – airborne
d malaria (protists) – animal vectors
e stomach ulcers caused by Helicobacter (bacteria) – oral transmission
f Ebola (virus) – body fluids.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet
and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their own baseline with which
to measure their own
learning during the lesson.
Starters
1. Infectious sentences
Ask students, individually or in small groups, to make one sentence using each group of
three terms: cholera
bacteria, water, sickness; chalara, air, fungus; HIV, body fluids, virus. Ask various
students to read out their
sentences. There are no right or wrong answers, but if students do spot connections,
explain that the link is the
way that different pathogens infect us.

Exploring Tasks
1. Clean hands
Worksheet SB5e.1 presents a practical that uses the harmless microorganism
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
(bread yeast) as a model for the transfer of harmful pathogens by touch. The practical
investigates the use of
toilet paper and hand washing, modelling what happens to bacteria on the hands after
going to the toilet. This
could be adapted in several ways, such as to compare different toilet papers or to
compare different types of
hand wash or soap.
It is important that students work carefully, to avoid unintended contamination of agar
plates. If students have
little experience in this, show them with a single plate how to carry out the method, and
discuss how the careful
approach makes it more likely that results from the experiment can be trusted.
Make sure students know how to tape prepared culture dishes to allow air to circulate
and prevent the growth
of anaerobic bacteria. Dishes should be kept upside down, at room temperature, for
several days and should
not be reopened. Autoclave all tissues and plates before disposing of them safely.
The agar plates must be prepared beforehand and kept in sterile conditions until the
lesson. Prepare malt agar
by mixing 2 g malt extract with 2 g agar and 10 cm3 hot water to make a paste. Slowly
stir in more water to a
total volume of 100 cm3. Heat the mixture in a boiling water bath to 95 °C then keep it
molten at 50 °C before
using standard aseptic technique to pour it into sterile Petri dishes. Allow the agar to set
and the agar surface
to dry. On half the agar plates, use standard aseptic technique to prepare lawn plates of
S. cerevisiae by
adding a few drops of S. cerevisiae culture to malt agar broth and spreading the liquid
evenly across the
surface of malt extract agar plates. Incubate the plates for about 48 hours at 20–25 °C
before the lesson.
This practical is not suitable for students with sensitive skin conditions, due to the
repeated hand washing,
although they could wear vinyl or nitrile gloves if they do not react to the material.
Results can be recorded by drawing, or by measuring the size and number of colonies.
Support: Work with students to answer the questions.
Stretch: Ask students to suggest other ways of keeping hands clean, and to adapt the
method to show how
effective they are.
Safety
Handle agar powder in a fume cupboard. Avoid scalds from hot water by wearing
insulated gloves. Keep lids
from lawn plates above the base when you remove them, to minimise contamination
from airborne
microorganisms. Wash hands thoroughly after contact with microorganisms. Do not
open agar plates after
they have been incubated.
Expected results
Plate A should show the largest amount of yeast growth. Plate B is likely to show some
yeast growth,
particularly if soft toilet tissue is used, as microorganisms can pass through the fibres.
The amount of yeast
growth on plate C should be less than on plate B, but will depend in how well hands are
washed and dried.
Note that if an antibacterial hand wash is compared with ordinary hand wash or soap, it
is unlikely that any
difference in effect will be shown since students are working with yeast. (Little effect is
seen with bacteria also,
because most antibacterial substances in hand washes take time to affect and kill
bacteria.) The effectiveness
of hand washes and soaps of all kinds depends on their ability to make oil on the hands
soluble in the water
that is used to wash it away. This could lead to a discussion about whether it is worth
paying extra for
antibacterial washes.
Equipment
per group: two lawn plates of Saccharomyces cerevisiae on malt agar, three malt extract
agar plates (equal
mass of malt extract to mass of agar used, e.g. 2 g malt extract and 2 g agar in 100 cm3
water), marker pen,
sheet of toilet tissue, autoclave bag, dry paper towels, access to soap and warm water
for washing hands,
sticky tape
Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB5e Spreading pathogens
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
The ALDS presentation SB5e Pathogens and how they spread provides information and
questions to help
students develop their understanding of the diseases malaria, cholera, tuberculosis and
chalara, how they
spread and how their spread can be reduced or prevented.
Support: Work with students to complete the answers to the questions.
Stretch: Challenge students to draw a life cycle for the malaria protist Plasmodium,
showing how it is
transferred between hosts. Ask them to explain why this is an effective method of
transfer for the protist.

2. Modelling the spread of infection

There are several ways that you can model the spread of an infectious disease. You
could prepare the room before
the session by spraying a few areas with a product such as Glo Germ™. Do not warn
students that you have done
this. Towards the end the lesson, tell students what you have done and explain that this
can mimic how pathogens
are spread by touch. Use a UV light (which comes with the product) to illuminate not
just the areas you sprayed, but
other parts of the classroom and students’ hands, to identify how far the spray has
spread. (Make sure students
realise the product is safe, although they may want to wash their hands before leaving
the lab.)
Alternatively, if there is plenty of space to move around (such as outside or in the gym),
students can model the
spread of infection themselves. Give one student a red card, indicating that he or she is
infected. Students should
spread out then stand still. Allow the ‘infected’ student five seconds to walk around and
touch others to ‘infect’
them. ‘Infected’ students should raise a hand. After five seconds, any ‘infected’ students
can walk around and
infect others. Time how long it takes for all students to become infected. Discuss with
students which factors could
be changed to increase or decrease the time taken for all to become infected, and relate
their suggestions to real
situations. For example, if the pathogen is not very infectious, then only a small
proportion of uninfected people
who come into contact with the disease will be infected, and spread will be slow.
Support: Use the analogy of a computer virus to help explain how infection is passed
from an infected
individual to others, with the transmission of computer viruses by emails that act as
vectors.
Stretch: Challenge students to design their own models of disease spread using
themselves as the vectors.
Equipment
Optional: Glo Germ kit, red card

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB5e Spreading pathogens in the Student
Book and assess
whether students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident students
should use the
‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to
the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Questions 1–6 on Worksheet SB5e.2 provide scaffolding for question S1 in the Student
Book.
Ask students to work in pairs to arrange the cards on the worksheet and discuss their
arrangements. They should
identify the italic cards as methods of transmission and non-italic words as examples of
communicable diseases or
the pathogens that cause them. They should be able to suggest links between some
diseases and more than one
method of transmission, particularly those that enter the body through oral
transmission (food and drink).
Alternatively, or in addition, ask students to work together to build up a large table on
the board using examples
of other communicable diseases that they know, and to link them correctly to their
method of transmission
(e.g. childhood diseases or diseases that they have been vaccinated against).

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. They should
consider why the Ebola
epidemic was particularly challenging to control (high rate of infectivity from contact
with any body fluids). Then ask
pairs to join into fours to discuss and compare their responses and to identify how they
could improve them.
Alternatively, tell students that an outbreak of a newly identified infectious disease has
been recorded in one
town in Europe. Ask them to write down the questions that scientists need to
investigate quickly in order to
work out control measures to prevent the spread of the disease. They should bear in
mind the responses of
people whose movement may need to be controlled, and how to help those people
understand why they need
to change their behaviour.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB5e Spreading pathogens
in the Student Book.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB5e.3 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Check that students understand the questions before asking them to complete
the worksheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB5e.4 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question at the end of the
worksheet. If students have
not completed work on the evolution of bacterial resistance in SB4, then discuss this
question as a group
before they attempt to answer it.

SB5f Virus life cycles

The lifecycle of a virus
Objectives
B5.7B Describe the lifecycle of a virus, including lysogenic and lytic pathways.
B5.19B Calculate cross-sectional areas of bacterial cultures and clear agar jelly using
πr2.

Maths requirements
1a Recognise and use expressions in decimal form.
Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as
a whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet
and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a baseline with which to
measure their own learning
during the lesson.

Starters
1. What is a virus?
Ask students to work together in pairs or small groups to jot down what they already
know about viruses. They
should then select the two most important points from their list. Take examples of
selected points from different
groups to discuss with the class to identify what students already know about viruses.
Note any confusions in
understanding to sort out during the study of this topic.

Exploring Tasks
1. Modelling the pathways in a virus life cycle
Show students a box containing an instruction manual and a few other bits and pieces
such as ruler, pencil or
empty workbook (which are distracters). Give students a few minutes to work in groups
to plan how they would
use some or all of the materials to model the structure of a virus. Take examples from
around the class of what
was used and what it represents, for comparison in discussion.
It could be useful to have a 3D model or a selection of 3D (or cut-away) images from the
Internet of different
viruses, to compare with a 3D model of a plant or animal cell. Alternatively, provide
additional junk modelling
materials so that students can construct a model of an animal cell as well as a virus. This
can help students to
draw comparisons between living cells and viruses.
Then ask students to plan how they could use their virus model to describe the lytic
pathway of a virus. When
they have had time to do this, present the following simple model.
• A box contains a set of blueprints which consists of one set of instructions to copy the
blueprints and a
second set which are instructions for making the box.
• The box arrives at a factory and enters the door.
• Inside the factory, the instructions for copying the blueprints go to one department,
which produces many
copies. The instructions for making the box go to a second department where many
boxes are made.
• Each new box is then filled with a copy of the blueprints and the boxes leave the
factory.
Ask students to work in groups to compare their model with the one you have
presented, to identify strengths
and weaknesses in both models, and to identify how they could improve their model.
Students could then
present their models to the class for comparison and evaluation.
Ask students to then note how the models of the lytic pathway would need to be
changed to represent the
lysogenic pathway.

Support: Work with students as they discuss models, making sure that they focus on the
key points of each
pathway that they need to represent.
Stretch: Tell students that scientists estimate that over 50% of human DNA is of viral
origin, some of which
entered the DNA of our ancestors millions of years ago. Ask students to use their models
to help explain where
this viral DNA has come from and how it was passed from generation to generation.
Equipment
junk modelling material: box, instruction manual, other bits and pieces (e.g. ruler,
pencil, empty workbook)
Optional: junk modelling material (e.g. boxes, objects of varying size to represent sub-
cellular structures),
3D model or a selection of 3D (or cut-away) images from the Internet of different
viruses, 3D model of a plant
and/or animal cell

2. Viral plaques
Worksheet SB5f.1 provides students with the opportunity to measure plaque diameters
in diagrams, and to use
these to calculate the cross-sectional areas. Students then make a judgement about
which virus has the fastest
life cycle. As the circles on the plates shown on the sheet do not have their centre point
marked, it can be
difficult to identify the diameter accurately. Suggest that students measure several
times and take the largest
value.
Support: Check that students can measure diameters of circles accurately, and work
with them to calculate the
radius and then the area.
Stretch: Ask students to predict what a bacterial plate would look like several days after
infection with a virus
that enters the lysogenic pathway, and to explain their reasoning.
Equipment
calculator

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB5f Virus life cycles
Work through the Student Book pages, answering questions up to the checkpoint.
Point out to students that, although the term ‘life cycle’ is used to describe the cycle of
development of viruses,
most people do not consider viruses to be alive because they do not show the life
processes that cells do.
The ALDS interactive SB5f Virus life cycles shows a diagram of the lytic and lysogenic
pathways of a virus life
cycle with hotspots that provide more details on different stages of the cycle.
Support: Work with students to answer the questions in the Student Book.
Stretch: Challenge students to find out about the structures of two different viruses and
compare the
similarities and differences in the structures.

2. Viral control [H]

Revise work on transcription and translation in topic SB3d Protein synthesis by asking
students to work in pairs
or small groups to produce a short bullet point list of what happens in each stage. Take
examples of points for
each stage, and collate a master set on the board for students to refer to.
Then ask students to apply their knowledge of transcription and translation to what
they have learnt about the
two pathways of a virus life cycle. They should identify which process takes place (if
either) during each
pathway, and should explain their reasoning. They should realise that transcription and
translation take place in
the lytic pathway, but neither process occurs during the lysogenic pathway.
Avoid going into too much detail in the comparison of viral genetic material and mRNA.
There is great variation
in the genetic material of different groups of viruses.
Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB5f Virus life cycles in the Student Book
and assess whether
students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident students should use
the ‘Strengthen’
activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move onto the ‘Extend’
activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs or small groups to answer question S1 in the Student
Book and/or the questions
on Worksheet SB5f.2. Questions 1–3 on the sheet provide a card sort to provide
scaffolding for answering
question S1. The remaining questions on the worksheet cover other objectives for this
topic. After completing
the card layout students could compare their layouts and answers with diagram C in the
Student Book, to help
identify any improvements they can make to their work. Some students may require
access to a calculator for
the last question.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to write three quick questions on the lytic
pathway and another two
questions on the lysogenic pathway, together with a mark scheme. Students should
work in pairs to test out
their questions, and then discuss improvements to the questions and/or mark schemes.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. They should
compare their answer
with another pair and discuss any differences.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB5f Virus life cycles in the
Student Book.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB5f.3 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic. Cut off the
bottom of the sheet along the dotted line for most students (who should be able to
remember the equation for
calculating the area of a circle).
Support: Check that students understand the questions before completing the sheet.
Leave the equation on
the bottom of the sheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB5f.4 is suitable for homework and contains some more challenging
questions about this topic.
Stretch: Students complete the Extra challenge questions at the end of the sheet.

SB5g Plant defences

How plants defend themselves from pests and pathogens
Objectives
B5.9B Describe how some plants defend themselves against attack from pests and
pathogens by
physical barriers, including the leaf cuticle and cell wall.
B5.10B Describe how plants defend themselves against attack from pests and pathogens
by producing
chemicals, some of which can be used to treat human diseases or relieve symptoms.
B5.17B Explain the aseptic techniques used in culturing microorganisms in the
laboratory, including the
use of an autoclave to prepare sterile growth medium and Petri dishes, the use of sterile
inoculating loops to transfer microorganisms and the need to keep Petri dishes and
culture vials
covered.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet
and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a baseline with which to
measure their own learning
during the lesson.
Starters
1. Attack on plants
Students should work in small groups to come up with examples of how plants may be
attacked by pests and
pathogens. If needed, remind them of work on chalara and ash trees earlier. Reference
to feeding relationships
and food chains should also raise the idea of herbivores. Then ask what plants could do
to protect themselves
from pests that eat parts of the plant, or pathogens that infect/get inside them. This
parallels ways in which the
human body is protected against disease (which will be looked at in topic SB5i), but
students may already know
some ways. For example:
• the formation of blood clots/scabs to prevent infection when the skin is damaged
parallels the sticky
sap oozed by conifer trees if their bark is pierced
• the direct attack on pathogens by the immune system in humans parallels some of the
substances
plants make to attack pathogens that infect them.

Exploring Tasks
1. Antimicrobial properties of plants
Before beginning the practical, explain to students that many plants contain substances
that help protect them
against attack by microorganisms. Some of these have been developed into medicines to
help treat human
diseases. Also make sure that students understand that a clear area around a disc
indicates where bacteria
have been killed. Worksheet SB5g.1 supports the practical and can be used in different
ways. Most students
should need only sheet 1, including the questions at the bottom of the sheet. Check that
students remember
how to calculate the area of a circle for question 2.
Bacterial lawn plates and plant extracts need to be prepared before the lesson. Suitable
extracts include: chilli
powder, cinnamon, cloves, fennel, garlic, paprika, pepper, thyme. To make an extract,
grind together 3 g of
crushed or ground plant material with 10 cm3 ethanol (IDA) and shake vigorously for 10
minutes. Give each
group two of the plant extracts to use. Results for all extracts will need to be compared
across the class.
After the first lesson, the plates should be incubated at 20–25 °C for two to three days. If
the second lesson is
later than this, further growth can be slowed by refrigerating the plates.
Before recording results, discuss with students which method to use. Measurement of
the diameter of the clear
area can be done using a ruler or measuring against millimetre graph paper. For faster
recording, or with a less
able group, colonies could be drawn or photographed rather than measured.
Safety
Check before the practical to identify allergies in students to any of the plant extracts
used. Warn students
not to rub their eyes after touching plant extracts. Make sure students wash their hands
thoroughly before
leaving the laboratory.
Ethanol (IDA) is hazardous, harmful and highly flammable.
Plates must be taped closed as shown in the worksheet, to allow air in and discourage
the growth of
pathogenic bacteria. Never incubate plates at above 25 °C, as this encourages growth of
pathogenic bacteria. Seal plates completely with extra tape before returning them to
students for the second part of
the practical.
Autoclave all equipment before and after use with microorganisms.
Support: Students should work in pairs or small groups to discuss their answers before
completing them on
sheet 2 of the worksheet. Cut off the questions at the bottom of sheet 1 before giving the
sheet to students.
Stretch: Students should be able to plan their own experiment and complete their own
write-up without using
the worksheet. Challenge them to test the effect of different plant extracts on bacteria,
alth ough you may need
to explain how to use the agar plates and assess the risks before they begin planning.
Expected results: All the suggested plant extracts should show some antibacterial
effect, although this may
vary depending on how fresh the plant material is and the ability of students to follow
the instructions.
Equipment
per group: one lidded Petri dish of agar inoculated with bacteria just before the lesson
(e.g. Bacillus subtilis,
Micrococcus luteus), two named plant extracts, small discs of filter paper, sticky tape,
marker pen, sterile
forceps, ethanol (IDA), incubator

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB5g Plant defences
Work through the Student Book pages, answering questions up to the checkpoint.
Work on human barriers against infection in topic SB5i Physical and chemical barriers
has strong links to plant
barriers to infection covered in this topic. It could be useful to make comparisons, to
help strengthen learning,
although this might be better done when covering topic SB5i Physical and chemical
barriers.
If herbal remedies are discussed, you may need to distinguish between these (made
from plant extracts) and
homeopathic remedies (which contain very little active ingredient and are claimed to
work using ‘homeopathic
principles’). These remedies are often confused.
Students will be expected to use aseptic techniques in any work that involves
microorganisms, including in
topic SB5k Antibiotics when they do the core practical.
Support: Work with students to answer the questions.
Stretch: Tell students that plant communication, such as in the example of the wild
potato response to aphid
attack, which alerts nearby plants, is an important area of research at the moment. Ask
them to consider how
plants may be able to communicate with one another (e.g. through the air or the soil),
and how researchers
could set up experiments to identify which method of communication the plants are
using.

2. Plant defence examples

The ALDS presentation SB5g Plant defences contains a set of slides, in which each slide
presents an example
of how plants protect themselves. Some examples are of physical barriers and some are
of chemical defences.
As you present each slide, ask students to identify which group each example belongs
to, and to explain how
the example helps to protect the plant. This may be better done in small groups, to
encourage discussion.
Support: Work with the students for the first two or three examples, then encourage
them to try others without
your support.
Stretch: Students should research another example and produce a further slide for this
presentation.

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB5g Plant defences in the Student Book
and assess whether
students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident students should use
the ‘Strengthen’
activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move onto the ‘Extend’
activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs or small groups to answer question S1 in the Student
Book and/or the questions
on Worksheet SB5g.2. Question 1 on the sheet supports students in answering question
S1 in the Student
Book. Students should work in pairs or small groups to discuss the answers. Students
may need reminding
from their earlier work that chalara dieback is caused by a fungal pathogen of ash trees.
The remaining
questions on the sheet cover other objectives for this lesson.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to make bullet point notes for the lesson
using the information in
the Student Book. Each point should contain only one main fact. They should produce at
least four points, but
no more than six, and compare them with a partner to identify any weaknesses in
understanding. They should
then select the best four points from both lists to summarise the lesson as effectively as
possible.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Students
should start with
considering the effect of lack of water or nutrients on the growth of plants. Check
responses at this point and
extend any simple answer, such as ‘won’t grow well’, by asking students to consider in
more detail how this
lack will affect the growth of tissues, cells and their structures. Only provide hints as
needed to lead students on
to identifying that lack of sugars from photosynthesis (which needs water), or nutrients
from soil, means fewer
building blocks for new plant material and so thinner cell walls, etc.
Students should compare their answer with another pair and identify any similarities
and differences in the
description. They should discuss any differences in order to improve their answer.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB5g Plant defences in the
Student Book.
Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB5g.3 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Check that students understand the questions before completing the sheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB5g.4 is suitable for homework and contains some more challenging
questions about this topic.
Note that question 2 refers to resistance, which links back to work in topic SB4b
Darwin’s theory on the
development of antibiotic resistance. Check that students remember what they learnt
there before they attempt
the worksheet.
Stretch: Students complete the Extra challenge question at the end of the sheet.

SB5h Plant diseases

How plant diseases can be identified
Objectives
B5.11B H Describe different ways plant diseases can be detected and identified, in the
lab and in the field,
including the elimination of possible environmental causes, distribution analysis of
affected plants,
observation of visible symptoms and diagnostic testing to identify pathogens.
Maths requirements
2d Understand the principles of sampling as applied to scientific data.
4c Plot two variables from experimental or other data.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet
and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a baseline with which to
measure their own learning
during the lesson.

Starters
2. Garden support
Show students a range of images of products that can be bought in garden centres to
help look after plants.
These should include those used to treat or prevent attack by pests or pathogens, as
well as those that affect
environmental conditions, such as fertilisers and water-retaining granules. Give
students a few minutes to
discuss how each product can help plants to grow better, then take examples from
around the class to share.
Reinforce the idea that plants are damaged both by challenging environmental
conditions as well as by pests
and pathogens, and that all these factors must be controlled if a crop plant is to produce
a large yield.
Equipment
a range of products (or images of them) that can be bought in garden centres for garden
plants, such as
pesticides, mould/fungal infection spray, fertilisers, water-retaining granules,
protective fleece

Exploring Tasks
1. Distribution analysis
Worksheet SB5h.1 provides a practical activity on distribution analysis and how it can
help to identify the cause
of problems in crop plants. Grids are best completed in pencil (e.g. HB or softer), so that
they can be adjusted
during discussion. When discussion and amendment of grids has been completed,
students should then
answer the questions. If needed, discuss potential answers for questions 2 and 3 before
students attempt
them, to remind them of the tests available for different problems and how the different
problems may be
treated.
Support: Work with students to complete the first example. They should attempt
further examples on their own
or in pairs. Then work as a group to answer the questions through discussion.
Stretch: Challenge students to suggest how often the farmer should check crops for
problems from different
causes. (Repeat observations need time between them, in order to allow for a clear
change in distribution (if
symptoms are the result of a pest or pathogen), but not so much time that the disease
causes significant
damage to more plants.)
Equipment
squared paper

2. Identifying problems of plant growth

Students should prepare an advice leaflet or webpage that shows the symptoms and
causes of growth
problems in one type of vegetable or fruit plant commonly grown by gardeners (e.g.
apples, tomatoes). Images
should be sourced from the Internet, and supported with written descriptions to help
distinguish between
different visible symptoms. (Make students aware that some images from the Internet
may be under copyright,
so that their source should be fully referenced if used.) Advice should then be given on
distinguishing between
different causes for similar symptoms (e.g. yellow spots due to pathogen infection or
from chemical damage;
yellowing leaves due to overwatering or mineral ion deficiency). There may be a large
number of potential
symptoms for a plant, so students should restrict their descriptions to the four most
common symptoms on one
particular part of the plant (e.g. leaves).
Allow time for students to ‘proof read’ another student’s work, identifying two good
points and one weaker point
for improvement.
Support: Students should work in pairs and focus on distinguishing between the
possible causes of one
particular leaf problem (e.g. leaf spots, leaf yellowing, leaf curl).
Stretch: Challenge students to identify the best treatment for each cause.
Equipment
access to the Internet

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB5h Plant diseases
Work through the Student Book pages, answering questions up to the checkpoint.
Where appropriate, make links to other areas of learning, such as the need for mineral
ions by plants for
healthy growth, the use of fertilisers to improve crop yield, and the difference between
pests and pathogens.
Link also to the use of aseptic techniques earlier in topic SB5g Plant defences when
discussing the tests that
can be done in the lab for diagnosis.
The ALDS presentation SB5h Identifying plant diseases contains a set of slides showing
examples of a crop
problem and describing the possible causes. Students are asked to consider how
distribution analysis and
other tests could help to identify the real cause of the symptoms.
Support: Work with students to answer the questions.
Stretch: Challenge students to research a list of mineral ions that plants need and the
symptoms caused by
their deficiency. They should present their work as a table.

2. Plant knowledge
Invite a member of the school’s grounds staff, or someone locally who works with plants
(e.g. from a garden
centre, arboretum or park), to talk about how they monitor for different diseases and
what they do if they find a
disease. Students should write questions beforehand, which could be identified using a
KWL exercise. Skills
Sheets TS5 and TS6 can support this. After the talk, students should identify what they
have learnt from the
answers. This could be extended with a site visit and tour by the grounds staff.
Support: Work as a group to select useful questions before the talk, and to discuss the
answers after the talk
to identify what has been learnt.
Stretch: Students should evaluate the answers they have been given to decide where
visible symptoms were
sufficient and where further tests were needed to identify the cause of a problem. They
should also consider
how the solution to the problem was appropriate.

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB5g Plant diseases in the Student Book
and assess whether
students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident students should use
the ‘Strengthen’
activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move onto the ‘Extend’
activity.
2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs or small groups to answer question S1 in the Student
Book and/or the questions
on Worksheet SB5h.2. Questions 1–4 on the worksheet support question S1 in the
Student Book. Other
questions cover other objectives.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to summarise the information in the
Student Book into a flowchart
showing in which order the different stages of identification should be carried out and
what should be supplied
at each stage in order to support identification as quickly as possible.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. They should
identify the stages of
analysis in which identification is made, and challenge each other to make sure enough
information is available
from the analysis to make sure that no alternative causes are possible. They could use
what they have
discussed to write a bullet point list of guidance for farmers on how pests or pathogens
in their crops can be
identified as quickly and accurately as possible.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB5h Plant diseases in the
Student Book.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB5h.3 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Check that students understand the questions before completing the sheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB5h.4 is suitable for homework and contains some more challenging
questions about this topic.
Stretch: Students complete the Extra challenge question at the end of the sheet.

SB5i Physical and chemical barriers

How the body is protected against infection
Objectives
B5.8 Explain how sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are spread and how this spread
can be reduced
or prevented, including:
a Chlamydia (bacteria)
b HIV (virus).
B5.12 Describe how the physical barriers and chemical defences of the human body
provide protection
from pathogens, including:
a physical barriers including mucus, cilia and skin
b chemical defence including lysozymes and hydrochloric acid.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet
and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their own baseline with which
to measure their own
learning during the lesson.

Starters
2. Killing bacteria
About a week before the lesson, prepare a bacterial lawn plate using an agar plate and
bacterial culture such as
Micrococcus. Immediately place an antibiotic disc on the bacteria, tape the base of the
dish to the top without
sealing it completely (see Worksheet SB5i.1 for guidance), and keep the dish warm (at
20–25 °C) for the week.
Safety
Wash hands thoroughly after working with microorganisms. Autoclave equipment
before and after use with
microorganisms.
Seal the dish completely with extra tape before showing it to students. Explain how you
prepared it. Do not use
the term antibiotic, but instead say that the paper disc was impregnated with an
unknown substance. Ask
students to describe the effect the unknown substance has had on the bacteria, and to
suggest why it has had
this effect. They should identify the clear area around the disc as the area where
bacteria have been killed, and
that the substance was soluble and spread out from the disc into the agar.
Equipment
nutrient agar plate inoculated with bacterial lawn, sticky tape, disc impregnated with
antibiotic (e.g. penicillin
or streptomycin), autoclave

Exploring Tasks
1. Lysozyme and bacteria
Worksheet SB5i.1 provides instructions for an investigation into the effect of lysozyme
on bacteria. Bacterial
lawn plates and lysozyme dilutions will need to be prepared before the lesson. A
suitable range of dilutions is
from 0 (pure water) to 2000 mg/dm3 lysozyme. (The concentration of lysozyme in
tears is about 1500 mg/dm3.)
Three dilutions are suggested on the worksheet, but additional dilutions could be used,
with each group using
three from the range. Results for all dilutions could then be shared across the class.
Alternatively egg white can
be used as it contains lysozyme. Use the freshest eggs possible as lysozyme effectiveness
decreases rapidly
with age of egg and results may be variable.
After the first lesson, the plates should be incubated at 20–25 °C for two or three days. If
the second lesson is
later than this, further growth can be slowed by refrigerating the plates. Make sure
students understand that a
clear area around a disc indicates where bacteria have been killed.
Support: Students should work in pairs or small groups to discuss their answers before
completing them on
the worksheet. Before they attempt question 2, take a photo of one plate to display on
the board, and work with
students to identify what they should measure.
Stretch: Students should record and analyse their results, and draw conclusions,
without the use of sheet 2 of
Worksheet SB5i.1. They could also research how lysozyme attacks bacteria.
Safety
Make sure students wash hands thoroughly before leaving the laboratory. Seal Petri
dishes completely with
extra tape before returning them to students for the second part of the practical.
Ethanol (IDA) is hazardous, harmful and highly flammable. During incubation, plates
must be taped closed
as shown in the worksheet, to allow air in and discourage the growth of pathogenic
bacteria. Never incubate
plates at above 25 °C, as this encourages growth of pathogenic bacteria.
Autoclave all equipment before and after use with microorganisms.
Expected results
The more dilute the lysozyme the smaller the diameter of clear area around the disc. If
using egg white, the
results can vary quite widely, as they will depend on the initial concentration of
lysozyme in the egg white.
There should be no clear area around the 0 (control disc) as it contains no lysozyme.
Equipment
per group: one Petri dish with lid of agar inoculated with bacteria just before the lesson
(use a Gram-positive
species such as Micrococcus luteus or Bacillus subtilis), lysozyme in three different
dilutions (either 0, 1000
and 2000 mg/dm3, or three from a selection of concentrations between 0 and 2000
mg/dm3 shared across
the class), small discs of filter paper, sticky tape, marker pen, sterile forceps, ethanol
(IDA), incubator

2. Smoking and cilia

Worksheet SB5i.2 contains a set of statements and diagrams for sorting. In the correct
order, the statements
describe how smoking tobacco leads to lung infections as a result of damage to cilia in
the breathing system.
After sorting the statements and diagrams, further diagrams could be added to form a
storyboard for an
animation, or additional notes could be added to explain the effect more thoroughly.
Support: Work with students to help them sort the statements correctly.
Stretch: Students could use the sorted statements to write a three-mark question with a
mark scheme on the
importance of cilia and mucus in protecting the lungs from infection. Each student could
test their question on a
partner, to identify one weakness and one strength of the question. Allow a little time
for correction to improve
the question and answer.
Equipment
scissors, glue stick

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB5i Physical and chemical barriers
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
Some students may question why, although extreme acidity of the stomach is a chemical
defence against
infection, pathogens such as cholera can get through to infect the intestines. Explain that
infection is only
successful if huge numbers of Vibrio cholerae (e.g. 1 billion) are ingested at the same
time, increasing the
chance of a few getting through the stomach without damage.
Link work on lysozyme back to work on enzymes and bacterial structure by asking
students what these enzymes
might do to pathogens (bacteria). Students should remember that many enzymes
catalyse the breakdown of
substances, so lysozymes might break down substances in the bacterial cell wall. Some
students may also make
the link with osmosis by realising that if the cell wall weakens, water can continue to
diffuse into the bacterial cell.
The swelling of the bacterial cytoplasm may then lead to rupturing of the cell wall
(similar to the rupturing of animal
cells in solutions that are more dilute than their cytoplasm) and death of the bacterial
cell.
A link can also be made between the physical barriers and chemical defences in humans
and in plants (SB5g
Plant defences).
The ALDS presentation SB5i Chlamydia and HIV provides information and questions on
these sexually
transmitted infections (STIs), covering their causes and how their spread can be
reduced or prevented. (See
also Explaining Tasks 2.)
Support: Work with students to complete the answers to the questions.
Stretch: Challenge students to explain the link between the number of people diagnosed
with Chlamydia each
year and the number of people screened. They should consider the possible impact of
this link on the way
media headlines can present limited data to give a biased message, such as ‘Chlamydia
infections show that
sex in young adults is on the increase.’

2. STI presentation
The ALDS presentation Chlamydia and HIV provides information about the diseases
caused by these
pathogens. Before watching the presentation, students could carry out a Know – Want
to know – Learned
(KWL) activity using Skills Sheets TS5 and TS6. This should help them identify what
they already know and
what questions they would like to answer from the presentation. Write the learning
objectives on the board so
that questions are suitably focused. After watching the presentation, students should
identify what they have
learned.
Support: Work with students to identify what they already know, and which questions
they need answers for.
Stretch: Students should use what they have learned to produce a health poster,
suitable for the school,
explaining the risks of STIs and how STIs can be prevented.

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB5i Physical and chemical barriers in the
Student Book and
assess whether students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident
students should use the
‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to
the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Question 1 on Worksheet SB5i.3 provides scaffolding for question S1 in the Student
Book. The remaining
questions reinforce other key ideas in this topic.
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss the answers to the questions. For students who
need additional
support, leave the answers on the bottom of the sheet; these can be cut off and arranged
beside the diagram to
help identify the correct answers. Students should then complete the worksheet on
their own.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to draw an outline of the human body and
use it to label all the
physical barriers and chemical defences against infection.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Challenge
students to come up with
as many valid reasons as possible. Then ask pairs to join into fours to discuss and
compare their responses
and to identify how they could improve them.
Alternatively, ask students which methods they think would be the most effective in
preventing the spread of
Chlamydia and HIV in different groups of people, and to explain their choices.
4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB5i Physical and chemical
barriers in the
Student Book.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB5i.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Check that students understand the questions before asking them to complete
the worksheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB5i.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic. A
calculator will be needed to complete question 8.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question at the end of the
worksheet.

SB5j The immune system

About the immune system
Objectives
B5.13 Explain the role of the specific immune system of the human body in defence
against disease,
including:
a exposure to pathogen
b the antigens trigger an immune response which causes the production of antibodies
c the antigens also trigger production of memory lymphocytes
d the role of memory lymphocytes in the secondary response to the antigen.
B5.14 Explain the body’s response to immunisation using an inactive form of a
pathogen.
B5.15B Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of immunisation, including the
concept of herd immunity.
Maths requirements
2c Construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and histograms.
4a Translate information between graphical and numeric form.
Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Map
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet
and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their own baseline with which
to measure their own
learning during the lesson.

Starters
2. Recovering from infection
Ask students to think about the last time they had an infection such as a cold or flu.
Students should then work
in pairs or small groups to jot down what they remember about why they caught the
infection, and what
happened during the infection, and to suggest why it went away. This will give them a
chance to revise the
method of infection, such as transmission through the air. Ask students to consider why
signs and symptoms
do not develop immediately after infection. If needed, prompt with the idea that only a
few pathogens may enter
the body, but that conditions inside the body are good for rapid replication. Lead to the
answer that it is only
when large numbers of pathogens cause harm or changes in the body that we become
aware of illness.
Students may have some ideas about the immune system and how it responds to
infection. Do not worry about
misunderstandings at this stage, but bear them in mind for correction during the lesson.

Exploring Tasks
1. Measles vaccination and infection rates
Introduce this activity by describing measles as follows. Measles is a communicable
disease caused by a virus.
It is highly infectious: over 90 per cent of people who have not had the disease will
become infected if they are
in contact with someone with measles. Most people who are infected suffer a high
temperature, red eyes,
sensitivity to light and a rash that spreads across the body, but will make a full recovery.
About 8 per cent of
infected people become very ill, suffering fits, infection of the brain or even death.
Globally, measles is still a
major killer of unvaccinated young children.
Then give students Worksheet SB5j.1, which looks at the impact of vaccination rate on
the rate of measles
infection in England and Wales, including the impact of the MMR vaccine scare.
The actual numbers of measles cases in the UK from 1996 to 2013 were:
Year ’96 ’97 ’

Cases 112 177 5

Students could compare these with their predictions for question 6 on the worksheet.
Tell students that, for
measles, herd immunity is only achieved after 90–95% of the population has been
vaccinated. Discuss with
students what this means and how the highly infectious nature of measles means the
herd immunity value is high.

Support: Work with students to make sure they understand the questions. Ask them to
work in pairs or small
groups to consider their answers. Skills sheet PD5 could support students in
interpreting the graphs on the
worksheet.

Stretch: Having given students the actual numbers of cases, ask them to suggest what
could be done to
reduce the number of cases to levels seen in the 1990s. Answers should suggest
increased education of
parents about the safety and importance of vaccinating children against the disease.

2. Immune response
Worksheet SB5j.2 provides students with the opportunity to draw their own diagrams
to describe the stages of
the immune response to a first infection by a pathogen. Once students have completed
their diagrams, they
should exchange their worksheets with a partner. They should add comments to show
one good point and one
weak point, before returning the worksheet. Allow time for corrections to be made.
Support: Students could use diagram B on SB5j The immune system in the Student Book
to help them
complete their drawings.
Stretch: Students should add annotations to their drawings to indicate when the
infected person would feel ill,
and when they would start to feel better again.

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB5j The immune system
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
With more able students, explain that the description of the immune system response in
the Student Book is
highly simplified. There are different types of lymphocyte (B and T cells) that respond
differently to pathogens.
This will be covered in more detail at A level. You could also distinguish between the
innate immune response,
which comprises general responses to infection, including inflammation when you cut
yourself, and the specific,
or adaptive, immune response, which changes as a result of infection by a particular
pathogen.
Note that, in most cases, immunity to one pathogen does not confer immunity to others.
However, a few
pathogens have similar antigens, including cowpox and smallpox, which explains why
Edward Jenner was able
to develop the first vaccine, against smallpox, using pus from someone infected with
cowpox.
You could explain to students that newborn babies have some immunity to infection
from antibodies that they
received from their mothers via the placenta. Breastfed babies continue to receive some
antibodies in breast
milk for the first few months, although the amount of antibodies decreases in breast
milk as the baby gets older.
This gives young babies what is called passive immunity and helps provide protection
against some infections
as their own immune system develops.
The ALDS animation SB5j The immune response shows what happens in the body during
a primary and
secondary immune response. In addition, the animation looks at the body’s response to
vaccination.
There are several animations of how herd immunity works, particularly in relation to
the spread of measles
infection (use search terms such as ‘measles vaccination rate recover’, ‘herd immunity
measles’). Check for the
best animation to use, as some are more complex or less well explained than others.
If no suitable animation is available, draw the following simple diagram on the board,
and discuss the
implications of there being different proportions of vaccinated people in the
community.
Support: Work with students to complete the answers to the questions.

Stretch: Challenge students to explain why we can get repeated infections of colds or
flu. Give them the hint
‘mutation’ and explain that some of the antigens on the outside of pathogens are
proteins. If needed, remind
them of the effect of mutation on the shape of proteins. They should be able to suggest
that the antigen
proteins on pathogens such as colds and flu mutate quite rapidly, so they no longer
match the shape of the
antibodies on the memory lymphocytes, and so avoid a secondary immune response
when they infect again.

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB5j The immune system in the Student
Book and assess
whether students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident students
should use the
‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to
the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Questions 1–3 on Worksheet SB5j.3 provide scaffolding for question S1 in the Student
Book. The remaining
question reinforces other key ideas in this topic.
Ask students to work in pairs to sort the cut-out statements and then compare their
arrangement with that of
another pair. They should discuss any differences and try to agree the best
arrangement.
As an alternative or extension, students should add details to the correct arrangement
of statements to help
describe the process as clearly as possible.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. They should
make one list of
statements relating to the immune system and a second list of comparable statements
that relate to the
process of immunisation. They should identify at least one significant difference in the
two processes. The pairs
should then join into fours to discuss and compare their responses and to identify how
they could improve
them.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to write a simple description of how
immunisation works for a
leaflet that could be given to students waiting for their first secondary school
vaccination.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB5j The immune system in
the Student Book.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB5j.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Check that students understand the questions before asking them to complete
the worksheet.
Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB5j.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic. If
students have not yet completed unit SB4, explain the link between the genetic code,
protein structure and the
effect of mutations (changes in the code) on changing the shape of the protein. A useful
comparison is a car
factory, as used in SB4.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question at the end of the
worksheet.

SB5k Antibiotics
How antibiotics work
Objectives
B5.16 Explain that antibiotics can only be used to treat bacterial infections because they
inhibit cell
processes in the bacterium but not the host organism.
B5.18B Core Practical: Investigate the effects of antiseptics, antibiotics or plant extracts
on microbial
cultures.
B5.20 Describe that the process of developing new medicines, including antibiotics, has
many stages
including discovery, development, preclinical and clinical testing.
Maths requirements
1a Recognise and use expressions in decimal form.
5c Calculate areas of triangles and rectangles, surface areas and volumes of cubes.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet
and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their own baseline with which
to measure their own
learning during the lesson.
Starters
2. Questions on new medicines
Tell students that a new medicine is being developed to help people suffering from a
particular disease. Ask
students to work in pairs or small groups to jot down the questions that need to be
answered during the
development of the medicine, including those about safety and effectiveness. Groups
should then compare
questions and consider which are the most important. Take examples from around the
class to compile on the
board for discussion.

Exploring Tasks
1. Core practical – Investigating the effect of antibiotics
This practical forms part of the core practical requirement of the specification. It is
supported by the information
on SB5k Core practical – Antibiotics in the Student Book.
Full instructions are given on Worksheet SB5k.1. Discs of different concentration of the
same antibiotic could
be used. Alternatively, different antibiotics could be compared. The method can be
adjusted to look at the effect
of different antiseptics or plant extracts if preferred. (Note that the effect of plant
extracts is covered in detail by
the practical work in Exploring Tasks 1 of SB5g Plant defences.)
The method allows students to pour their own agar plates then inoculate them with
bacteria, to develop their
skills in aseptic technique. However, nutrient agar plates could be prepared for students
just before the lesson.
Seal plates in plastic bags if they are not used straight away, to stop the agar drying out.
Show students the
preparation of agar in the autoclave to sterilise it. If students will not be preparing their
own agar plates,
demonstrate the process and discuss the various parts of the process that contribute to
aseptic technique.
If students pour their own plates, after the sterile agar has been melted in bottles in
boiling water, allow it to
cool for 5–10 minutes before placing the bottles in a water bath at 50 °C to keep the
agar molten until students
need it. Warn students that the bottles are warm.
Some parts of the method are very fiddly and may benefit from a little practice
beforehand. Alternatively,
students could work in pairs to pour and inoculate plates. Make sure, though, that they
understand the need for
aseptic techniques and work as effectively as possible.
Students should work on a surface that has been disinfected for at least 10 minutes with
1% VirKon and the
surface should be re-disinfected after the activity. The disinfected surface can be most
easily achieved by
placing an impervious surface (e.g. ceramic tile, piece of plastic, or laminated sheet of A4
paper) into 1%
VirKon in a bowl so that its surface is completely covered. The surface should be left in
place for at least
10 minutes before use and then blotted dry using a paper towel. The impervious surface
should be returned
to the disinfectant after the practical.
After the first lesson, the plates should be incubated upside down at 20–25 °C for two to
three days. If the
second lesson is later than this, further growth can be slowed by refrigerating the
plates. Take plates out of the
fridge at least 30 minutes before the lesson, to allow them to come to room temperature
and for any
condensation to evaporate.
Before students record their results, discuss which method to use. Measurement of the
diameter of the clear
area can be done using a ruler or by measuring against millimetre graph paper. Each
diameter should be
converted to a radius using d = r/2 before using the formula πr2 to calculate the area
where there is no growth
on and around each disc.
Safety
1% VirKon solution should be made up shortly before use in the practical. Wear eye
protection and nitrile
protective gloves when removing impervious surfaces from the tray/bowl of 1%
VirKon. Concentrated VirKon
solutions and the solid are irritant to skin and eyes. 1% VirKon solution is presently not
considered
hazardous.
Ethanol (IDA) is hazardous, harmful and highly flammable.
Check before the practical that no student is taking immunosuppressive medication that
may increase their
risk of infection with bacteria. Warn students not to rub their eyes and to wash any
splashes on skin
immediately with water and soap. Make sure students wash their hands thoroughly
before beginning the
practical and again before leaving the laboratory.
Plates must be taped closed as shown in the worksheet to allow air in and discourage
the growth of
pathogenic bacteria. Never incubate plates above 25 °C, as this encourages growth of
pathogenic bacteria.
Secure the lids with additional tape before giving them to students, leaving a few gaps
so that some oxygen
can still enter and condensation can escape.
Sterilise all equipment before and after use with microorganisms.
Support: Work with students to discuss the answers to the questions. Students may
need support with the
calculations in step 2 of the results on the worksheet. Alternatively they could use a
qualitative method of
recording, such as photography.
Stretch: Remove the numbered questions from the worksheet and ask students to
complete their own write-up.

Expected results
There should be a relationship between increasing concentration of antibiotic and
increasing diameter of clear
area around the disc. Or if comparing types of antibiotics, a comparison of the relative
effectiveness of each
(compared with the control) should be possible.
Equipment
per group: pre-poured agar plate with lid, bacterial culture in screw-top bottle (e.g.
Bacillus subtilis,
Micrococcus luteus), sterile pipette in wrapper, sterile spreader in wrapper, suitable
container (e.g. widenecked
screw-top bottle) of 1% VirKon, two small filter paper discs of different antibiotic
concentration or type
(available pre-prepared from biological suppliers), sterile (e.g. autoclaved in foil) disc of
filter paper (same
diameter as antibiotic discs), sticky tape, marker pen, forceps, ethanol (IDA), Bunsen
burner and heatresistant
mat, ruler
Optional (if students pour their own plates): Petri dish with lid, screw-top bottle of
sterile liquid nutrient agar
kept in water bath at 50 °C (for different antiseptics), small filter paper discs dipped in
different antiseptics
(for plant extracts), see Exploring Tasks 1 SB5g Plant defences

2. Stages of development
Worksheet SB5k.2 provides a card-sorting activity of the stages in developing a new
medicine and the reasons
for each stage. The list of reasons at the bottom of the sheet can be removed before
copying for most students.
Support: Leave the reasons list on the sheet for students. Students should work in pairs
or small groups to
check their arrangements. If needed, they could compare their arrangements with the
detail in the Student
Book before sticking the statements into their workbooks.
Stretch: Students could extend their understanding by considering how clinical trials
are carried out to make
sure that the results are reproducible. Suggest key words such as placebo and blind trial
for search terms.
Students should also consider the importance of the effect of sample size on the
strength of any conclusion
drawn from trial results.
Equipment
scissors, glue stick or sticky tape

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB5k Antibiotics
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
With more able students, you could explain that penicillin works by interfering with the
building of cross-links
between molecules in bacterial cell walls. Water enters the bacterial cell by osmosis,
and this is usually
balanced by the pressure of the strong cell wall. As the cell wall weakens, the cell
membrane ruptures and the
bacterium dies.
The ALDS video SB5k Developing medicines shows the different stages of a clinical trial
and explains how
and why each stage is carried out.
Support: Work with students to complete the answers to the questions.
Stretch: Explain that any new medicine must be licensed before a doctor can prescribe
it. The licence requires
more than completing clinical trials successfully. It requires evidence of value for money
(whether enough
people benefit compared with other available treatments to make any additional cost
worthwhile), as well as
what form the medicine should take, who can use it and how long treatment with the
drug should last.
Challenge students to draw up criteria for assessing whether a new medicine should be
licensed.

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB5k Antibiotics in the Student Book and
assess whether
students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident students should use
the ‘Strengthen’
activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’
activity.
2. Strengthen
Question 3 on Worksheet SB5k.3 provides scaffolding for question S1 in the Student
Book. Questions 1 and 2
reinforce other key ideas in this topic.
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss their answers. Pairs should then compare
answers to identify any
weaknesses or confusion. They should try to agree on the wording of answers before
completing the
worksheet.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to write a three-mark question and mark
scheme on the
development of a new antibiotic for use in humans. They should exchange questions
and mark schemes with a
partner and identify one good point and one weak point. The question and answer
should then be returned for
improvement.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. The pairs
should then join into fours
to discuss and compare their responses and identify how they could improve them.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to prepare a counter-argument to a
magazine article that says that
cutting back on the amount of time that it takes to produce a new medicine would mean
patients could be
helped more quickly and cheaply.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB5k Antibiotics in the
Student Book.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB5k.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic. Cut off the
section below the dotted line for most students.
Support: Check that students understand the questions before asking them to complete
the worksheet. Leave
the statements below the dotted line at the bottom of the sheet to help students
complete some of the answers
in question 3.
Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB5k.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question at the end of the
worksheet.

SB5l Monoclonal antibodies

How new medicines are developed
Objectives
B5.21B H Describe the production of monoclonal antibodies, including:
a use of lymphocytes which produce desired antibodies but do not divide
b production of hybridoma cells
c hybridoma cells produce antibodies as they divide.
B5.22B H Explain the use of monoclonal antibodies, including:
a in pregnancy testing
b in diagnosis including locating the position of blood clots and cancer cells and in
treatment of
diseases including cancer
c the advantages of using monoclonal antibodies to target specific cells compared to
drug and
radiotherapy treatments.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet
and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a baseline with which to
measure their own learning
during the lesson.

Starters
1. Antibodies revision
Students should work in pairs or small groups to revise what they have learnt by
creating a concept map
related to antibodies. When they have at least ten words on their map, and linked the
words appropriately, they
should compare their map with that from another group to check their links and to
identify anything they have
missed. Take examples of key words and how they are linked from around the class and
encourage discussion
on their definitions and linking.

Exploring Tasks
1. Making monoclonal antibodies
Worksheet SB5l.1 provides a cut-and-stick task on how monoclonal antibodies are
formed. Most students
should not need the statements at the bottom of the sheet (which can be removed
before
printing/photocopying). Students cut out the images, arrange them into a layout and
then add labelling to
explain what the diagram shows (including why monoclonal antibodies are made this
way). They could
compare their layout with diagram B in SB5l Monoclonal antibodies in the Student Book
before sticking their
arrangement into their workbook.
Support: Leave the statements on the bottom of the sheet, to help students label their
diagrams. Check that
students have arranged the images into a suitable order before they stick them in their
books.
Stretch: Challenge students to explain why monoclonal antibodies can be used to
identify the presence of
substances such as hormones and enzymes in blood or urine samples.

2. Using monoclonal antibodies

Students carry out research on the use of monoclonal antibodies to diagnose and treat
particular cancers. They
should include the problems of using monoclonal antibodies (such as side effects).
Useful information can be
found on the websites of some cancer research organisations.
Students should work in pairs or small groups to identify the questions that they should
find answers for. They
should then share the questions out so that each student collects information for one
answer. They should
collate their answers into a presentation or short webpage article. Allow time for other
students to review the
work, and to identify two good points and one point that could be improved in each
report.
Support: Work with students to identify the questions that they should research
answers for, such as:
• How are monoclonal antibodies used to diagnose cancers?
• Which kinds of cancer have been treated with monoclonal antibodies?
• How are monoclonal antibodies used to treat cancers?
Suggest appropriate websites to find the information on, such as cancer research
organisations. Skills Sheets
RC2, RC3 and RC4 may help with organising group collection of information, note-taking
and with ways to
present their findings.
Stretch: Challenge students to identify different ways in which monoclonal antibodies
can affect cancer cells,
and therefore explain the different ways in which they can be used to treat cancer.
(Answers include: blocking
molecules produced by cancer cells that switch off an immune response – this means
the body is better able to
attack and destroy cancer cells; blocking signals that tell cancer cells to divide – so a
tumour stops growing and
invading surrounding tissue; carrying drugs or radiation to cancer cells to kill them.)
Equipment
access to the Internet

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB5l Monoclonal antibodies
Work through the Student Book pages, answering questions up to the checkpoint.
Make sure students understand the function of platelets (studied in topic SB8c The
circulatory system) and
their link to disease, including the problem of blood clots in some examples of
cardiovascular disease.
A useful link to unit SB2 Cells and Control can be made on the use of PET scanning to
identify the position of
radiation in the body. Topic SP6j Radioactivity in medicine in the physics course covers
related content.
The ALDS video SB5l Monoclonal antibodies describes the problems of identifying and
treating cancers, and
how the use of monoclonal antibodies can help to overcome some of these problems.
The first part can be
used in Starter 2.
Support: Work with students to answer the questions.
Stretch: Challenge students to compare different ways of treating a certain cancer, using
chemotherapy,
radiotherapy or monoclonal antibody delivery. They should present their findings in a
table showing the pros
and cons of each method.
2. Pregnancy test kit
Demonstrate the use of a pregnancy test kit using a sample of urine, or show students
an appropriate video clip
from the Internet. (If using a video clip, check it is suitable for general viewing before
showing.) Explain that a
negative test will only show one line, while a positive test will show two.
Discuss the following questions with students:
• why the second line in a positive test appears: the line contains monoclonal antibodies
that bind to a
hormone produced in early pregnancy – this binding causes the antibodies to react with
a coloured
indicator to produce the line
• why one line appears in a negative test: this line contains monoclonal antibodies that
bind to a
substance always found in urine – this binding causes the antibodies to react with a
coloured indicator
to produce the line
• why the test includes a line that responds to the substance in urine: this shows that
the test has been
carried out properly, and is the ‘control’ for the test.
Safety
Keep the urine sample in a closed container until use. Dispose of the used stick as
described in the
manufacturer’s instructions. Wash other equipment used during the test, and any
surfaces, thoroughly to
remove all traces of urine.
Support: Show students the test and discuss how it works. Then ask students to work in
groups to plan a short
presentation, of less than a minute, about the test. Ask random groups to give their
presentations and correct
lingering misconceptions as they arise.
Stretch: Students should consider why the test cannot be done any earlier than
indicated in the manufacturer’s
instructions. They should be able to suggest that the concentration of hormone in the
blood increases as the
fertilised egg develops and, before the time limit, there is unlikely to be a high enough
concentration of
hormone passing from the blood into the urine to produce a reaction on the test stick.
Equipment
pregnancy test kit plus urine sample OR suitable video demonstrating the use of a
pregnancy test
Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB5l Monoclonal antibodies in the Student
Book and assess
whether students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident students
should use the
‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move onto
the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs or small groups to answer question S1 in the Student
Book and/or the questions
on Worksheet SB5l.2. Questions 1–3 on the worksheet provide support for question S1.
Students could, for
example, work in pairs or small groups to discuss the answers to questions 1–3 before
completing question S1.
The remaining questions on the worksheet cover other objectives. Ask students to
discuss the answers to
these in their groups before taking sample answers to share with the class. Encourage
discussion to identify
the best answer to each question.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to write out a bullet point list showing how
monoclonal antibodies
for identifying cancer cells would be made and used to diagnose and treat cancer in a
patient.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. They may
need reminding of the
procedure for testing new medicines from topic SB5k Antibiotics to help them complete
their answers. They
should prepare their answers as short bullet point lists. Each pair should exchange their
list with another group,
and identify in the list they have been given where it includes:
• how monoclonal antibodies are made, and why the antibodies are specific to the
enzyme
• how the antibodies are tested on cells or tissues, then animals, then through clinical
trials
• why the antibodies would prevent blood clots.
If any of these points are missing, students should mark the gap in the list, and return
the list to the students
who wrote it so that the gap can be filled.
4. Reflect
Ask students randomly what they think the two marks are for in the exam-style
question at the end of SB5l
Monoclonal antibodies in the Student Book. After discussion, ask students to write
individual answers to the
question.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB5l.3 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Check that students understand the questions before completing the sheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB5l.4 is suitable for homework and contains some more challenging
questions about this topic.
Stretch: Students complete the Extra challenge question at the end of the sheet.

SC9a Masses and empirical

formulae
Calculate relative formula masses of elements and compounds using relative atomic
masses.
Objectives
C1.43 Calculate relative formula mass given relative atomic masses.
C1.44 Calculate the formulae of simple compounds from reacting masses and
understand that these are empirical formulae.
C1.45 Deduce:
a the empirical formula of a compound from the formula of its molecule
b the molecular formula of a compound from its empirical formula and its relative
molecular mass.
C1.46 Describe an experiment to determine the empirical formula of a simple
compound such as magnesium oxide.
Maths requirements
1a Recognise and use expressions in decimal form.
1c Use ratios, fractions and percentages.
2a Use an appropriate number of significant figures.
3c Substitute numerical values into algebraic equations using appropriate units for
physical quantities

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to answer the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their
own baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. Formula quiz
Write five formulae on the board, including some with brackets, e.g. MgCl2, Li2O, CuSO4,
Ca(NO3)2, (NH4)2CO3. Ask students to work out the number of atoms of each element in
each formula and to name the compounds.
For example, for those formulae given above: MgCl2 has 1 Mg and 2 Cl and is magnesium
chloride; Li2O has 2 Li and 1 O and is lithium oxide; CuSO4 has 1 Cu, 1 S and 4 O and is
copper sulfate; Ca(NO3)2 has 1 Ca, 2 N and 6 O and is calcium nitrate; (NH4)2CO3 has 2 N,
8 H, 1 C and 3 O and is ammonium carbonate.

Exploring Tasks
1. Determining the empirical formula for magnesium oxide
A set of instructions for this practical is given on page 1 of Worksheet SC9a.1.
Show the students how to set up the apparatus. Demonstrate how to lift the lid a little to
let air in but not let too much magnesium oxide out. You may need to check that the
magnesium has finished reacting before the students stop heating.
Most students should be able to follow the method on page 1 of the worksheet and then
answer the directed questions at the bottom of the sheet.
Support:
• Students stick the method into their books/file and then answer the directed
questions on results, conclusions, evaluation (which you have after the dashed line at
the bottom of page 1 of the Practical sheet)
• Students stick the method into their books/file and then complete page 2 of the
worksheet – to fill in results, answer more scaffolded questions on results, conclusions,
evaluation. (Consider removing the questions below the method from the first page of
the sheet before printing/photocopying.)

Stretch: Students follow the instructions on the worksheet, write up the experiment in
their own words, design their own results tables, and write a conclusion and evaluation
(with help from Skills Sheets as needed). (Consider removing the questions below the
method from the first page of the sheet before printing/photocopying).
Expected results
The empirical formula of magnesium oxide is MgO. It is unlikely that students will get an
exact ratio of 1:1. They can suggest reasons for the difference. For example, some of the
magnesium oxide escaped when the crucible lid was lifted; the magnesium had not
completely finished reacting; magnesium reacts with nitrogen from the air as well as
oxygen.
Important
Wear eye protection. Tongs should be used to handle the hot crucible.
Equipment (per group): Bunsen burner, crucible and lid, emery paper, heat-resistant
mat, pipeclay triangle, tongs, tripod, about 3 cm length of magnesium ribbon, access to
an electronic balance measuring to at least 2 decimal places

2. Formulae
Students work through Worksheet SC9a.2. The sheet covers:
• calculating relative formula mass
• working out empirical formulae from molecular formulae
• working out the molecular formula from the empirical formula and the relative
formula mass.

They can use Skills Sheet SC5, which is a copy of the periodic table and has all the
relative atomic masses that they need.
Support: Students can work in pairs and use molecular models to help them to deduce
the empirical formula from the molecular formula. Use the presentations SC9a Relative
formula mass and empirical formulae and SC9a Empirical formulae and molecular
formulae with the worked examples.
Stretch: Challenge students to use a data book to look up some more complex molecular
formulae of organic compounds and ask other students to work out the empirical
formulae. Alternatively, students can be asked to write notes to explain the calculations
to a student who has missed the lesson.

Explaining Tasks
2. Explaining formulae
The presentations SC9a Relative formula mass and empirical formulae and SC9a Relative
molecular masses and empirical formulae illustrate the different types of calculations.
Move through the worked example slides one at a time and at the end of each slide ask
the students what they think the next slide should be, then move on to see if they are
correct. There are some examples of each type of calculation for the students to carry
out. The students who find this difficult could be paired up with students who
understand the calculations.

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SC9a Masses and
empirical formulae in the Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident
about answering them. Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity.
Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SC9a.3. The questions on the sheet provide support for
carrying out the experiment and how to calculate the empirical formula from the results
for answering question S1.
Once pairs have completed their answers they should join with another pair to discuss
their responses and refine them. Allow access to the Word Sheet and/or Student Book
glossary so that students can remind themselves of the key words and their meanings.
As an alternative or extension, look at the Progression questions on SC9a Masses and
empirical formulae in the Student Book again, asking students to come up with lists of
bullet points to include for each one. Ask students to work together in small groups to
prepare lists, which can then be shared with the class to build up a definitive list of
points. Students’ bullet lists for the second question could be used as the basis for
answering a long-answer style question, with students making use of Skills Sheet ET4.
When students have completed the questions, check which students have difficulty with
which questions and use the level of problem to identify any areas for revisiting before
moving on to the next topic.

3. Extend
Students work in pairs to answer question E1 in the Student Book.
For full coverage of the learning objectives, students could also answer question S1.
Encourage them to provide a detailed answer, creating a step-by-step set of
instructions, including a diagram of the apparatus needed.
When the pairs have answered the question(s), they should join into fours to discuss
their responses. Hold a short plenary session to check answers.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SC9a Masses and empirical
formulae in the Student Book. Then ask students to get together in pairs and compare
their answers. They should work together to produce an ideal answer that they think
will be worth full marks. Ask random pairs what they think the marks are for and then
go through the answers.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SC9a.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: For students who are in need of more support and who may find this new
concept difficult, Worksheet SC9a.3 could also be used as a homework exercise if it has
not already been used in the Strengthen plenary.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SC9a.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to answer the Extra challenge questions. Then ask students to
calculate an empirical formula from the percentage composition by mass of a compound
and to calculate the percentage composition by mass of a compound from its formula.
There is a cut-off section at the bottom of the worksheet that gives guidance to students
on how to carry out these calculations. This section can be removed before
printing/photocopying the worksheet.

SC9b Conservation of mass

The law of conservation of mass and calculating masses of reactants and products.
Objectives
C1.47 Explain the law of conservation of mass applied to:
a a closed system including a precipitation reaction in a closed flask
b a non-enclosed system including a reaction in an open flask that takes in or gives out a
gas.
C1.48 Calculate masses of reactants and products from balanced equations, given the
mass of one substance.
C1.49 Calculate the concentration of solutions in g dm–3.
Maths requirements
1a Recognise and use expressions in decimal form.
1c Use ratios, fractions and percentages.
2a Use an appropriate number of significant figures.
3b Change the subject of an equation.
3c Substitute numerical values into algebraic equations using appropriate units for
physical quantities.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to answer the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their
own baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
2. Balanced equation revision
Revise formulae and balanced equations. Check that students know how to work out the
number of atoms of each element in a formula, e.g. H2SO4 contains two hydrogen, one
sulfur and four oxygen atoms; Mg(OH)2 contains one magnesium, two hydrogen and two
oxygen atoms.
Ask students to tell you everything the following equation represents:
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
Suggestions may include: magnesium reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide, the
magnesium and magnesium oxide are solids and the oxygen is a gas, two atoms of
magnesium react with one molecule of oxygen to form two units of magnesium oxide,
an oxygen molecule contains two atoms, magnesium oxide contains one magnesium ion
and one oxide ion.
Remind students how to calculate the relative formula mass of a substance, e.g. Mr of
H2SO4 = (2 × Ar(H)) + Ar(S) + )4 × Ar(O)).

Exploring Tasks
1. The decomposition of copper carbonate
A set of instructions for this practical is given on Worksheet SC9b.1.
Most students should be able to follow the method on page 1 of the worksheet and then
answer the directed questions at the bottom of the sheet.
Support: Show the students how to heat the tube safely.
• Students stick the method into their books/file and then complete page 2 of the
worksheet – to fill in results, answer more scaffolded questions on results, conclusions,
evaluation. (Consider removing the questions below the method from the first page of
the sheet before printing/photocopying.)

Stretch: Students follow the instructions on the worksheet, write up the experiment in
their own words, design their own results tables, write a conclusion and evaluation
(with help from Skills Sheets as needed). (Consider removing the questions below the
method from the first page of the sheet before printing/photocopying).For students
who will be taking Chemistry GCSE, you could ask them to calculate the percentage yield
of copper oxide produced.
Percentage yield = (mass of copper oxide produced theoretical mass of copper
oxide) × 100%
Expected results
The expected percentage mass of copper oxide is 64.4% of the mass of copper
carbonate used. Students can be asked why their values are different from this and how
they can improve the experiment. If their value is lower (most likely), they probably did
not heat the tube for long enough. They could improve the experiment by heating the
tube again, cooling and re-weighing and repeating this until two mass measurements
are the same. This technique is called heating to constant mass.
Safety
Wear eye protection. Copper carbonate is harmful – place a plug of mineral wool in the
open end of the test tube before heating.
Equipment (per group): Bunsen burner, heat-resistant mat, mineral wool, borosilicate-
glass test tube, test-tube holders, a few grams of copper carbonate, access to an
electronic balance

2. Calculations with masses

Students work through Worksheet SC9b.2, which covers the use of the law of
conservation of mass, calculating the mass of a reactant or product from a balanced
equation and calculating concentration in g dm–3.
The calculations refer to the maximum mass of product that can be formed. In later
work, this will be referred to as the theoretical yield. In an experiment, the actual yield
of product is less than the theoretical yield for various reasons, including: the reaction
may not go to completion, the reactant may not all be used up, some of the product may
stick to the sides of the beaker/flask/test tube, etc. Students studying GCSE Chemistry
will consider this in more detail in a later topic on quantitative chemistry.
Support: Explain each type of calculation then tell the students which questions to
attempt from the worksheet. Students can work in pairs and help each other. Use the
presentation SC9b Calculating masses of reactants and products, which shows the
worked examples. The presentation is split into worked examples for ‘The law of
conservation of mass’, ‘Calculating masses of reactants and products’ and
‘Concentrations of solutions’.
Stretch: Students can answer the Extra challenge question with more complex
stoichiometry. Alternatively, students can be asked to write notes to explain the
calculations to a student who has missed the lesson.

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SC9b Conservation of mass
Work through the Student Book pages. As you explain each type of calculation, students
can answer the related questions up to the checkpoint.
The calculations involving masses of reactants and products have been presented using
the ‘reacting mass’ method. Other correct working will be equally acceptable in
examination answers. If students are following the Higher Tier course, they will be
learning about the use of molar quantities in SC9c Moles. You may wish to combine the
teaching of SC9b Conservation of mass and SC9c Moles over two lessons and just teach
the use of molar quantities. The terms ‘maximum mass of a product’ and ‘minimum
mass of a reactant’ have been used in questions. You may wish to ask students why the
words maximum and minimum have been included. Maximum is used as, during a
reaction, some of the product is likely to be lost in handling losses, incomplete reaction,
etc., so it is unlikely that the mass calculated from an equation will be collected at the
end of the reaction. Minimum is used as we usually add excess of one of the reactants to
make sure that all of the other reactant is used up.
Support: Divide students into pairs to work through the calculations, with one student
who has understood them helping another who finds them more challenging.
Stretch: Ask students to make up a question using a more complex balanced equation,
e.g. Fe3O4 + 4H2 → 3Fe + 4H2O, and prepare a presentation with the question and a slide
with the working and answer. The more adventurous could even try 3Cu + 8HNO3 →
3Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O.

2. Explaining formulae
The presentation SC9b Calculating masses of reactants and products illustrates the
different types of calculations.
The calculations involving masses of reactants and products have been presented using
the ‘reacting mass’ method. Other correct working will be equally acceptable in
examination answers.

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression Questions in SC9b Conservation of
mass in the Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident about
answering them. Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity. Students
who demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.
2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SC9b.3. The questions on the worksheet provide support and
scaffolding for answering question S1.
Once pairs have completed their answers they should join with another pair to discuss
their responses and refine them. Allow access to the Word Sheet and/or Student Book
glossary so that students can remind themselves of the key words and their meanings.
As an alternative or extension, challenge students to work in pairs to design a question
related to the equation 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO. They should also write the mark scheme.
They can then swap their question with another group and check that their answers
agree.

3. Extend
Students work in pairs to answer question E1 in the Student Book.
For further coverage of the learning objectives, students could also answer question S1
in the Student Book.
When the pairs have answered the question(s), they should join into fours to discuss
their responses. Hold a short plenary session to check answers.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SC9b Conservation of mass
in the Student Book. Then ask students to get together in pairs and compare their
answers. Working together, they should work on an ideal answer that they think will be
worth full marks. Ask random pairs what they think the marks are for and then go
through the answer.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SC9b.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: For students who are in need of more support and who may find this new
concept difficult, Worksheet SC9b.3 could be used as a homework exercise if it has not
already been used in the Strengthen plenary.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SC9b.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to answer the Extra challenge questions at the end, which use a
more complex stoichiometry.
 SC9c Moles
Moles of particles.
Objectives
C1.50 H Recall that one mole of particles of a substance is defined as:
a the Avogadro constant number of particles (6.02 × 1023 atoms, molecules, formulae
or ions) of that substance
b a mass of ‘relative particle mass’ g.
C1.51 H Calculate the number of:
a moles of particles of a substance in a given mass of that substance and vice versa
b particles of a substance in a given number of moles of that substance and vice versa
c particles of a substance in a given mass of that substance and vice versa.
C1.52 H Explain why, in a reaction, the mass of product formed is controlled by the mass
of the reactant which is not in excess.
C1.53 H Deduce the stoichiometry of a reaction from the masses of the reactants and
products.
Maths requirements
1a Recognise and use expressions in decimal form.
1b Recognise and use expressions in standard form.
1c Use ratios, fractions and percentages.
2a Use an appropriate number of significant figures.
3a Understand and use the symbol: =.
3b Change the subject of an equation.
3c Substitute numerical values into algebraic equations using appropriate units for
physical quantities.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to answer the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their
own baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.
Starter
1. How do you count the number of particles in a sample of a substance?
Give simple examples of quantities in everyday life, e.g. dozen, pair, score, gross. When
there are large numbers of small items, people usually find the number of them by
measuring their mass rather than counting, e.g. cashiers in banks check the number of
coins in a bag by finding their mass; 100 1 p coins have a different mass from 100 2 p
coins.
Try to measure the mass of one small item, e.g. a paper clip or a staple, and it will hardly
register on the balance. Now repeat using 20 and there will be a mass. You can find the
average mass of one of them by dividing the total mass by 20. Now find the mass of a
handful of the same item and ask students to estimate how many items there are. This
leads on to the Avogadro constant and moles.
Have small, sealed jars containing 1 mol of particles of different substances, e.g. 18 g of
water, 12 g of carbon, 32 g of sulfur, 56 g of iron. Explain that these each contain the
same number of particles. Ask the students to identify the type of particles in each
substance.
Equipment: small sealed jars containing 1 mol of particles of different substances, e.g.
18 g of water, 12 g of carbon, 32 g of sulfur, 56 g of iron, 58.5 g of sodium chloride,
labelled with the name and mass of the substance

Exploring Tasks
1. The reaction between iron and copper sulfate solution
A set of instructions for this practical is given on Worksheet SC9c.1.
Most students should be able to follow the method on page 1 of the worksheet and then
answer the directed questions at the bottom of the sheet.
Support: Students stick the method into their books/file and then complete page 2 of
the worksheet – to fill in results, answer more scaffolded questions on results,
conclusions, evaluation. (Consider removing the questions below the method from the
first page of the sheet before printing/photocopying.) For weaker students, go through
the first prediction with them, in a step-by-step fashion, and then challenge them to
complete the second prediction on their own.
Stretch: Students follow the instructions on the worksheet, write up the experiment in
their own words, design their own results tables, and write a conclusion and evaluation
(with help from Skills Sheets as needed). (Consider removing the questions below the
method from the first page of the sheet before printing/photocopying).
Expected results
The students should find that the correct balanced equation is:
Fe + CuSO4 → Cu + FeSO4
Safety
Wear eye protection. Propanone is highly flammable – there should be no naked flames
in the laboratory.
Equipment (per group): 100 cm3 beaker, evaporating basin, eye protection, filter funnel
with filter paper to fit, glass rod, 25 cm3 measuring cylinder, spatula, copper sulfate
solution (30 cm3 of approximately 0.5 mol dm–3 solution), distilled water, iron filings (1
g, not rusted), propanone, access to an electronic balance.
Optional: access to a warm oven

2. Moles and equations

Students work through Worksheet SC9c.2, which covers calculations converting masses
into moles and vice versa, calculations involving the Avogadro constant, a calculation
with a limiting reactant and determining a balanced equation from reacting masses.
Support: Explain each type of calculation and then tell the students which questions to
attempt from the worksheet. Students can work in pairs and help each other. Use the
presentation SC9c Moles with the worked examples.
Stretch: Challenge students to write notes to explain the calculations to a student who
has missed the lesson.

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SC9c Moles
Work through the student book pages. As you explain each type of calculation, the
students can answer the related questions up to the Checkpoint.
The presentation SC9c Moles illustrates the different types of calculations. The
calculation to determine the balanced equation has been shown by calculating the
number of moles of each reactant, finding the simplest ratio, then deducing the balanced
equation. Other methods are equally acceptable. For example, in Worked example 2
there is only one product formed so the students could use the masses to find the
empirical formula and then deduce the balanced equation.
Support: Divide the students into pairs to work through the calculations, with one
student who has understood them helping another who finds them more challenging.
Display the formula triangle to help students to rearrange the formula relating mass and
moles.
Stretch: Challenge students to answer a question with a more complex balanced
equation, e.g. 112 g of iron reacts with 106.5 g of chlorine to produce 218.5 g of an iron
chloride. Deduce the balanced equation for the reaction.

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression Questions in SC9c Moles in the
Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident about answering them.
Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate
good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SC9c.3. The questions on the sheet provide support and
scaffolding for answering question S1.
Once pairs have completed their answers they should join with another pair to discuss
their responses and refine them. Allow access to the Word Sheet and/or Student Book
glossary so that students can remind themselves of the key words and their meanings.
As an alternative or extension, challenge students to make a poster comparing the
number of molecules in 1 g each of hydrogen gas, H2, nitrogen gas, N2, oxygen gas, O2,
and carbon dioxide gas, CO2.

3. Extend
Students work in pairs to answer question E1 in the Student Book.
For full coverage of the learning objectives, students could work in pairs and make up a
question related to the equation ZnCO3 + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2O + CO2, including a mark
scheme. They could then swap questions with another pair and check that their answers
agree.
When the pairs have answered the question(s), they should join into fours to discuss
their responses. Hold a short plenary session to check answers.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SC9c Moles in the Student
Book. Then ask students to get together in pairs and compare their answers. Working
together, they should work on an ideal answer that they think will be worth full marks.
Ask random pairs what they think the marks are for and then go through the answer.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SC9c.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: For students who are in need of more support and who may find this new
concept difficult, Worksheet SC9c.3 could be used as a homework exercise if it has not
already been used in the Strengthen plenary.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SC9c.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: The Extra challenge questions involve a limiting reactant and deducing a
balanced equation.

SC10a Electrolysis
Electrolytes and what happens during electrolysis.
Objectives
C3.22 Recall that electrolytes are ionic compounds in the molten state or dissolved in
water.
C3.23 Describe electrolysis as a process in which electrical energy, from a direct current
supply, decomposes electrolytes.
C3.24 Explain the movement of ions during electrolysis, in which:
a positively charged cations migrate to the negatively charged cathode
b negatively charged anions migrate to the positively charged anode.
C3.27 H Write half equations for reactions occurring at the anode and cathode in
electrolysis.
C3.28 H Explain oxidation and reduction in terms of loss or gain of electrons.
C3.29 H Recall that reduction occurs at the cathode and that oxidation occurs at the
anode in electrolysis reactions.
C3.31 Investigate the electrolysis of copper sulfate solution with inert electrodes and
copper electrodes.
Maths requirements
1a Recognise and use expressions in decimal form.
1c Use ratios, fractions and percentages.
4a Translate information between graphical and numeric form.
4b Understand that y = mx + c represents a linear relationship.
4c Plot two variables from experimental or other data.
4d Determine the slope and intercept of a linear graph.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Students should be familiar with ionic bonding before studying this topic.
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet.Alternatively ask students to answer the Progression questions
in the Student Book and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a baseline
with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. Ionic bonding
Revise the formation of ions and ionic bonding from SC5a Ionic bonds. Briefly consider
the ionic bonding in sodium chloride and magnesium oxide. Then summarise the key
points: metals and hydrogen form ions by losing electrons; metals and hydrogen form
positive ions; other non-metals form ions by gaining electrons; other non-metals form
negative ions; the number of charges is equal to the number of electrons gained or lost;
the oppositely charged ions are held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction
in a lattice.
Also revise the main physical properties of ionic compounds: high melting points;
conductors of electricity when molten or dissolved in water but not when solid; many
are soluble in water.

Exploring Tasks
1. Core practical – Electrolysis of copper sulfate solution
This practical forms part of the core practical requirement of the specification. It is
supported by the information on SC10a Core practical – Electrolysis of copper sulfate
solution in the Student Book.
A set of instructions for this practical is given on Worksheet SC10a.1.
There are two parts to the core practical – electrolysis of copper sulfate solution, first
using copper electrodes and second using inert (graphite) electrodes. You may wish to
split this over two or more lessons, depending on the length of your lessons.
Method 1 involves the electrolysis using copper electrodes and is quantitative as
students measure the mass change of the electrodes using different currents. Students
should use fresh copper sulfate solution for this experiment. This does take quite a long
time and you could reduce the time for the practical by giving groups different currents
to use and asking them to pool their results at the end. The copper electrodes can be
dried by dipping the ends in propanone, removing them and shaking until the
propanone evaporates. This should be carried out in a fume cupboard. Alternatively,
students can leave their labelled electrodes to dry until the next lesson, then measure
the electrode masses and carry out the analysis. Students can reuse the same electrodes
provided they rub them with emery paper to remove any loose pieces of copper from
the surface. The copper sulfate solution can be reused from this experiment.
Method 2 involves the electrolysis using inert electrodes and is qualitative as students
observe and explain the formation of copper and oxygen at the electrodes. It is possible
that some of the oxygen will react with the graphite to produce carbon dioxide but, at
the low temperature of the experiment, this is likely to be minimal and can be ignored.
Support: Select the most appropriate support for students from:
• Students stick the methods on pages 1 and 2 of the worksheet into their books/files
and then answer the directed questions on page 2. Students may need to be given
additional information to complete question 2 in method 1. You may need to tell them
what type of graph to draw and how to label the axes.
• Students stick the method into their books/files and then fill in their results on page 3
of the worksheet and answer the scaffolded questions on their results and conclusions.
Students may need to be given additional information to complete question 3 on page 3.
You may need to tell them what type of graph to draw and how to label the axes.

Stretch: Students follow the instructions on pages 1 and 2 of the worksheet, and then
write up the experiment in their own words, by designing their own results tables, and
writing a conclusion and an evaluation (with help from Skills Sheets PD2, PD5, SC1, TR1,
TR4 and UE11 as needed). The directed questions on page 3 of the worksheet should
not be printed/copied, and consider removing some or all of the directed questions on
page 2.
Expected results
Students should obtain a similar pattern in their results to those shown in the table
below.

Current (A)
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5

Safety
Wear eye protection. Propanone is an irritant and highly flammable – there should be
no sources of ignition in the laboratory.
Equipment (per group): eye protection, emery paper, low voltage d.c. supply (0–12 V),
ammeter (0–1 A), variable resistor, connecting leads, crocodile clips, 100 cm3 beaker,
stop clock, two graphite rods, two strips of copper foil about 2 cm wide and long enough
to reach the bottom of the beaker, copper sulfate solution (about 50 cm3, 0.5 mol dm−3),
access to a beaker of propanone, access to a fume cupboard, access to a balance (at least
2 d.p.), graph paper

2. Electrolysis definitions
Students work through Worksheet SC10a.2, which covers all the key words from this
topic with the definitions. Students have to match up each key word with its definition.
Support: Students work in pairs to match the key words with their definitions. They can
then stick the correct combinations in their notes for future reference. Copy/print the
worksheet without the cut-off section.
Stretch: Copy/print the worksheet with the cut-off section, which includes some Higher
Tier-only material on oxidation, reduction and half equations.

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SC10a Electrolysis
Work through the Student Book pages, answering questions up to the Checkpoint.
The presentation SC10b Predicting products of electrolysis can be used here or in SC10b
to predict the products of electrolysis of molten salts and salts in solution. There are
some slides with half equations for students studying Higher Tier.
Support: Divide students into pairs to work through the equations, with one student
who has understood them helping another who finds them more challenging.
Stretch: The interactive SC10a Half equations can be used with Higher Tier students; it
has half equations to balance and classify as oxidation or reduction. Alternatively, give
students some half equations and ask them to balance the equations.

2. Electroplating
Demonstrate electroplating.
If time is available, students can do this experiment using the instructions in Worksheet
SC13c.1 if you have access to these or the set of instructions given below.
Setting up the electroplating bath
A Carefully bend the copper foil over the lip of the beaker so it is secure against the
inside wall of the beaker.
B Add copper sulfate solution to the beaker. Make sure it is deep enough so that the
copper electrode you made in step A is partially submerged, and the objects to be
electroplated can be submerged.
C Attach a crocodile clip and lead to the copper electrode. Connect the lead to the
positive terminal of the d.c. supply.
D Connect a crocodile clip and lead to the negative terminal of the d.c. supply. This
crocodile clip will be used to hold the objects to be electroplated.
Cleaning the metal object
E Remove corrosion by leaving the metal object for 30 seconds in dilute hydrochloric
acid, then washing in gently running water.
F Remove oils by leaving it for 30 seconds in washing-up liquid diluted with water, then
washing again.
Electroplating
G Attach the crocodile clip from step D to the cleaned metal object, and hold the object
under the surface of the copper sulfate solution. To avoid electroplating the crocodile
clip, do not fully submerge the object in the copper sulfate solution. Turn on the power
supply. After a few minutes, turn the power supply off and lift the electroplated object
out of the copper sulfate solution. Wash it with water and allow it to dry.
Safety
Do not allow the metal object to touch the copper anode during electroplating.
Support: Help students to draw a circuit diagram and explain the reaction that happens
at each electrode.
Stretch: Students draw their own circuit diagrams and write a half equation for the
reaction occurring at each electrode (anode: Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e; cathode: Cu2+(aq) +
2e → Cu(s)).
Safety
Wear eye protection. Copper sulfate solution is low hazard at the concentration stated.
Equipment: eye protection, emery paper, d.c. supply, two connecting leads with
crocodile clips, strip of copper foil (about 2 cm wide and reaching to the bottom of the
beaker), 100 cm3 beaker, metallic object to be electroplated, copper sulfate solution
(about 50 cm3, 0.5 mol dm−3)

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SC10a Electrolysis in
the Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident about answering
them. Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who
demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer questions S1 and S2 in the Student Book and/or
the questions on Worksheet SC10a.3. Questions 1 and 2 on the sheet provide help for
answering question S1 and question 3 provides help for answering S2.
Once pairs have completed their answers they should join with another pair to discuss
their responses and refine them. Allow access to the Word Sheet and/or Student Book
glossary so that students can remind themselves of the key words and their meanings.
As an alternative or extension, look at the Progression questions on SC10a Electrolysis in
the Student Book again, asking students to come up with lists of bullet points to include
for each one. Ask students to work together in small groups to prepare lists, which can
then be shared with the class to build up a definitive list of points.

3. Extend
Students work in pairs to answer question E1 in the Student Book.
For full coverage of the learning objectives, students could also answer questions S1 and
S2.
When the pairs have answered the question(s), they should join into fours to discuss
their responses. Hold a short plenary session to check answers.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SC10a Electrolysis in the
Student Book. Then ask students to get together in pairs and compare their answers.
Working together, they should work on an ideal answer that they think will be worth
full marks. Ask random pairs what they think the marks are for and then go through the
answer.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SC10a.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: For students who are in need of more support and who may find this new
concept difficult, Worksheet SC10a.3 could also be used as a homework exercise if it has
not already been used in the Strengthen plenary.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SC10a.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question, which asks students to
write half equations.

SB4c Development of Darwin’s

theory
Investigate evolution
Objectives
B4.1B Describe the work of Darwin and Wallace in the development of the theory of
evolution by natural
selection and explain the impact of these ideas on modern biology.
B4.6B Describe how the anatomy of the pentadactyl limb provides scientists with
evidence for evolution.
Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet
and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a baseline with which to
measure their own learning
during the lesson.

Starters
2. Saharan crocodiles
Ask students where they would expect to find crocodiles and establish, through
discussion, that these animals
usually live by bodies of water. Then tell students that there are also crocodiles that live
in the Sahara Desert.
They survive without food for the many months when it is too hot and dry, staying
below ground in a kind of
hibernation. When the rains eventually arrive they come to the surface to hunt.
Challenge students to work in small groups to explain how these crocodiles may have
evolved. Ask a
spokesperson from random groups to give a short presentation of the group’s answers,
and correct
misconceptions as they arise.
Support: Give students access to topic SB4b in the Student Book, so that they can plan
their answers using
the stages outlined for evolution by natural selection.

Exploring Tasks
1. Darwin’s finches
This activity challenges students to think about some of the evidence Darwin used to
develop his theory. The
activity can be performed in a variety of ways, with or without a practical component.
Display a series of kitchen implements used to carry food from one place to another.
Compare each implement
with a type of bird beak. Implements might include: a knife for spearing food (like an
egret), a slotted spoon for
straining things out of water (like a flamingo), a pair of shears/scissors to cut through
meat (like an eagle),
tongs with long arms to get hold of things that are hard to reach (like a toucan), a straw
for sipping liquids (like
a hummingbird), a nutcracker for breaking open shells (like a parrot), a fine pair of
forceps for picking up small
seeds and insects (like a dunnock).
Students can then do a short practical activity, or this part can be demonstrated. Give
students a tray
containing a mixture of small and large seeds (e.g. sunflower seeds and cress seeds), or
use marbles and ball
bearings to model different seed sizes. Students also get either a set of fine forceps or a
test-tube holder. Ask
students to time a minute and see how many of the objects they can pick up one at a
time, and move into a
plastic cup (also placed on the tray). Tell them that the objects represent seeds, and the
forceps and test-tube
holder represent variation in bird beaks among a single species. Establish that some
implements are better
than others for picking up the different sizes of objects. Then tell them that a disease
kills all the plants that
produce large seeds. (Depending on the equipment available, you may decide to
eliminate the small seeds
instead.) Ask them to repeat the experiment without the large seeds/marbles, and to
relate their overall findings
to what might happen to the populations of large- and small-beaked birds in this
situation.
It is advisable to practise picking up the seeds/marbles/ball bearings with different
implements in order to
choose those that will provide the most satisfactory results for students. The objects
should only be picked up
one at a time since, for example, a small bird that is specialised for eating small seeds
would only be able to
swallow one seed at a time.
Worksheet SB4c.1 can then be completed, with students making use of their findings
from the practical
work/demonstration to answer the questions. Alternatively, the questions can be
answered using research.
Note that question 1 could be answered for more than one of the finches (for early
finishers or for students who
have struggled with the question on the first attempt).
Safety
Beware of a slip hazard caused by ball bearings and marbles that are dropped on the
floor.
Do not allow students to eat the seeds.
If using seeds, ensure that students wash their hands afterwards.
Support: Carefully go through each part of the model, making sure students understand
what the different
components in the model represent. Explain how this relates to natural selection, with a
change in the
surroundings causing more of the birds with the better-shaped beaks to survive and
reproduce.
Stretch: Tell students that the finches that originally arrived in the Galapagos had
medium-sized beaks. Ask
them to suggest how Lamarck might have explained the evolution of only some of the
finches. (The way that
Lamarck imagined that body parts shrank in size was through lack of use, which cannot
really explain how the
birds with smaller beaks evolved.)
Expected results
It is more difficult to pick up the different sizes of seeds/ball bearings with one
implement compared with
the other.
Equipment
tray, plastic cup, selection of two different sizes of seed – one small (e.g. cress) and one
large (e.g.
sunflower) – or marbles and ball bearings to model different seed sizes, implement that
is good at picking up
small seeds/ball bearings and poor at picking up large seeds/marbles (e.g. fine forceps),
implement that is
good at picking up large marbles and poor at picking up small seeds/ball bearings (e.g.
test-tube holder, but
precise equipment will vary depending on availability)

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB4c Development of Darwin’s theory
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
The ALDS presentation SB4c Darwin and Wallace outlines how Darwin and Wallace
came up with the same
idea about how evolution occurs.
There is also a very good 30-minute BBC documentary from the late 1990s called The
Origin of Species: An
Illustrated Guide.
Support: Demonstrate natural selection by displaying a small tray, the bottom of which
is packed (in a single
layer) with red and yellow counters. Explain that a new bird arrives in the area, which
eats yellow counters but not
red. Remove the yellow counters and demonstrate that there is now space in the box for
more red counters when
they reproduce. Remind students that natural selection operates on a population of a
species, which may then
lead to evolution of that population into a new species. Natural selection does not cause
evolution of individuals,
and it will only cause the evolution of an entire species if that species has a very small
range.
Stretch: Tell students that Darwin published his book with the subheading
‘Preservation of favoured races in
the struggle for life’. Ask them to come up with wording for this subheading if Darwin
were to have written his
book today. Point out to students the caption to photo C, showing the tiger beetle.
Wallace did not get his idea
for natural selection from these beetles, but was then later able to explain their variety
using his idea. This
caption is based on a quote from a letter that Wallace wrote in 1858: ‘Such facts as these
puzzled me for a long
time, but I have lately worked out a theory which accounts for them naturally.’
Challenge students to write an
addition to this letter as if Wallace were expanding on this statement and explaining
how he now thought the
tiger beetles had evolved into separate species in many different colours.

2. Looking at pentadactyl limbs

Show students a human skeleton, pointing out the five digits on the end of each limb
(the pentadactyl limbs).
Also point out the major bones in the arms and legs. Compare these to other animals
using pictures of
skeletons downloaded from the Internet, other skeletons that you have, or dissection
material. Rabbit forefeet
clearly show a pentadactyl structure and may be available from a local butcher. Chicken
wings and pig/sheep
legs can also be used, but these have ‘finger/toe’ bones that have fused over the course
of evolution (as do
rabbit hind feet) making the pentadactyl nature of them difficult to see. However, the
similarities between the
major leg bones in all of these animals can easily be seen.
Establish the idea that the ancestors of all these animals had pentadactyl limbs, and that
at one point there was
a common ancestor to all vertebrates.
Note that students are not expected to remember the names of the bones.
Safety
Ensure that students who do not wish to see a dissection have alternative activities to
do and that animals
that may cause cultural sensitivities are avoided.
Follow school policy/CLEAPSS guidelines for any dissection.
Support: Remind students about the classes of vertebrates (mammals, reptiles, fish,
amphibians, birds) and
the similarities between them (e.g. having a backbone). Make sure the students
understand that the similarities
between the organisms provide evidence that they evolved from a common ancestor,
even though there are
big differences between individual species.
Stretch: Challenge students to find out what pentadactyl means and the roots of the
word.
Equipment
human skeleton (model), skeletons (models) of other vertebrates or photos of skeletons
downloaded from
the Internet or dissection materials (e.g. rabbit forefeet, sheep/pig legs)

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB4c Development of Darwin’s theory in
the Student Book and
assess whether students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident
students should use the
‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to
the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet
SB4c.3. Question 1 on the sheet provides help and scaffolding for answering question
S1. Once pairs have
completed their answers they should join with another pair to discuss their responses
and refine them.
Encourage the use of a proper scale for the timelines that students draw.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to draw the skeleton of, say, a lizard (in very
simple terms only).
Then ask them to draw the skeleton of a creature that their lizard may evolve into. Ask
them to point out the
features by which Darwin or Wallace would have been able to tell that the two creatures
were related to or
evolved from one another. Follow this up with a brief reminder of the pentadactyl limb
and what this tells us
about the evolution of all vertebrates (from a common ancestor).

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Once pairs
have arrived at an
answer, they should join with another pair to discuss their responses and refine their
ideas. Worksheet SB4c.4
could be used in this plenary to help students either to do this activity or check their
answers.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB4c Development of
Darwin’s theory in the
Student Book. Working together, they should construct an ideal answer that they think
will be worth full marks.
Ask random pairs what they think the marks are for and then go through the answer.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB4c.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Before students complete the sheet, go through the table in question 1d and
pick out the key terms,
making sure that students understand what they mean (advantageous, individual,
offspring, organism,
population, resource, species, vary).

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB4c.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question.

SB4b Darwin’s theory

Darwin’s theory of evolution
Objectives
B4.2 Explain Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection.
B4.3 Explain how the emergence of resistant organisms supports Darwin’s theory of
evolution including
antibiotic resistance in bacteria.
Maths requirements
1c Use ratios, fractions and percentages.
2c Construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and histograms.
Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to answer the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet and
to score their confidence levels. This gives students their own baseline with which to
measure their own
learning during the lesson.

Starters
2. Changing advantages
Quickly sketch a normal distribution curve on the board and tell students that it shows
variation in beak length
in a population of sandpipers. The birds dig with their beaks in mud or sand to find
small animals to eat. Ask
students to explain what the shape of the curve means. Then ask students to suggest
why there are more birds
with the middle beak length and very few with either very short or very long beaks. Try
to elicit the idea that
conditions in the environment make it easiest for birds with medium beak lengths to
survive best, because:
• If their beaks are too long, they are too unwieldy or use up too much energy to move
them.
• If their beaks are too short, they may not find enough food because some of the prey
animals will be buried

too deep.
Now ask students what might happen if a lot of the prey animals died and there were
very few of them to eat.
Establish the idea that those birds that naturally had slightly longer beaks would be able
to find more of the
prey animals and so would be more likely to survive. They would reproduce and pass on
their slightly longer
beaks to their offspring.
Exploring Tasks
1. Natural selection game
Students play a game to illustrate natural selection using coloured pasta. Divide the
class into groups andexplain that they will conduct this investigation in groups. Each
group will get some pasta shapes of different
colours (in approximately equal amounts, including green pasta), which are models for
insects. They design a
table in which to record the number of each different colour of pasta shape. The shapes
are then spread out in
an open, grassy area. One student is ‘the bird’ and is given a pair of tongs/forceps. The
student has two
minutes to pick up as many pasta shapes as possible, returning to the ‘start line’ upon
picking up each shape to
put it into the collecting pot. After two minutes, students count the number of each
colour returned and calculate
percentages.
Students should collect back in all the pasta shapes and repeat their experiment a
number of times to improve
the repeatability of the data. Students then calculate mean percentages returned for
each colour. Ask students
how they should best present this information. They then use this data to draw pie
charts.
Students use their pie charts to explain the benefits of being green. Ask them to
speculate on the future
evolution of this green species if: a) the grass remains green, b) the grass turns yellow.
Support: Students use the ALDS spreadsheet SB4b Natural selection and genetic
modification to record their
results. The spreadsheet will automatically turn their results into percentages and a pie
chart.
Stretch: Show students the apparatus (including the tape measure, which can be used to
ensure that the same
sized area is used in each test) and ask them to design their own games to show natural
selection. Encourage
them to devise their own criteria that they will use to judge how well their models work
(in their ability to explain
natural selection).
Safety
Ensure that any outside area in which this practical is to be done is free from obvious
dangers such as
animal faeces, pieces of metal and broken glass. Students should wash their hands if the
pasta has
been handled directly, as the pasta shapes may have been contaminated from being
scattered on the
grass. It would be sensible to wash and dry any pasta that will be reused for further
classes. Remind
students not to eat or drink in the lab.
Expected results
Students should find that red, orange and yellow pasta pieces are more readily found
than green pieces,
although this will be slightly dependent on the colour of the grass at the time of doing
the investigation.
Equipment
packets of differently coloured pasta, must contain green pasta pieces as well as other
colours (500 g per
four to five students) (you could use buttons of different colours instead, but these are
not biodegradable),
forceps or tongs, stop clock, pot to collect pasta shapes in, area of grass
Optional: measuring tape

2. Modelling antibiotic resistance

Worksheet SB4b.1 provides drawings of bacteria for students to cut out and arrange
into a classic normal
distribution (question 1). Discuss what the normal distribution shows in terms of the
number (frequency) of
bacteria with different resistances to antibiotic X in a population. Ask students what will
happen if an antibiotic is
added, and establish that those bacteria with less resistance will die first.
Students then use a die to simulate the addition of doses of antibiotic. After three
rounds, they will all have
some bacteria left. Ask students to complete the answers to questions 2 and 3. Then ask
what will now happen
to the bacteria that are left if no more antibiotic is added. Elicit the response that the
bacteria will multiply and
so produce a population that is now harder to kill with the antibiotic (ask students to
imagine what would
happen if they started question 2 with bacteria that only had the high numbers). Then
ask students to complete
question 4 in their own words.
Support: Carry out each step on the sheet in front of students and then allow them to
complete that step
before you carry on and demonstrate the next step. At the end of question 1, draw
labelled axes on your
arrangement of the bacteria (‘increasing resistance to antibiotic X’, ‘number of bacteria’
or ‘frequency’) to
ensure that students understand that the arrangement forms a bar chart/frequency
diagram.
Stretch: More able students could complete the sheet without stopping for discussion.
Equipment: scissors
Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB4b Darwin’s theory
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
Darwin’s theory of evolution is set out as a series of stages to help students remember
what happens. Students
should, though, be aware that the process is continuous.
Correct misconceptions as they arise. The most common ones revolve around the idea
that the environment
directly causes organisms to change. It is worth dwelling on the first ‘stage’ of evolution
in the Student Book to
ensure that students realise that genetic variation is ever present and that natural
selection cannot work if there
is no genetic variation to start with.
The ALDS presentation SB4b Evolution of antibiotic resistance explains how the
development of antibiotic
resistance supports the theory of evolution by natural selection.
Support: Help students to remember the order of the ‘stages’ of evolution using a
mnemonic (e.g. GENIE –
Genes/genetic variation, Environmental change, Natural selection, Inheritance,
Evolution).
Stretch: Challenge students to find out the name of another scientist who has
contributed to our understanding
of evolution, and what that scientist did.

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB4b Darwin’s theory in the Student Book
and assess whether
students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident students should use
the ‘Strengthen’
activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’
activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet
SB4b.2. Question 3 on the worksheet provides help and scaffolding for answering
question S1. Once pairs
have completed their answers they should join with another pair to discuss their
responses and refine them.
As an alternative or extension, project the rectangles from question 3 on the worksheet
onto the board. Work
with students to arrange them in the correct order and then go through other
evolutionary scenarios with
students, inviting them to say what might happen at each stage. Examples could include:
evolution of the
woolly mammoth from an elephant-like ancestor due to a change in temperature;
evolution of sand-coloured
mice from black mice that move to a more desert-like area to search for food; evolution
of a bird with a large
beak for crushing large seeds when the plants that produce small seeds die out in an
area.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Once pairs
have arrived at an
answer, they should join with another pair to discuss their responses and refine their
ideas. Then challenge
students to design a question of their own, together with a mark scheme, based on the
following paragraph.
In the late 1990s, a company developed a genetically engineered maize (corn on the
cob) that poisoned a pest
called corn rootworm. Today, there are many populations of corn rootworm that are
resistant to the genetically
engineered maize.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to write a postcard from Charles Darwin to
a friend who is not a
scientist, explaining his thoughts on evolution. Get students to ‘send’ their postcards to
their friends, who then
peer-assess the information on the cards in terms of the clarity of the explanation.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB4b Darwin’s theory.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB4b.3 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Ensure that students realise that the moths in question 1 would be eaten by
predators such as birds.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB4b.4 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question.

SB4a Evidence for human evolution

The theoy of human evolution.
Objectives
B4.4 Describe the evidence for human evolution, based on fossils, including:
a Ardi from 4.4 million years ago
b Lucy from 3.2 million years ago
c Leakey’s discovery of fossils from 1.6 million years ago.

B4.5 Describe the evidence for human evolution based on stone tools, including:
a the development of stone tools over time
b how these can be dated from their environment.

Maths requirements
1a Recognise and use numbers in decimal form.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and
understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick Quiz below). The
quiz can be done as a
whole class and should take no more than a couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to answer the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet and
to score their confidence levels. This gives students their own baseline with which to
measure their own
learning during the lesson.
Starters
1. Future evolution
Establish with students that evolution is the gradual change in characteristics of a
species or group of
organisms over time. The term does not contain any implicit idea about how the process
occurs.
Ask students to think about how humans or other animals might evolve in the future.
They could draw a
labelled picture to show how humans might change and give a reason why they might
evolve in that way. Take
examples from around the class for discussion. This could be supplemented with ideas
taken from the Internet
(using a search term such as ‘future evolution ideas’ or ‘next steps in human evolution’).

Exploring Tasks
1. Finding out about human evolution
Worksheet SB4a.1 challenges students to find out more about human evolution. The
worksheet provides some
questions that students can answer using their own knowledge and Internet research.
The last part of the sheet
asks students to fill in a fact card about a human-like organism, which includes adding a
picture of their chosen
species. Pictures could be printed out from the Internet, but note that some Internet
pictures are under
copyright.
Note that, although some websites may use the phrase ‘this species is accepted by most
scientists’, it is
important to realise the extent of disagreement between scientists on whether a set of
fossils shows a distinct
species or not and how this is caused by the limited evidence and differences in
interpretation.
Support: Give students guidance on which websites to use. The Smithsonian National
Museum of Natural
History website is a good source of information.
Stretch: Ask students to work in groups and each member of a group to choose a
different species to study.
Ask them to cut out their fact cards and place them in the order shown in the diagram at
the top of the
worksheet, creating a large poster of the diagram. Make sure students understand that
this is still an area of
active research and the diagram that they have created is only one idea. If time allows,
students could research
other ideas about the relationships between the organisms on the sheet.
Equipment
Optional: Internet access, scissors, glue, large sheet of paper to create poster

2. Stone tools
Worksheet SB4a.2 provides some questions on the development of stone tools by
humans and human-like
species, and about the dating of the tools. Remind students of their work on isotopes in
CC2 to help them
understand the dating process.
Support: Students cut out the tools on the worksheet and arrange them in order to
answer question 1, and
then annotate them to answer questions 2, 3 and 4.
Stretch: Challenge students to answer the Extra challenge question at the end of the
worksheet. This will
involve further research to extend knowledge of different styles of tool and the species
that made them. Or ask
students to find out how other methods are used to date archaeological sites, including
palaeomagnetic data,
pollen records and other evidence of the presence or absence of species. The British
Museum website is
useful for this. Students should consider the reliability of the dates based on the
evidence.
Equipment
Optional: scissors, glue, Internet access (for research)

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB4a Evidence for human evolution
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
Remind students that a species is a group of the same types of organism that can
reproduce with one another
to produce offspring that are also capable of reproduction.
Ensure that students understand that the huge timescales involved in human evolution
mean that the fossil
record is full of gaps. It is for this reason that scientists cannot agree on an evolutionary
tree for human
evolution and various educated guesses need to be made to fill in the gaps. Different
scientists also interpret
some of the fossil evidence in different ways, and most of the fossil evidence is in the
form of a few bones or
pieces of bones, not of full skeletons. Genetic analysis is helping with the research, but
due to the degradation
of DNA with time this is not a complete answer to the problems of piecing together
human evolution.
Nevertheless, discoveries in the last few years have included the fact that Homo sapiens
and Homo
neanderthalensis interbred to some extent. These two species share a common ancestor
(possibly Homo
heidelbergensis) that probably lived in Africa more than half a million years ago. The
ancestors of Homo
neanderthalensis moved to Europe and Asia, whereas the ancestors of Homo sapiens
stayed in Africa. Modern
humans then started to leave Africa about 100 000 years ago and interbred with the
Neanderthals living across
a wide extent of Europe and Asia.
The ALDS video SB4a Ideas about human evolution explains some of the ideas about
human evolution and
modern research techniques.
Support: Students could try to answer the question, ‘Are there human-like species that
we have not found
yet?’ They should explain their answers fully.
Stretch: Challenge students to find some different evolutionary trees for humans and to
pinpoint some of the
differences. Warn students that some fossils are thought to be the same species by some
scientists, but
different species by other scientists. Many of these differences of opinion are caused
differing views on the
extent of natural variation within a species.
Equipment
Optional: Internet access (for research)

2. Fossils and stone tools

Remind students that fossils are the remains of organisms (or signs of their presence,
such as footprints) that
have been turned into stone. This process usually occurs when the remains of
organisms are covered by
sediment. As layers of sediment build up, pressure causes the lower layers to turn to
stone, resulting in layers
that contain fossils (and stone tools).
Demonstrate this using a narrow glass or plastic tank/beaker, and using sand of
different colours to build up
layers to model the way the sedimentary layers build up. After adding a couple of layers,
add a small plastic
skeleton (or similar) to model fossil formation and some pieces of gravel to represent
stone tools. Continue adding a couple more layers and then repeat the addition of a
plastic skeleton and some pieces of gravel,
before adding another layer or so to complete the model.
Point out that the upper layers are younger than the lower ones, and so fossils found in
upper layers are more
recent than those found in lower layers. Point out that the lower layers are under more
pressure than the upper
layers, and so older fossils are more likely to be crushed and destroyed.
Support: Encourage students to list the human-like species from SB4a Evidence for
human evolution in the
Student Book in order of the layers in which they would be found (uppermost layers
first).
Stretch: Challenge students to use the model to explain why scientists date the rock in a
layer where stone
tools are found rather than the rocks that the stone tools are made of. Establish the idea
that the stones that
the tools are made out of are likely to be very much older than the layers in which they
are found and so do not
give an accurate idea of when the stones were crafted into tools.
Equipment
thin clear glass or plastic tank/beaker, different colours of sand, pieces of gravel, small
toy plastic skeletons

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this
topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB4a Evidence for human evolution in the
Student Book and
assess whether students feel more confident about answering them. Less confident
students should use the
‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to
the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet
SB4a.3. Question 1 on the worksheet provides help and scaffolding for answering
question S1.
Once pairs have completed their answers they should join with another pair to discuss
their responses and
refine them. Allow access to the Word Sheet and/or Student Book glossary so that
students can remind
themselves of the key words and their meanings. Establish with students that evolution
is a gradual change in
characteristics over time, and fossils are used to piece together how humans have
evolved. Stone tools are
also used to provide additional evidence. But all of this evidence has gaps in it, meaning
that there is a lot of
debate about how humans evolved.
As an alternative or extension, provide students with images of the stone tools from
Worksheet SB4a.2 and of
the skulls from Worksheet SB4a.3. Ask students to arrange the tools and skulls in order
of age and then to
stick them down on a sheet of paper and add notes to describe the evidence for human
evolution based on
fossils and stone tools. After they have finished, encourage students to write down one
point that they want to
know more about (which could be a point on which they are still confused).

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Once pairs
have arrived at an
answer, they should join with another pair to discuss their responses and refine their
ideas. Show students the
answer (see Student Book answers for SB4a Evidence for human evolution) and then
challenge them to
choose one trend in human evolution that can be seen from fossils and to come up with
an idea about why that
change in characteristics would have helped the animals to survive. End with a
discussion to draw out the fact
that organisms evolve in response to changes in their environment.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB4a.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Make sure that students can interpret the diagram before allowing them to
work on the sheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB4a.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question.

SC8g Solubility
Solubility of common substances and formation of precipitates.
Objectives
C3.19 Recall the general rules which describe the solubility of common types of
substances in water:
(a) all common sodium, potassium and ammonium salts are soluble
 (b) all nitrates are soluble
(c) common chlorides are soluble except those of silver and lead
(d) common sulfates are soluble except those of lead, barium and calcium
(e) common carbonates and hydroxides are insoluble except those of sodium,
potassium and ammonium.
C3.20 Predict, using solubility rules, whether or not a precipitate will be formed when
named solutions are mixed together, naming the precipitate if any.
C3.21 Describe the method used to prepare a pure, dry sample of an insoluble salt.
Maths requirements
1c Use ratios, fractions and percentages.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Objectives activity at the top of the
Progression Check sheet. Alternatively ask students to answer the Progression
questions in the Student Book and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a
baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. Precipitation
This is for demonstration only. Pour some potassium chromate(VI) solution into a small
glass beaker. Slowly add some silver nitrate solution. Students will see an immediate
red precipitate of silver chromate(VI) form. Explain that, when two solutions containing
soluble salts that react are mixed, the ions swap over, so silver chromate and potassium
nitrate are formed. All nitrates are soluble, but silver chromate(VI) is insoluble in water
and so is formed as a precipitate. Discuss how you could separate the silver
chromate(VI) from the mixture, but do not attempt to do this as it may be a carcinogen.
Important:
This is for demonstration only, and eye protection and disposable gloves should be
worn. Potassium chromate(VI) is toxic and dangerous for the environment. It is a
category 2 carcinogen and a category 2 mutagen. It may cause cancer by inhalation and
may cause heritable genetic damage. The technician must wear gloves when making up
the solution and use a fume cupboard. The solution containing 0.5 g dm–3 is low hazard.
Do not attempt to isolate the silver chromate(VI) precipitate – flush it down the drain
with plenty of water.
Equipment: eye protection, small glass beaker, silver nitrate solution (about 25 cm3,
0.05 mol dm–3), potassium chromate(VI) solution (about 25 cm3 of 0.5 g dm–3/less than
0.003 mol dm–3)

Exploring Tasks
1. Preparation of insoluble salts
A set of instructions for this practical is given on Worksheet SC8g.1.
There are various ways of drying the insoluble salts. You could use a warm oven if
available. Silver chloride needs to be left in a dark place so you could put the filter
papers with these precipitates in a tray and leave them in a cupboard until the next
lesson. The copper carbonate could be left on a warm radiator or a sunny windowsill.
Support: Select the most appropriate support for the students from:
• Students stick the method on page 1 of the worksheet into their books/files and then
answer the directed questions after the dashed line on the bottom of the sheet. Students
may need help in working out the formulae to write the balanced equations.
• Students stick the method into their books/file and then use page 2 of the worksheet
to fill in their results and answer the scaffolded questions on their results and
conclusions.

Stretch: Students follow the instructions on page 1 of the worksheet, and then write up
the experiment in their own words, by designing their own results tables, and writing a
conclusion and an evaluation (with help from Skills Sheets RC7 and SC6 as needed). The
directed questions under the dashed line on the worksheet should be removed.
Expected results
Students prepare a white precipitate of silver chloride. This precipitate gradually
changes colour to purple when left in light, so dry it in a dark place. The copper
carbonate is a blue/green precipitate.
Important:
Eye protection should be worn.
Equipment (per group): eye protection, 100 cm3 beaker, 100 cm3 conical flask (or other
container to collect filtrate), filter funnel, filter paper, glass rod, 25 cm3 measuring
cylinder, dropper pipette, distilled or deionised water, silver nitrate solution (15 cm3,
about 0.05 mol dm–3), sodium chloride solution (25 cm3, about 0.5 mol dm–3),
soluble copper salt solutions, e.g. copper sulfate and copper nitrate (25 cm3, about 0.5
mol dm–3), soluble carbonates, e.g. sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate (25 cm3,
about 0.5 mol dm–3)
Optional: warm oven
Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SC8g Solubility
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
The interactive SC8g Predicting precipitates can be used for students to make
predictions about whether or not a precipitate will form when different pairs of
solutions are mixed.
Support: Divide the students into pairs to work through the equations, with one student
who has understood them helping another who finds them more challenging.
Stretch: Ask the students to work out the ionic equation, with state symbols, for each
precipitation reaction on these pages.

2. Precipitates and ionic equations

Demonstrate the formation of the same insoluble salt from different solutions, e.g.
barium sulfate by adding magnesium sulfate, sodium sulfate and copper sulfate
solutions to separate portions of barium chloride solution. Explain that it is always the
same precipitate that forms as the barium ions are reacting with the sulfate ions. The
other ions are spectator ions.
The ALDS interactive SC8g Predicting precipitates can be used for students to make
predictions about whether or not a precipitate will form when different pairs of
solutions are mixed.
Support: Allow students access to a copy of the solubility rules. They then work out the
word equation for each combination of solutions and check to see if either of the
products is insoluble.
Stretch: Challenge the students to do this exercise from their memory of the solubility
rules. They can then write ionic equations for the formation of any precipitates.
Important:
Eye protection should be worn.
Equipment: eye protection, 3 test tubes, test-tube rack, barium chloride solution (20
cm3, about 0.5 mol dm–3), sodium sulfate solution (5 cm3, about 0.5 mol dm–3),
magnesium sulfate solution (5 cm3, about 0.5 mol dm–3), copper sulfate solution (5 cm3,
about 0.5 mol dm–3)

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions in SC8g Solubility in the
Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident about answering them.
Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate
good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.
2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SC8g.3. The questions on the sheet provide support for
answering question S1.
Once pairs have completed their answers they should join with another pair to discuss
their responses and refine them. Allow access to the Word Sheet and/or the Student
Book glossary so that students can remind themselves of the key words and their
meanings.
As an alternative or extension, look at the Progression questions in the Student Book
again, asking students to come up with lists of bullet points to include for each one. Ask
students to work together in small groups to prepare lists, which can then be shared
with the class to build up a definitive list of points.

3. Extend
Students work in pairs to answer question E1 in the Student Book.
For full coverage of the learning objectives, students could also answer question S1 –
encourage them to write ionic equations for the reactions (see the Student Book
answers for this question).
When the pairs have answered the question(s), they should join into fours to discuss
their responses. Hold a short plenary session to check answers.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SC8g Solubility in the
Student Book. Then ask students to get together in pairs and compare their answers.
Working together, they should work on an ideal answer that they think will be worth
full marks. Ask random pairs what they think the marks are for and then go through the
answer.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SC8g.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: For students who are in need of more support and who may find this new
concept difficult, Worksheet SC8g.3 could also be used as a homework exercise if it has
not already been used in the Strengthen plenary.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SC8g.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge questions, which ask students to
write ionic equations.
SC8f Reactions of acids with metals
and carbonates
Reactions of acids with metals and carbonates, and writing iconic equations (H).
Objectives
C0.4H Write balanced ionic equations.
C3.11 Explain the general reactions of aqueous solutions of acids with (a) metals and (d)
metal carbonates to produce salts.
C3.12 Describe the chemical test for (a) hydrogen and (b) carbon dioxide (using
limewater).
Maths requirements
1c Use ratios, fractions and percentages.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Objectives activity at the top of the
Progression Check sheet. Alternatively ask students to answer the Progression
questions in the Student Book and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a
baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starter
2. Revising ions
Remind students about ions and ionic bonding. An ion is a charged particle. Cations are
formed by the loss of electron(s) and have a positive charge. Anions are formed by the
gain of electron(s) and have a negative charge. The ions are held together by
electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged ions. In the solid state,
the ions can only vibrate on the spot, but, when they dissolve in water, the ions are free
to move around.
Revise writing ionic formulae from the symbols of common ions, including some with
brackets, e.g. NH4NO3, MgCl2, K2SO4, Ca(OH)2, Cu(NO3)2.
Remind students that all acids form ions in aqueous solution.
Hydrochloric acid, HCl, forms H+(aq) and Cl−(aq) ions.
Nitric acid, HNO3, forms H+(aq) and NO3−(aq) ions.
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4, forms 2H+(aq) and SO42−(aq) ions. (You could mention to more able
students thathydrogen sulfate ions, HSO4−(aq), are also formed.)
All solutions of acids contain hydrogen ions. A salt is formed when the hydrogen ions in
an acid are replaced by metal or ammonium ions, NH4+.

Exploring Tasks
1. Reactions of acids with metals and carbonates
A set of instructions for this practical is given on Worksheet SC8f.1.
The reaction between metals and dilute nitric acid is not used in this experiment or
included in the Student Book. Nitric acid is a powerful oxidising agent, even when dilute,
and the nitrate ions may be reduced to form nitrogen monoxide, which reacts with
oxygen in the air to form nitrogen dioxide (a toxic brown gas). The reaction between
metal carbonates and dilute nitric acid does, however, give the expected results of a
salt, water and carbon dioxide.
There are a lot of test-tube experiments in this practical. Depending on the time
availability, you may wish to allocate different experiments to different groups of
students. For example, some pairs could just carry out the reactions using dilute sulfuric
acid and other pairs carry out the reactions with dilute hydrochloric acid. The pairs
could then join up in groups of four and exchange results.
There are different ways of testing for hydrogen. If the students see effervescence, they
could put their thumb over the open end of the test tube to allow the gas to build up for
a few seconds, then remove their thumb and put the lighted splint in the top of the test
tube. Alternatively, they could place an empty test tube over the top of the tube where
the reaction is taking place, allow the hydrogen to collect, then move the top test tube
away, without turning it over, and place the lighted splint in the open end of the test
tube. The worksheet does not specify which method to use so that you can choose the
most appropriate method for your students.
There are different ways of testing for carbon dioxide. The students could use a bung
with a delivery tube attached and place the open end in a test tube containing a few cm3
of limewater. Alternatively, they could add the acid to the carbonate in an open test
tube, squeeze the top of a dropper pipette to expel the air in it, place the pipette in the
top of the tube, release the pressure on the top of the pipette to suck in some of the gas,
then place the pipette in a tube of limewater and squeeze and release the top of the
pipette a few times to bubble the gas through the limewater. The worksheet does not
specify which method to use so that you can choose the most appropriate method for
your students.
Support: Select the most appropriate support for the students from:
• Students stick the method on page 1 of the worksheet into their books/files and then
answer the directed questions at the end of the page.
• Students stick the method into their books/file and then use page 2 of the worksheet
to fill in their results and answer the scaffolded questions on their results and
conclusions.

Stretch: Students follow the instructions on page 1 of the worksheet, and then write up
the experiment in their own words, by designing their own results tables, and writing a
conclusion and an evaluation (with help from Skills Sheets SC3 and SC6 as needed). The
directed questions at the end of page 1 of the worksheet should be removed.
Expected results
Students will find that magnesium, zinc and iron effervesce with both dilute acids,
although iron may not produce enough hydrogen to pop the lighted splint. Copper does
not react with dilute acids. All the metal carbonates react with both dilute acids to
produce bubbles of a gas that turns limewater milky.
Important:
Eye protection should be worn. Sulfuric acid (0.5 mol dm–3) is an irritant.
Equipment (per group): eye protection, Bunsen burner and heat-resistant mat, dropper
pipettes, spatula, test tubes, test-tube rack, wooden splints, limewater, small pieces of
copper, e.g. foil or turnings, iron filings, magnesium ribbon (1 cm length), granulated
zinc (this works better if it is ‘dirty’), copper carbonate (few grams), magnesium
carbonate (few grams), dilute hydrochloric acid (few cm3, 1 mol dm−3), dilute sulfuric
acid (few cm3, 0.5 mol dm−3)
Optional: bung to fit test tube with a delivery tube attached

2. Salts summary
Students work through Worksheet SC8f.2, which covers all the methods of preparing
soluble salts from this topic. It also includes questions on formulae, equations and state
symbols related to salt preparations.
Support: Students can work in pairs to answer the questions. They can refer back to the
experiments they have carried out on salt preparations earlier in this topic.
Stretch: Challenge the students to complete the worksheet without referring back to
their notes or the Student Book. Students can be asked why sulfuric acid can form
sulfates, for example Na2SO4, and hydrogen sulfates, for example, NaHSO4.

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SC8f Reactions of acids with metals and carbonates
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
There is a section on writing ionic equations aimed at those students taking the Higher
Tier paper.
The presentation SC8f Ionic equations can be used to show students how to construct
ionic equations for reactions of acids with metals and metal carbonates. H
The ionic equation shows carbonate ions in the solid state as it is intended to show that
any solid carbonate reacts with any dilute acid to form carbon dioxide and water.
However, ionic equations should strictly only show aqueous ions. An alternative ionic
equation could be written for each carbonate as, for example,
2H + (aq) + CuCO3 (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l).
Support: Divide the students into pairs to work through the equations, with one student
who has understood them helping another who finds them more challenging. Students
who are taking the Foundation Tier paper do not need to answer the questions on ionic
equations.
Stretch: Ask the students to work out the ionic equation, with state symbols, for the
reaction between copper oxide and sulfuric acid. (2H+(aq) + O2−(s) → H2O(l))

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions in SC8f Reactions of acids
with metals and carbonates in the Student Book and assess whether students feel more
confident about answering them. Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’
activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’
activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SC8f.3. The questions on the sheet provide support for
answering question S1.
Once pairs have completed their answers they should join with another pair to discuss
their responses and refine them. Allow access to the Word Sheet and/or Student Book
glossary so that students can remind themselves of the key words and their meanings.
As an alternative or extension, look at the Progression questions in the Student Book
again, asking students to come up with lists of bullet points to include for each one. Ask
students to work together in small groups to prepare lists, which can then be shared
with the class to build up a definitive list of points. The bullet list for describing how to
test for the gases could be used as the basis for answering a long-answer-style
question, with students making use of Skills Sheet ET4.

3. Extend
Students work in pairs to answer question E1 in the Student Book. When the pairs have
answered the question(s), they should join into fours to discuss their responses. Hold a
short plenary session to check answers and correct any misconceptions.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SC8f Reactions of acids
with metals and carbonates in the Student Book. Then ask students to get together in
pairs and compare their answers. Working together, they should work on an ideal
answer that they think will be worth full marks. Ask random pairs what they think the
marks are for and then go through the answer.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SC8f.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Remind the students how to write a balanced equation before they do the
homework.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SC8f.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge questions, which ask students to
write ionic equations.

SC8e Alkalis and neutralisation

Neutralisation and producing a soluble salt using titration.
Objectives
C3.14 Explain an acid–alkali neutralisation as a reaction in which hydrogen ions (H+)
from the acid react with hydroxide ions (OH–) from the alkali to form water.
C3.16 Explain why, if soluble salts are prepared from an acid and a soluble reactant:
(a) titration must be used
(b) the acid and the soluble reactant are then mixed in the correct proportions
(c) the solution remaining, after reaction, is only salt and water.
C3.18 Describe how to carry out an acid–alkali titration, using burette, pipette and a
suitable indicator, to prepare a pure, dry salt.
Maths requirements
4c Plot two variables from experimental or other data.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Objectives activity at the top of the
Progression Check sheet. Alternatively ask students to answer the Progression
questions in the Student Book and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a
baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starter
1. Balancing equations
In pairs using paper or mini-whiteboards, students balance equations supplied on the
board, then peer assess their answers with another pair. Equations (with balancing
numbers in bold here) could include:
2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Mg(OH)2 + 2HNO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + 2H2O
3KOH + H3PO4 → K3PO4 + 3H2O
Support: Describe how to balance an example equation, e.g. Ca(OH)2 + HCl → CaCl2 +
H2O becomes
Ca(OH)2 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + 2H2O.
Equipment optional: mini-whiteboards and non-permanent marker pens

Exploring Tasks
1. Making sodium chloride using titration
Students carry out a practical in which they produce sodium chloride crystals. Titration
is used to neutralise dilute sodium hydroxide solution with dilute hydrochloric acid, and
then repeated without the indicator. Students then use crystallisation to produce
sodium chloride from the solution formed. Explaining Tasks 2 involves demonstrating
the correct technique for titration, so this should be done before beginning the practical
activity.
The practical activity on Worksheet SC8e.1 is written for the use of a volumetric pipette
and burette, but you may wish to use a measuring cylinder and/or a dropping pipette
instead.
Support: Practise using the tap on a burette, and swirling a conical flask, using tap
water. Make sure that the students can read the burette correctly – it is common for
inexperienced students to read upwards rather than downwards, or to subtract the
reading from 50. During crystallisation, emphasise the need to evaporate water from a
small portion of the solution (unless the basins are being set aside until the next lesson),
and to avoid heating to dryness.
Stretch: Instead of the run without the indicator, activated charcoal could be used to
adsorb the indicator, followed by filtration. This introduces another step but reduces
the number of runs needed. Ask students to think about the pros and cons of doing it
this way instead (i.e. evaluate the two methods).
Use methyl orange indicator instead of phenolphthalein, as methyl orange has a more
difficult end-point. Students could compare the titres obtained using the two indicators.
Expected results
The end-point should occur at about 25.0 cm3 (phenolphthalein indicator changes from
pink to colourless), with about 0.7 g of sodium chloride produced in total. Methyl orange
indicator changes from yellow through orange to red. This makes the end-point more
difficult to determine, so the titre may be higher or lower than the one obtained using
phenolphthalein.
Equipment: eye protection, 100 cm3 beaker, 250 cm3 beaker, 250 cm3 conical flask, 25
cm3 volumetric pipette and filler, burette, funnel, white tile, stand, boss and clamp,
evaporating basin, tripod, gauze mat, heat-resistant mat, Bunsen burner, 0.5 mol dm–
3
hydrochloric acid, 0.5 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution, phenolphthalein indicator
Optional: methyl orange indicator
Important:
• Eye protection should be worn. Do not overfill the burette or attempt to fill it above
eye level. Take care with hot apparatus and do not evaporate to dryness. 0.5 mol dm–3
hydrochloric acid is irritant. 0.5 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution is corrosive.

2. A method for titration

Students complete Worksheet SC8e.2. The steps for carrying out a titration are given on
the sheet but are in the wrong order. Students need to put these into the correct order.
Support: Cut the steps out beforehand so that the task becomes a card sort. Students
could complete the task after carrying out the experiment.
Stretch: Students could complete the task before carrying out the experiment. You may
wish to cut off the letters, preventing the students attempting to solve the anagram
rather than reading and sorting the steps.

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SC8e Alkalis and neutralisation
Work through the Student Book pages, answering questions up to the checkpoint.
There are two distinct areas for students to develop their knowledge and
understanding:
• understanding what happens in neutralisation in terms of ions
• producing a soluble salt using titration.
The focus of the lesson may well depend upon the prior knowledge and understanding
demonstrated by the students in the Starter activities.
The interactive SC8e Titration provides practice in identifying each piece of apparatus.
Support: Students may need help understanding the purpose of the burette, and how to
read its scale.
Stretch: Ammonia is a gas that dissolves in water to form an alkaline solution. Challenge
the students to explain why a slight excess of ammonia solution can be used when
preparing ammonium salts. (Excess ammonia will leave during evaporation and so not
contaminate the crystals formed.)

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SC8e Alkalis and
neutralisation in the Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident
about answering them. Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity.
Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs or small groups to answer question S1 in the Student
Book, and/or the questions on Worksheet SC8e.3. Questions 1–4 on the sheet provide
help and scaffolding for answering question S1. The remaining questions develop key
ideas in titration.
Once pairs have completed their answers they should join with another pair or group to
discuss their responses and to refine them. Ensure that the students are secure in their
understanding of why titration must be used when soluble salts are prepared from an
acid and an alkali, and the method used.
As an extension or alternative, set up burettes with different volumes of water or acid
inside, and ask students to write down the readings. These could be shared with the
class for further practice.

3. Extend
Students work in pairs to answer question E1 in the Student Book. Pairs then join into
fours to discuss their responses.
As an extension or alternative, in pairs, one student makes a list of precautions needed
to work safely when carrying out a titration, and the other student makes a list of
precautions needed to work accurately. They then swap their lists so that they can be
added to or amended. Pairs then compare their ideas to develop an agreed list that
could be recorded or shared with the class.
4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SC8e Alkalis and
neutralisation. Then ask students to get together in pairs and compare their answers.
Working together, they should work on an ideal answer that they think will be worth 2
marks. Ask random pairs what they think the 2 marks are for and then go through the
answer.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SC8e.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Partially complete some of the questions before giving out the worksheet.
Make sure that students understand that it does not matter whether acid or alkali goes
in the burette, but it is normally an acid because alkalis can damage the glass if not
washed out properly later.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SC8e.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question at the bottom of the
sheet. Graph paper is needed to answer this question.

SC8d Alkalis and balancing

equations
The nature of alkalis, their reaction with acids and writing balanced equations.
Objectives
C0.1 Recall the formulae of elements, simple compounds and ions.
C0.2 Write word equations.
C0.3 Write balanced chemical equations, including the use of the state symbols (s), (l),
(g) and (aq).
C3.6 Investigate the change in pH on adding powdered calcium hydroxide or calcium oxide
to a fixed volume of dilute hydrochloric acid.
C3.10 Recall that alkalis are soluble bases.
C3.11c Explain the general reactions of aqueous solutions of acids with metal
hydroxides to produce salts.
Maths requirements
1c Use ratios, fractions and percentages.
4a Translate information between graphical and numeric form.
4c Plot two variables from experimental or other data.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Objectives activity at the top of the
Progression Check sheet. Alternatively ask students to answer the Progression
questions in the Student Book and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a
baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. Predicting salts
Ask students to predict the salts formed in the reaction between some named metal
oxides and common acids. This can be done using a 4 × 4 grid with acid names in the
first row as column headings, and metal oxide names in the first column as row
headings. The nine possible salts are written into the remaining boxes. For example:

calcium oxide
zinc oxide
magnesium oxide

This could be done in pairs on paper or mini-whiteboards. Each pair shares their
answers with another pair, and amends or adds to their answers as necessary. Groups
feed back one or more of their answers to the class.
Support: Give an example of how to work out the name of the salt formed, i.e. the first
part of the name is taken from the name of the metal in the metal oxide, and the second
part of the name is taken from the name of the acid (hydrochloric acid → chloride;
sulfuric acid → sulfate; nitric acid → nitrate; phosphoric acid → phosphate).
Equipment optional: mini-whiteboards and non-permanent marker pens
Exploring Tasks
1. Neutralising an acid – Core practical
This is a Core practical in which students add successive weighed portions of calcium
hydroxide powder to a fixed amount of dilute hydrochloric acid, and estimate the pH of
the reaction mixture using universal indicator paper. They then plot a graph of pH
against mass of calcium hydroxide added.
The practical activity on Worksheet SC8d.1 is written for the use of universal indicator
paper to estimate pH, but you may prefer to use pH meters to measure the pH instead.
Support: Provide eight 0.3 g pre-weighed portions of calcium hydroxide powder to each
group that needs it. Provide graph paper with suitable axes already drawn on it (pH 0–
14 on vertical axis; mass of calcium hydroxide 0–2.4 g on horizontal axis). Additionally,
or alternatively, Skills Sheets PD5 and PD6 may be useful in helping students to draw
their graphs.
Stretch: Give students narrow range indicator paper to increase the precision of their
pH estimates.
Expected results
The pH will increase as more calcium hydroxide is added, with the end-point at
approximately 1.85 g of calcium oxide. Calcium hydroxide is sparingly soluble (about
0.17 g/100 cm3 H2O) so beyond this excess calcium hydroxide will be seen.
Equipment: eye protection, 100 cm3 beaker, 50 cm3 measuring cylinder, ±0.1 g balance,
spatula, stirring rod, white tile, universal indicator paper, pH colour chart, dilute
hydrochloric acid, calcium hydroxide powder, graph paper
Important:
• Eye protection should be worn. Students should wash their hands afterwards. Calcium
hydroxide is an irritant, with a risk of serious damage to eyes. Dilute hydrochloric acid
is an irritant.

2. Words to balanced equations

Students complete Worksheet SC8d.2. They need to match the names of acids and
alkalis to their formulae, then write balanced equations for supplied word equations.
They write their answers on the sheet.
There is an accompanying set of ‘formula cards’, matched to the substances in the
questions, for students to cut out and use. The students match the cards to the names of
each substance in the word equation, adding additional cards if necessary to balance the
equation, then write out the balanced equation.
Support: Demonstrate the process of putting together a balanced equation from some
of the cards.
Stretch: Students balance the equations without the help of the cards.
Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SC8d Alkalis and balancing equations
Work through the Student Book pages, answering questions up to the checkpoint.
There are two distinct areas for students to develop their knowledge and
understanding:
• the nature of alkalis and their reaction with acids
• writing balanced equations.

The focus of the lesson may well depend upon the prior knowledge and understanding
demonstrated by the students in the Starter activities.
The interactive SC8d Balancing equations is a sorting activity to help show the
differences between acids and alkalis, including their identification using indicators.
Support: Students are likely to find alkalis and their reactions with acids easier to
understand than balancing equations. Make sure that students appreciate that they are
trying to achieve the same numbers of each element on each side of the equation. Use
tally charts for each element left and right.
Stretch: Students write a simple guide to balancing equations, with KS3 students as the
intended audience.

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SC8d Alkalis and
balancing equations in the Student Book and assess whether students feel more
confident about answering them. Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’
activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’
activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs or small groups to answer questions S1 and S2 in the
Student Book, and/or the questions on Worksheet SC8d.3. Questions 1–3 on the
worksheet provide help and scaffolding for answering question S1, and the remaining
questions for answering question S2.
Once pairs have completed their answers they should join with another pair or group to
discuss their responses and to refine them. Ensure that the students are secure in their
understanding of the relationship between bases and alkalis, and how to balance
equations.
As an alternative or extension, give the students the formulae of two acids and two
alkalis, and ask them to write balanced equations for the four possible combinations of
acid and alkali. These could be shared with the class for further practice.
3. Extend
Students work in pairs to answer question E1 in the Student Book. Pairs then join into
fours to discuss their responses.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to individually write an unbalanced
equation, for the reaction between an acid and an alkali, with its balanced equation
answer. They then swap questions so they can try to balance each other’s equations.
The author of the question coaches the other student if they are having difficulty
answering it, and the other student coaches the author if they believe that there is a
problem with the mark scheme. If students in a pair cannot agree, they ask another pair
to help. If the group cannot agree, they ask the teacher to help.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SC8d Alkalis and balancing
equations in the Student Book. Then ask students to get together in pairs and compare
their answers. Working together, they should work on an ideal answer that they think
will be worth 3 marks. Ask random pairs what they think the 3 marks are for and then
go through the answer.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SC8d.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Partially complete some of the questions before giving out the worksheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SC8d.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question at the bottom of the
sheet. The students will need to have covered SC9b Conservation of mass to answer this
question.

SC8c Bases and salts

Neutralisation reactions: bases, acids and salts.
Objectives
C0.3 Write balanced equations, including the use of the state symbols (s), (l), (g) and
(aq).
C3.9 Recall that a base is any substance that reacts with an acid to form a salt and water
only.
C3.11b Explain the general reactions of aqueous solutions of acids with metal oxides to
produce salts.
C3.13 Describe a neutralisation reaction as a reaction between an acid and a base.
C3.15 Explain why, if soluble salts are prepared from an acid and an insoluble reactant:
(a) excess of the reactant is added
(b) the excess reactant is removed
(c) the solution remaining is only salt and water.
C3.17 Investigate the preparation of pure, dry hydrated copper sulfate crystals starting
from copper oxide, including the use of a water bath.
Maths requirements
1c Use ratios, fractions and percentages.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Objectives activity at the top of the
Progression Check sheet. Alternatively ask students to answer the Progression
questions in the Student Book and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a
baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starter
2. Looking at solutions
Show the students salt dissolving in water to form a salt solution. Ask students
questions such as: Where has the salt gone? Has the salt just vanished? How could we
use our senses to confirm that the salt was still there? Make sure that students do not
actually taste the salt! This demonstration could be done on an electronic balance to
illustrate the law of conservation of mass (a topic that is revisited in SC9b Conservation
of mass). Discuss the nature of solutions and the meaning of the terms: soluble, solute,
solvent, solution, etc.
Ask students to explain how they could get the solid salt back again. Demonstrate
obtaining a sample of the salt by evaporating the water.
Support: Some students may need additional examples and illustrations to remind them
of the meaning of the terms: solute, solvent, solution, soluble, dissolves.
Equipment (for demonstration): eye protection, solid salt (sodium chloride), 250 cm3
conical flask, stirring rod, evaporating basin, Bunsen burner, tripod stand, gauze, heat
mat

Exploring Tasks
1. Preparing a soluble salt – Core Practical
Students work in groups following the instructions on Worksheet SC8c.1 to investigate
the preparation of a pure, dry salt. In this case the salt is hydrated copper sulfate. Briefly
discuss the steps involved in the preparation of the salt before the students start the
investigation. Students should understand why:
• an excess of copper oxide has to be added
• the excess has to be removed
• only the salt and water are present in the solution after filtration.

There are different ways of carrying out this practical. For example, the experiment
could be carried out in a boiling tube and step B could be done by placing the boiling
tube in a beaker of water over a Bunsen burner.
To produce the largest and best-formed crystals of copper sulfate, the final solution
should be kept dust free and allowed to evaporate as slowly and evenly as possible.
Support: Some students will need help with the word and symbol equations.
Stretch: Ask students to find out why certain salts could not be prepared by this
method. For example, sodium sulfate cannot be made this way as sodium oxide is
soluble and the excess could not be separated. Calcium sulfate could not be formed this
way as it is insoluble in water and could not be separated from the metal oxide.
Expected results
Copper oxide and sulfuric acid form a soluble salt, copper sulfate. Students should be
able to prepare a dry pure sample of copper sulfate crystals, which are blue in colour
and diamond shaped.
Important:
• Eye protection should be worn throughout this experiment.

Equipment (per group): eye protection, 100 cm3 conical flask, 100 cm3 beaker, Bunsen
burner, gauze, tripod stand, heat mat, Petri dish or watch glass, 100 cm3 measuring
cylinder, evaporating basin, spatula, stirring rod, filter funnel, filter paper, tongs, water
bath (set at 50 °C), 1 mol dm–3 sulfuric acid, copper(II) oxide

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SC8c Bases and salts
Work through the Student Book pages, answering questions up to the checkpoint.
This topic starts by revising ideas about acids, bases, neutralisation and salts. At this
stage bases are restricted to metal oxides and acids to hydrochloric, sulfuric and nitric
acid. In the second part of the topic students learn how samples of soluble salts can be
prepared from acids and metal oxides. This will prepare students for the mandatory
Core practical (3.17). Diagram D in the Student Book considers the preparation of tin(II)
chloride.
(Due to the toxic nature of nickel compounds, the similar preparation of nickel chloride
should not be performed in the laboratory.)
The presentation SC8c Forming soluble salts uses examples of neutralisation reactions to
lead students through word equations and then symbol equations. (See also Explaining
Tasks 2.)
Support: Some students may need help with writing the names of salts. Highlight the
link between the names of the reactants (such as ‘.......chloric’) and the products (such as
‘....... chloride’).
Stretch: Point out the symbol equation for diagram D in the Student Book and challenge
students to explain why there is a large ‘2’ in front of HCl. Hint that they look at the
numbers of the different atoms on each side of the equation. Some students may have
balanced equations at KS3. This (and the last part of question E1) looks forward to the
next topic, which considers balancing equations.

2. Writing formulae and chemical equations

Revise, through class discussion, chemical reactions in general, the new substances
being formed, reactants and products. Revise how the periodic table can be used to find
ion charges (valencies) of main group elements. Discuss how ion formulae and valencies
can be used to work out formulae and ionic formulae.
Give students examples of simple ionic formulae to work out. Extend this by telling
them the form that a compound is in and asking them to add the appropriate state
symbols.
Then show students how to write the formulae for more complex compounds that
contain ‘group ions’ (introduced in SC8a Acids, alkalis and indicators). Explain the use of
brackets and then challenge students to work out the formulae of various substances
(using the periodic table and the charges on nitrate and sulfate ions).
The presentation SC8c Forming soluble salts could be used to support this work.
Support: Some students will need help and extra examples of working out ion charges
(valency) and writing formulae.
Stretch: Give students more challenging examples using metals with higher valencies
and less familiar group ions (e.g. AlCl3 and Ca3(PO4)2).
Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression Questions on SC8c Bases and salts
in the Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident about answering
them. Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who
demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to answer question S1 in the Student Book. Once students have completed
their answers, they should form pairs to discuss their responses and improve their
understanding of the stages involved in the preparation of a soluble salt from an acid
and an insoluble base. Alternatively students could complete Worksheet SC8c.2 in pairs,
or collaboratively as a class, prior to students preparing answers to question S1.
Question 1 on Worksheet SC8c.2 supplies scaffolding for question S1.
At any point during the activity you may find it useful for students to revisit the learning
outcomes (from the beginning of this TTPP topic), which could be displayed on the
board.

3. Extend
Ask students to work individually to answer question E1 in the Student Book. Then they
should form pairs to discuss their responses and refine their answers. The symbol
equation for this reaction is very difficult to balance and students could be instructed
not to do this part. Balancing equations will be met in the next topic.
Alternatively students could complete Worksheet SC8c.3 in pairs, prior to answering
question E1. The questions supply scaffolding for question E1, including the balanced
equation.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SC8c Bases and salts in the
Student Book and discuss their answers in pairs. Any problems or misconceptions
should be resolved through class discussion.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SC8c.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Some students may need to have the first examples of the equations
completed for them.
Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SC8c.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge questions.

SC8b Looking at acids

Looking at acid concentrations, and the difference between strong and weak acids.
Objectives
C3.5 H Recall that as hydrogen ion concentration in a solution increases by a factor of
10, the pH of the solution decreases by 1.
C3.7 H Explain the terms dilute and concentrated, with respect to amount of substances
in solution.
C3.8 H Explain the terms weak and strong acids, with respect to the degree of
dissociation into ions.
Maths requirements
1c Use ratios, fractions and percentages

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Objectives activity at the top of the
Progression Check sheet. Alternatively ask students to answer the Progression
questions in the Student Book and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a
baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. Diluting solutions
Demonstrate the dilution of potassium manganate(VII), roughly diluting by 50%
repeatedly, until the colour cannot be seen. If there is time, this experiment can be
carried out by students using copper sulfate.
Discuss the difference between dilute and concentrated solutions in terms of the
amount of solute in a unit volume. Discuss the units for solution concentrations and how
they are written, e.g. grams/litre or g/dm3 or g dm–3. Ensure that students recognise the
concentration units used in this course as g dm–3. Ask students to think about how they
could compare the concentration of different types of solution and how they could
tell which solution was more concentrated. Possible ideas include differentiating: by
depth of colour, by mass of solute when evaporated and by titration.
Stretch: Some students could research measuring concentrations in moles per litre or
mol/dm3 or mol dm–3. Note that this is covered in Single Chemistry for Higher Tier
students SC14c Concentrations but does not form part of the Combined Science course.
Equipment (for demonstration): a concentrated solution of potassium manganate(VII)
(approximately 4 g per 100 cm3), 10 test tubes, 2 test-tube racks
Important
Wear eye protection

Exploring Tasks
1. Practical – pH and concentration
Students work in groups to follow the instructions in Worksheet CC8b.1 to investigate
how the pH value is linked to the concentration of the solution. Starting with 3.65 g dm–3
(0.1 mol dm–3) hydrochloric acid, students use accurate measuring apparatus to dilute
the solution successively, by a factor of 10 (making 1/10th of its starting concentration).
Each group should produce a series of acidic solutions with concentrations: 0.1 mol dm–
3
; 0.01 mol dm–3; 0.001 mol dm–3; 0.0001 mol dm–3; 0.000 01 mol dm–3 and 0.000 001
mol dm–3. If we designate and label the first solution as having relative concentration of
1.0 then the subsequent relative concentrations are 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001 and 0.000
01.
The students then use pH meters to measure the pH of the solutions (from least to
highest concentration). This should show the link between pH and concentration. The
worksheet includes questions on concentration and pH.
Note that the proper techniques for using pipettes and pipette fillers should be
demonstrated to the students before they start this practical. It is also preferable to use
distilled or deionised water to wash out the equipment and to make the solutions.
Support: Some students may need help with the units of concentration and the idea of
relative concentration of hydrogen ions.
Stretch: Students follow the instructions on the first side of the worksheet but design
their own tables to record the results. They also write their own conclusions from their
results.
Expected results

Concentr 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001 0.000001

ation
(mol dm–
3
)
Concentr 3.65 0.365 0.0365 0.00365 0.000365 0.000036
 ation 5
(g dm–3)
pH 1 2 3 4 5 6

The pH values should be as shown in the table above. The accuracy of pH meters can
vary and it is suggested that students record the pH value to the nearest whole number.
Important:
• Eye protection should be worn throughout this experiment.

Equipment (per group): eye protection, 0.1 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, 100 cm3
measuring cylinder, 1 × 10 cm3 pipette, pipette filler, 6 × 250 cm3 conical flasks, 2 × 100
cm3 volumetric flasks, universal indicator liquid, distilled or deionised water

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SC8b Looking at acids
Work through the Student Book pages, answering questions up to the checkpoint.
This topic covers the Higher tier objectives on the differences between concentrated
and dilute solutions and strong and weak acids. Note that before covering this topic
many students would use the terms strong and concentrated interchangeably.
Emphasise that in chemistry a strong solution refers to the nature of the solute not the
amount of solute per unit volume.
The presentation SC8b Strong and weak acids can be used to reinforce the difference
between strong/concentrated and weak/dilute acids. There are questions for students
to discuss, and full answers.
Support: Some students may need help with calculating the concentrations of solution
and interpreting the units of concentration, such as g dm–3.
Stretch: Some students could carry out research to find other examples of weak acids
formed by molecular solutes and draw diagrams to represent the mixture of molecules
and ions that is formed when they dissolve in water.

2. Strong and weak solutions

Demonstrate how the pH of different acid solutions, of the same concentration, can vary.
For example using four acidic solutions of concentration 0.1 mol dm−3: pH of
hydrochloric acid = 1; pH of sulfuric acid = 2; pH of ethanoic acid = 4 and pH of citric
acid = 5. Choose examples of two strong and two weak acids. Introduce students to the
idea of strong and weak acids and discuss how the different dissociations of acid
molecules can help explain why their solutions have different pH values.
Show the students a fifth solution and measure its pH (should be about 4 or 5). Ask
students if they think this is a strong or weak acid. They may suggest that it is a weak
acid. Tell them it is actually a strong acid and discuss how they could work out that it
must be a dilute solution of a strong acid. Possible answers include finding out the
amount of sodium carbonate that reacts with the acid or carrying out a titration with an
alkali. In both cases we would need to compare amounts reacting with that required by
a similar volume of a concentrated weak acid solution. The concentrated solution of the
weak acid will require a greater volume of sodium carbonate solution for neutralisation
than would an equal volume of the dilute solution of a strong acid, because
the concentrated solution contains more acid. Discuss the differences between dilute
and concentrated, and strong and weak solutions. Ask students to work in pairs to agree
definitions of the terms dilute, concentrated, strong and weak. Display the definitions on
notice boards for a ‘gallery walk’ and peer assessment.
Support: Some students may need a word list to help them write their definitions.
Suitable words to include would be: lots, little, solute, solution, molecules, complete,
incomplete, dissociation.
Stretch: Some students could try to find out how pH is calculated from H+ ion
concentrations.
Equipment (for demonstration): eye protection, pH meter, 0.1 mol dm–3 hydrochloric
acid, 0.1 mol dm–3 sulfuric acid, 0.1 mol dm–3 ethanoic acid, 0.1 mol dm–3 citric acid

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression Questions on SC8b Looking at acids
in the Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident about answering
them. Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who
demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to answer question S1 in the Student Book. Once students have completed
their answer they should form pairs to discuss their responses and improve upon them.
Alternatively, students could complete Worksheet SC8b.3 as a class prior to attempting
question S1. Question 1 on Worksheet SC8b.3 offers scaffolding to help students build
an answer to S1.
At any point during the activity you may find it useful for students to revisit the learning
outcomes (at the beginning of this TTPP topic), which could be displayed on the board.
As an extension or alternative give the students a cut-up version of the SC8b Word
Sheet. All the words should be included but one definition should be missing. Ask
students to work out which definition is missing and write a replacement definition.
Different groups could be set up to write definitions of different words. Then give
the students the correct definitions from the Word Sheet so they can compare and
correct (if necessary) their ideas.
3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Pairs then
should join into fours to discuss their responses and refine their answers.
Students could review ideas about acid solutions before attempting question E1. This
could be achieved by reading over topic SC8b Looking at acids in the Student Book and
using the glossary at the back of the book.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SC8b.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Some students may need help with the concept of molecules forming ions
when they dissolve in water.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SC8b.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge questions.

SC8a Acids, alkalis and indicators

Acids and alkalis and their effect on indicators.
Objectives
C0.5 Describe the use of hazard symbols on containers (a) to indicate the dangers
associated with the contents (b) to inform people about safe-working precautions with
these substances in the laboratory.
C3.1 Recall that acids in solution are sources of hydrogen ions and alkalis in solution are
sources of hydroxide ions.
C3.2 Recall that a neutral solution has a pH of 7 and that acidic solutions have lower pH
values and alkaline solutions higher pH values.
C3.3 Recall the effect of acids and alkalis on indicators, including litmus, methyl orange
and phenolphthalein.
C3.4 H Recall that the higher the concentration of hydrogen ions in an acidic solution,
the lower the pH; and the higher the concentration of hydroxide ions in an alkaline
solution, the higher the pH.
Maths requirements
1c Use ratios, fractions and percentages.
Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Objectives activity at the top of the
Progression Check sheet. Alternatively ask students to answer the Progression
questions in the Student Book and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a
baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
2. Testing acids and alkalis
Demonstrate the ‘water, into wine, into water’ trick. This will need the following set-up
before the class arrives: glass 1 with 3 drops of 1 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide; glass 2
with 5 or 6 drops of phenolphthalein; glass 3 with 6 drops of 1 mol dm–3 hydrochloric
acid; and glass 4 with 8 drops of 1 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution.
Ask students to carefully watch what you are doing. Fill glass 1 with water from the tap
and pour the water into glass 2 (water to wine). Pour that into glass 3 (wine into water).
Then pour that into glass 4 (back to wine again).
Discuss what happened with students and explain how it is done. Use demonstration
and discussion to revise their understanding of indicators, acids and alkalis.
Equipment (for demonstration): dropper bottle with 1 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide;
dropper bottle with 1 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid; dropper bottle with phenolphthalein
solution; four or five glasses, beakers or cups set up as described above
Important:
Wear eye protection. Care is required in handling 1 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide and 1
mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid.

Exploring Tasks
1. Practical – The colours of indicators
Students work in groups to follow the instructions in Worksheet SC8a.1 to find the
effect of adding different indicators to two solutions, one labelled ‘X’ (0.1 mol dm–3
hydrochloric acid) and the other labelled ‘Y’ (0.1 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide). The use
of universal indicator should allow students to work out which solution is acidic and
which is alkaline. This can be confirmed by measuring the pH of the two solutions using
a pH probe and meter. This can be done either as a demonstration or by allowing
students to test the solutions themselves. Students will then be able to summarise the
effect of acids and alkalis on a range of indicators.
Important:
• Wear eye protection at all times (sodium hydroxide is corrosive). Wipe up spills as
soon as possible. Care is required with some indicators which are highly flammable.

Support: Some students may need help to control the addition of 1 cm3 of acid at a time,
otherwise they may miss the exact pH at which the colour change occurs.
Stretch: Some students could find out about other examples of indicators and their
colour changes. They could also compare the accuracy of measuring pH using universal
indicator and a pH probe and meter.
Expected results

Indicator
Colour in acid
Colour in alkali

Equipment (per group): eye protection, 0.1 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid labelled
‘solution X’, 0.1 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide labelled ‘solution Y’, universal indicator,
litmus, methyl orange, phenolphthalein, 8 test tubes, test-tube rack, white tile
For demonstration: pH probe or pH meter

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SC8a Acids, alkalis and indicators
Work through the Student Book pages, answering questions up to the checkpoint.
This topic reviews basic ideas about acids, alkalis, indicators and pH, extending the
students’ understanding of solutions by introducing ideas about acidity, alkalinity, pH
and the concentration of hydrogen and hydroxide ions present. Encourage students to
use terms properly, e.g. acid and alkali as nouns, acidic and alkaline as adjectives.
Students may need reminding of the meaning of the main hazard symbols used
with acidic and alkaline solutions (corrosive, harmful, irritant and toxic) and the link
between the hazard symbol and the concentration and type of the solution. Students
will need reminding that the pH scale (usually) runs from 1 to 14.
In addition, although they should understand the concept of an ion as an atom that has
lost or gained an electron, they may not have a clear idea about ions that consist of more
than one atom. Students should be able to describe an ion as an atom or group of atoms
that has become charged due to the loss or gain of electrons. They should recall that
positive ions, e.g. H+, Na+, Mg2+ or Al3+, are formed by the loss of electrons and that
negative ions, e.g. OH–, Cl–, O2– or SO42–, are formed by the gain of electrons.
When discussing ions in solution, remember that all solutions in water contain the ions
H+ and OH–. Acids contain excess H+ ions, alkalis contain excess OH– ions and neutral
solutions contain equal concentrations of H+ ions and OH– ions. This can usefully be
modelled for students using a molecular modelling kit.
The interactive SC8a Acids, alkalis and indicators asks students to sort statements into
those that are true for acids, those that are true for alkalis and those that are true for
indicators.
Support: Some students will need to be reminded what an ion is, and how ions are
formed (see SC5b Ionic lattices).
Stretch: Some students could research to find more examples of the names and
formulae of common acids and alkalis, including ones with ions that contain more than
one atom.

2. Electrolysis of acids
Show the students a model of the ions present in a solution of hydrochloric acid (or use
diagram E on Student book page SC8a Acids, alkalis and indicators). Note that the ions
from the water have not been included in diagram E. Briefly discuss the nature of ions
and electrolysis. Then ask the students to work in groups to produce a model of what
happens during the electrolysis of an acid such as hydrochloric acid. The models could
be made using molecular model kits, poster paper, or through role-play with the
students playing the part of the ions. When completed the class should be given the
opportunity to see each of the models in action.
Demonstrate the electrolysis of hydrochloric acid and the testing of gases produced at
the electrodes. Discuss how H2 and Cl2 are formed at each electrode and why one of the
products will be produced by the electrolysis of all acids. Note that the tests for the
gases are covered later in the course, chlorine in SC13b Group 7 and hydrogen in SC8f
Reactions of acids with metals and carbonates.
Note the fact that the production of hydrogen gas at the negative electrode during
electrolysis is not definitive evidence for an acid, as other solutions (including many
alkalis) will produce hydrogen at the negative electrode during electrolysis.
Support: Some students will need help with the idea that positive ions will be attracted
to the negative electrode.
Stretch: Some students could write equations to represent the changes that occur at the
electrodes during electrolysis.
Equipment (for demonstration): eye protection, electrolysis and collection of gas
apparatus (simple Hofmann apparatus), 4 V power supply, wooden splints, litmus
paper, 0.1 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression Questions on SC8a Acids, alkalis and
indicators in the Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident about
answering them. Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity. Students
who demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book. Once pairs
have completed their answer they should join with another pair to discuss their
responses and refine them.
Alternatively, students could complete Worksheet SC8a.3 collaboratively as a class.
Question 1 on Worksheet SC8a.3 provides scaffolding for question S1 in the Student
Book. The rest of the sheet reinforces the key ideas from the topic. At any point during
the activity you may find it useful for students to revisit the learning outcomes (at the
beginning of this TTPP topic), which could be displayed on the board.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Pairs then
should join into fours to discuss their responses. As an extension, challenge students to
develop a way of modelling an answer to this question using a physical model.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SC8a Acids, alkalis and
indicators. Then ask students to get together in pairs and compare their answers and
work on an ideal answer that they think will be worth full marks. Ask random pairs
what they think the marks are for and then go through the answer.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SC8a.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Some students may need reminding of the nature of the hydrogen ions (H+)
and hydroxide ions (OH–) found in acids and alkalis.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SC8a.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question.

SB3k Variation
The causes and effects of genetic and environmental variation.
Objectives
B3.20 Describe the causes of variation that influence phenotype including:
(a) genetic variation – different characteristics as a result of mutation and sexual
reproduction
(b) environmental variation – different characteristics caused by an organism’s
environment (acquired characteristics).
Maths requirements
2b Find arithmetic means.
2c Construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and histograms.
2f Understand the terms mean, mode and median.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to answer the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their
own baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
2. Variation graphs
Show students examples of, or quickly sketch on the board, two charts: one showing the
proportions of individuals in a population with regard to natural eye colour, and the
other showing the proportions of individuals in a population with regard to weight.
Examples are provided in the worksheet SB3k Variation graphs. Give students three
minutes to jot down what each chart shows, then take examples from around the class
to assess what they have learnt so far about variation. Establish the idea that some
variation is continuous and some is discontinuous, and introduce the idea that some
characteristics have a mainly genetic component (e.g. eye colour) and others are
controlled by genetic and environmental factors (e.g. weight).

Exploring Tasks
2. Variation in data
Worksheet SB3k.2 contains charts and tables of data that describe variation in different
characteristics. Students are asked to identify what the charts and tables show.
The presentation SB3k Continuous or discontinuous contains copies of the charts and
tables, and could be displayed for class discussion.
Support: Write up the list of types of variation from question 1 on the board. Then
display each of the charts and tables in the slideshow one at a time and ask students to
select the best chart or table for each type.
Stretch: Students should discuss the importance of grouping continuous data in order
to produce a useful chart. They should appreciate that if the unit of measurement is
small relative to the range of variation, there may be few or no occurrences of a
particular value as a result of natural variation. They could test this by gathering data on
the height of individuals in the class and looking at different ways of grouping the data
to produce the most useful pattern of results.

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB3k Variation
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
When answering question 2c, it may help to get students to suggest a range of
explanations for their answers and to discuss these as a group. For example, height is
controlled by a range of genes that have different effects on bone length (such as on
ability to absorb nutrients for building bones, how effective the cells that make new
bone are at changing nutrients into bone material), as well as by the environment (such
as by how much of the nutrients needed for making more bone are absorbed from
digested food). Students need to understand that genes have a wide range of effects on
the body beyond just ‘making proteins’. For more able students, this can be developed
by discussing the range of proteins in the body, including enzymes and some hormones,
which control or affect the processes that take place in the body.
You could use charts C and D to remind students of the different types of bar chart. Bar
charts with gaps between the bars should be used when the measured variable is
discontinuous (or discrete if values are numeric), while there should not be gaps
between the bars when the independent variable is in the form of grouped continuous
data. The data for the independent variable are grouped into classes to make patterns in
the data more obvious. Note that there is often confusion between the latter type of bar
chart and a histogram. Histograms are similar but have frequency density on the y-axis,
so that the frequency is shown by the areas of the bars (which can be of unequal width)
and not by the heights of the bars.
Be aware of the conflict between how some terms are used in science and how they are
used in maths. See the note on the use of ‘range’ in SB3e Exploring Tasks 1. In addition,
in maths, the term ‘discontinuous’ is replaced by ‘discrete’, which refers to numeric
data. In this course, ‘discontinuous’ is used to describe both variation and variables; in
the latter case this includes non-numeric data (such as eye colour).
It is worth spending time discussing what the shape of a normal distribution curve
means, as students sometimes struggle with interpreting it. Ask additional questions
about chart D, so that students read off the number of individual leaves with different
measurements of leaf length, and ask them to compare the different numbers in order
to confirm the statements about normal distribution in the bullet point list on the same
page.
The presentation SB3k Continuous or discontinuous can be used to support this learning.
The presentation SB3k Variation shows examples of variation caused by the
environment in a range of organisms. Students can be asked to identify the variation
and which factor in the environment caused that variation.
The worksheet SB3k Variation charts shows two different charts (one for eye colour
within a population and one for weight within a population) and can be used to start a
discussion about continuous and discontinuous variation (see Starter 2).
Support: Work with students to complete the answers to the questions.
Stretch: Challenge students to think of two more examples each of continuous variation
and discontinuous variation, and also two more examples each of variation caused only
by genes, only by environment and by a combination of the two. They should test their
list of examples with another student to identify any confusion. Take examples from
around the class.

2. Variation Venn diagram

Write up a list of characteristics on the board, then draw a Venn diagram of two
intersecting circles. Add at least one characteristic to each section of the diagram, and
ask students to spot what the labels should be for each of the circles and for the area of
intersection. (Arrange the characteristics according to whether they are the result of
genetic variation only, environment only, or a combination of the two.) Once students
have identified the labels, ask them to suggest where the remaining characteristics
should be placed within the diagram.
Repeat the activity with two non-intersecting circles and the list of characteristics. In
this case, students should identify the labels for the circles as continuous and
discontinuous variation.
Support: Check that students are clear why there is no intersection of the circles for
continuous and discontinuous variation (because they are completely separate groups),
and are certain what the intersection of the circles in the genetic/environment diagram
means.
Stretch: Ask students to think about examples of variation caused by a single gene (e.g.
human ABO blood group) and variation caused by multiple genes (e.g. human eye
colour), and to compare the shape of charts of variation that they produce. This should
lead to the idea that single-gene inheritance should produce discontinuous variation
and multiple-gene inheritance may produce continuous variation, as long as other
factors (including the environment) have little effect.

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB3k Variation in the
Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident about answering them.
Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate
good understanding should move onto the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Question 1 on Worksheet SB3k.3 provides scaffolding for question S1 in the Student
Book. The remaining questions reinforce other key ideas in this topic.
Ask students to work in pairs and to jot down all the different ways in which hair can
vary. Take examples from each pair and compile a list on the board of at least three
different characteristics. (Examples could include colour, length, straight/wavy/curly,
additional styling such as braiding.) Check that students can distinguish the
characteristic from examples of how it varies, e.g. hair length as opposed to long or
short hair. Then ask students to discuss in their pairs a reason why there is variation in
each characteristic, and to identify whether that reason means the variation is inherited
(genetic) or is the result of a change made to the hair (environmental). In some cases,
they should be able to suggest both an environmental and a genetic reason (e.g. natural
hair colour is inherited but can be changed by dye). Finally, ask them to decide whether
the variation for each characteristic is continuous or discontinuous. When taking
answers, ask students to give a reason for their choice.
Alternatively, or in addition, ask students to work in pairs to compile a list of five human
characteristics other than hair that show variation. They should identify which
characteristics show variation that they think is caused by variation in genes, which by
variation in the environment, and which by variation in both genes and the
environment. They should also decide which variation is continuous and which is
discontinuous. They should keep notes of their choices and then exchange their list with
another pair. They should repeat the categorisation of the examples they have been
given, and then compare their answers with the pair that made the list. Pairs should
discuss any discrepancies in answers and try to reach agreement. Take examples from
around the class, with the aim of finding which example was the most difficult to
categorise and why.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. The pairs then
join into fours to discuss and compare their responses and identify how they could
improve them.
Alternatively, give students the word lists for all topics in the unit. Ask them to
construct cloze exercise sentences for each other to do: one sentence for each topic,
using as many of the bold words from that spread as possible. They should swap their
sentences and try to solve them, feeding back to each other on how the cloze sentences
were good and how they could be improved. Students should then add to their list of
words any that they did not use and identify any definitions that they are still having
difficulty with. Ask them to come up with a plan to tackle those difficulties.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB3k Variation.
Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB3k.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic. Students will need graph paper to complete questions 2 and 3.
Support: Check that students understand the questions before asking them to complete
the worksheet. Skills Sheets PD3 and PD4 could be used to support this.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB3k.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Students complete the Extra challenge question at the end of the sheet.

SB3j Gene mutation

How mutations cause genetic variation.
Objectives
B3.19 State that most phenotypic features are the result of multiple genes rather than
single gene inheritance.
B3.20 Describe the causes of variation that influence phenotype including: (a) genetic
variation – different characteristics as a result of mutation and sexual reproduction.
B3.21 Discuss the outcomes of the Human Genome Project and its potential applications
within medicine.
B3.22 State that there is usually extensive genetic variation within a population of a
species and that these arise through mutations.
B3.23 State that most genetic mutations have no effect on the phenotype, some
mutations have a small effect on the phenotype and, rarely, a single mutation will
significantly affect the phenotype.
Maths requirements
2b Construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams.
Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to answer the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their
own baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. Genetic variation
Arrange students in groups of at least five and ask them to collect data from the group
about variation in a few characteristics that are genetically controlled, such as tongue
rolling, earlobe shape, straight/hitchhiker’s thumb, presence or absence of cheek
dimples, cleft/smooth chin. (Images are available on the Internet if students need
guidance on what the variation looks like.) Ask where the variation has come from. If
students respond that it is inherited, ask where the variation came from originally.
Students should realise that the variation must arise from a change in the gene, to
produce a different allele. Introduce this change as ‘mutation’. With more able students,
lead on to what change must have happened in the gene so that a different
characteristic is produced. This should help remind them of the order of bases in the
gene/DNA. This is also a good opportunity to introduce the fact that many human
characteristics are controlled by multiple genes, as, despite what is often quoted, none
of the examples given is the result of variation in a single gene.
Equipment optional: images from the Internet of free vs attached earlobes, straight vs
hitchhiker’s thumb, rolled vs non-rolled tongue

Exploring Tasks
1. Eye colour variation
Students use a simple eye colour scale to collect data on the variation in eye colour in
the class or other groups (e.g. families). A reference scale will need to be made before
the practical, using a set of images from the Internet. If there is time, allow students to
do this, as it will generate discussion about judging colours. Several examples of eye
colour scales can be found on the Internet, including the Martin–Schultz scale. A
simplified suggestion is given below in the Equipment section. An even simpler scale
can be made using a three-point scale of pale, medium and dark. Whether or not to
record additional colour features (e.g. iris ring or spots) as well as main iris colour will
need to be decided when creating the reference scale. Worksheet SB3j.1 supports this
activity.
Before students begin the practical, make sure they understand how to use tally charts
to collect and record data for frequency diagrams. Skills Sheet PD4 can be used to
support this.
It is important that students realise that eye colour is a characteristic produced by more
than one gene. This is because it is often stated that brown eye colour is dominant to
blue – in single-gene inheritance it would be impossible for two blue-eyed (homozygous
recessive) parents to have a brown-eyed child. However, since several genes are
involved in producing eye colour, this result is possible. Believing otherwise might
cause unnecessary distress to some students.
Students will need to decide on a question to answer using the data they will collect, and
then decide on who they need to collect data from to answer that question. For example:
• Do boys and girls show different ranges of eye colours? Data will need to record gender
as well as eye colour for each individual. A large number of boys and girls of similar age
will need to be recorded.
• Are natural hair colour and eye colour related, e.g. do people with dark coloured hair
have dark coloured eyes? A colour chart for hair colour will be needed as well as for eye
colour. Recording hair colour and eye colour as pale/medium/dark for both variables
will simplify this.
• How many students have the same eye colour as their mother (or father, or siblings)?
This will require homework time to collect data, and then time in class to complete the
data analysis.

The first example is the simplest to analyse as it generates a frequency diagram (bar
chart where the y-axis shows frequency), with one bar for male and one for female at
each colour. Comparison of heights of bars at each colour may show little variation or a
lot, and this variation could be the result of random sampling. The results for
relationship between hair and eye colour are best done in a table or a bar chart of
frequencies against the range of different combinations (pale–pale, pale–medium, etc.).
When using the term ‘range’, be careful to distinguish between its definition in science
and in maths. In science it is defined as in general language, meaning all the values from
one extreme to the other (as in range of eye colour, range of wavelengths). In maths,
range is the value of the largest number minus the smallest number. This difference in
meaning can cause confusion when the independent variable is numerical.
This can also be a useful opportunity to assess the effect of sample size on results and
conclusions by using small subsets of collected data.
Note that perceived eye colour is a combination of factors, including the amount of
melanin in the iris and how light is reflected by the fibres in the iris. There is no
coloured pigment in the iris, other than melanin (which makes it lighter or darker).
Support: Work with students to decide on which data to collect and how it should be
recorded. Students may also need help in completing the analysis and evaluation
sections of Worksheet SB3j.1.
Stretch: Students should evaluate the use of the scale for mapping variation by
considering other methods that could be used (such as a light meter), and whether eye
colour is affected by other factors (e.g. amount of light, colour of light reflected onto the
face such as from clothing near the neck). Students should also consider whether the
scale they have used is detailed enough for their conclusions.
Expected results
Results will depend on the question selected. Boys and girls are unlikely to show
different ranges of eye colour as a function of gender, although other factors (such as
variation in ethnic origin) may complicate the results. Eye colour is an inheritable
feature (as a result of several genes), so there should be evidence of this in the results if
students include their families. Skin colour and eye colour are generally related because
melanin, the protein that causes eyes to look darker, also usually makes skin and hair
colour darker. However, mutations in other genes that affect skin and eye colour may
result in an individual with dark hair and light eyes, and vice versa.
Equipment: images from the Internet to identify the following main iris colours: blue,
grey, green, light brown/amber, brown (label the images with their colours; additional
features in the iris may be seen in different colours, e.g. spots or rings of brown or
yellow, and so may need additional images if these are being recorded)
Optional: skin colour chart showing range of human skin colours (constructed from
images from the Internet), light meter

2. Human Genome Project

Worksheet SB3j.2 presents information and questions on the Human Genome Project
and research since then on variation in the human genome. It covers examples of how
evidence from genomes is now used to predict the risk of developing diseases that are
affected by different alleles and whether a person may respond poorly to certain drugs.
Students could work in pairs to identify which parts of the information can be used to
answer the different questions, and to consider what other knowledge they have from
earlier topics that might be useful. Encourage students to write as full an answer to each
question as possible. Each pair could then compare answers with another pair to
identify differences for discussion. They should use the discussion to help improve their
answers. Ask students which questions they had greatest difficulty with, and share
answers to help develop understanding.
It might help to explain to students that, when talking about alleles for a particular gene,
the most common allele is often called the normal or wild-type allele. ‘Normal’ in this
situation means the one you most expect to see, not that all the others are abnormal.
Remind students that every allele appeared as the result of a mutation of an older
version.
Support: Read through the information and questions with students to make sure they
understand the content. Discuss the first few questions and where to find the
information to answer them, including using what they have learnt in previous topics.
Encourage them to work as pairs on remaining questions, but check progress to see if
extra support is needed.
Stretch: Students should answer the Extra challenge questions at the end of the sheet.
This could be done as small-group or class discussion so that students share a range of
views.
Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB3j Gene mutation
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
The video SB3j Genetic variation in plants shows examples of characteristics in plants
that are controlled by a single gene and by multiple genes, and discusses how mutations
in some plant characteristics have been exploited in horticulture to produce new
varieties with different characteristics (colours, leaf shapes, size – particularly
dwarfism).
It is important to explain to students that most genetic variation in human
characteristics is controlled by multiple genes. This includes many examples that are
commonly described as monohybrid inheritance, such as ability or inability to roll the
tongue, blue/brown eye colour, free/attached ear lobes. Other examples can be found
on the Internet by searching for ‘myths of human genetics’. (Also see notes for Exploring
Tasks 1.)
The effect of a mutation in a DNA base can be modelled by using the example of
mistyping a word. For example, look at the following sentence:
The leak caused by a hole in the pipe was easily fixed with sticky tape.
If ‘leak’ is mis-typed as ‘leek’, many people may spot the mistake but will identify what it
was supposed to be and so interpret the sentence correctly. However, if it is mistyped as
‘lake’ the sentence may be interpreted to mean something completely different.
Mutation in human melanin-producing genes has happened several times, as shown by
different alleles for these genes in different light-skinned human groups. The advantage
of light skin in northern areas is that more UV can be absorbed from sunlight for the
production of vitamin D in the skin. Darker skins that produce more melanin are at an
advantage in areas where there is stronger sunlight, as it gives protection against
mutation-inducing UV rays. Interestingly, DNA analysis of tissue from Neanderthals
(northern Europe, c. 200 000 to c. 40 000 years ago) has shown they had similar
mutations for pale skin.
Support: Students may need help setting out the Punnett square in answer to question
2.
Stretch: Ask students to answer the question ‘Was the Human Genome Project worth
it?’, bearing in mind that it cost over £2 billion. There is no correct answer to the
question, but students should use their powers of argument. Skills Sheet RC9 can
support the construction of a good argument.

2. Effect of mutation
To help students make a clear link between mutations in DNA and how these can affect
the body, use the example of cystic fibrosis that was introduced in SB3h. Begin by asking
students to give you the facts they know about cystic fibrosis. This should revise work
on the genetics of the disorder – that the disorder is caused by the inheritance of a
recessive allele for the gene from both parents. Note down other facts that are offered to
weave into the discussion. Use the following description to construct a flow chart on the
board.
Cystic fibrosis is caused by a fault in the CFTR gene. This gene is made up of 250 000
DNA base pairs and codes for a channel protein that is found in cell surface membranes.
The channel protein carries chloride ions from inside to outside cells that line tubes
(epithelial cells) such as the small intestine, and in the lungs and in other organs. These
tubes are covered in mucus, which helps to trap dirt particles and bacteria. The
movement of chloride ions out of the cell into the mucus increases the solute
concentration of the mucus and reduces the solute concentration inside the cell.
Revise osmosis by asking students to suggest what effect this change in solute
concentration will have on the movement of water molecules across the surface
membranes of the epithelial cells. They should remember that the overall movement of
water molecules will be from where there is a lower solute concentration to where
there is a higher solute concentration, i.e. out of the cell into the mucus. This makes the
mucus more watery and thinner, making it easier for ciliated epithelial cells to move the
mucus along the tube surface (such as out of the lungs to the back of the throat for
swallowing).
Over 1000 variations of the CFTR gene have been found. Ask students how these
variations have arisen – they should identify the source as mutation producing different
alleles. Some alleles have no effect on the channel protein; others have a small effect and
so the person suffers a mild form of cystic fibrosis. However, the most common
mutations either produce a faulty protein or no protein at all. Faulty proteins cannot
carry chloride ions across the cell membranes, so their effect is similar to having no
chloride channel protein.
Ask students to use what they know about osmosis to suggest the effect of a faulty or
missing protein on the mucus lining the tubes. They should explain that the mucus will
remain thick and sticky because the solute concentration of the mucus remains lower.
Thick, sticky mucus causes problems because it cannot be moved. In the lungs, infection
is more likely because bacteria trapped by the mucus remain in the lungs. In the
intestines, the thick mucus makes it more difficult for nutrients to be absorbed from
digested food into the body.
Support: Use this activity as an opportunity to revise key terms met in this unit so far
(e.g. gene, allele, genotype, phenotype, recessive, dominant, mutation, genome, base).
Stretch: Explain to students how the CFTR gene was found. In the late 1980s, several
new techniques were developed for finding differences in DNA from different people
(techniques used in DNA profiling in forensic science). It was discovered that people
with cystic fibrosis had a linked gene (one that commonly occurs in people with cystic
fibrosis CF), known to be on chromosome 7, and so scientists looked for the gene that
caused cystic fibrosis there too. Eventually the length of the CF gene was worked out to
be about 250 000 base pairs coding for a protein of 1480 amino acids. In 1992, the CFTR
protein was produced using a copy of the gene, and shown to be a chloride-carrying
membrane channel protein.
Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB3j Gene mutation in
the Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident about answering
them. Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who
demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SB3j.3, which support question S1.
Display the text and questions on Worksheet SB3j.3 on the board. For question 1, ask
students to identify the part of the text that answers the question. When the correct part
has been identified, students should use a highlighter pen to mark it, then work in their
pair to construct an answer from it. Ask students to repeat this approach for each of the
remaining questions, checking each time (for as long as support is needed) that
students have identified the right part of the text to use for their answer.
Alternatively, students could work in pairs to answer the questions without support. As
an extension, ask students to explain how information from genome tests for a couple
might help predict their probability of having a child that would suffer from albinism.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. They should
use their ideas to produce a mark scheme for the answer that is worth three marks.
They should then exchange their mark scheme with another pair, and identify one good
point and one weak point in the answer they have been given. They should justify their
choice of weak point. Allow time for mark schemes to be returned and redrafted so that
they are improved. You could then ask what advantage and disadvantage there might be
in a young person having a genome test that identifies whether or not they have one of
the variations that leads to night blindness later in life.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB3j Gene mutation.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB3j.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Check that students understand the questions before asking them to complete
the worksheet.
Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB3j.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Students complete the Extra challenge questions at the end of the sheet.

SB3i Multiple and missing alleles

Inheritance and families
Objectives
B3.17B Describe the inheritance of the ABO blood groups with reference to
codominance and multiple alleles.
B3.18B H Explain how sex-linked genetic disorders are inherited.
Maths requirements
1c Use ratios, fractions and percentages.
2c Construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and histograms.
2e Understand simple probability.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Objectives activity at the top of the
Progression Check sheet. Alternatively, ask students to answer the Progression
questions in the Student Book and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a
baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. Punnett square questions
Give students a simple example of monohybrid inheritance from two heterozygous
parents – for example, for a gene that controls coat colour in rabbits, using B for the
allele that produces brown coat, and b for the allele that produces black coat colour. Ask
students what the parent coat colour will be (brown). Students should then draw a
Punnett square to show the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring. Check
that they have the correct answers (1 BB : 2 Bb : 1 bb, and 3 brown : 1 black).
Then introduce the idea that sometimes alleles are equally dominant, such as in feather
colour in some chickens. Ask students to draw a new Punnett square, for a white-
feathered parent, WW, and a black-feathered parent, BB. All the offspring produced will
be BW. Ask students to suggest what the BW offspring will look like. Then explain that
they will show both colours of the parents, and so will have some feathers that are
white and some that are black, giving a speckled appearance. Explain that the feathers
will not be grey, because there is no blending of the effects of each allele.

Exploring Tasks
1. ABO blood group inheritance
Worksheet SB3i.1 contains a cut-and-stick task to model the inheritance of ABO blood
groups. Students should use the cards to answer questions 4 and 5, but could use
Punnett squares to produce answers for question 6, because this will be quicker.
Support: Work with students to lay out the genetic diagram for question 4 using the
cards. Check that they can analyse the results correctly. Students should then answer
question 5 on their own.
Stretch: Ask students to find out about the Rhesus factor and its inheritance. They could
be challenged to draw a dihybrid inheritance Punnett square for parents with different
combinations of ABO and Rhesus, such as A+ and B–. (Note that students are not
expected to know about the Rhesus factor, although many will have heard of it, and that
students are not expected to do dihybrid inheritance crosses.)

H 2. Research on sex-linked disorders

Ask students to research examples of sex-linked genetic disorders other than colour-
blindness. Possibilities include haemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy or fragile X
syndrome. They should:
• identify rates of occurrence in men and women, and compare these to explain why the
rates are different
• identify the position of the relevant gene on the X chromosome, to explain why it is
missing on the Y chromosome
• describe the effects of the disorder.

Students should use their findings to write a short paragraph for a web dictionary page
on genetic disorders.
Support: Provide students with suitable weblinks for their research and show on the
board the questions they need to answer. If needed, model how to find and record the
information for one example, then ask students to complete a second example on their
own.
Stretch: Students should consider the issues surrounding the ethical question of
whether a mother who is a carrier should be allowed to choose the gender of her next
child.
Equipment Optional: web links for research on haemophilia, Duchenne muscular
dystrophy or fragile X syndrome that contain the information required in the bullet list

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB3i Multiple and missing alleles
Work through the Student Book pages, answering questions up to the checkpoint.
Note that there are several accepted ways of defining the alleles in ABO blood groups.
The dominant alleles are usually shown as IA and IB. The I stands for a gene that codes
for an enzyme that modifies an antigen. The A version of the enzyme produces the A
form of the antigen, and the B version produces the B form. The recessive allele for the
O blood group may be shown as Io or i (the recessive being indicated by a lower-case o
or i, following the usual rules for naming alleles). The recessive allele fails to produce an
enzyme, resulting in no modification of the antigen. Explaining Tasks section 2 (below)
provides an opportunity to describe the effect of the different antigens.
Several further blood group systems, including Rhesus (positive and negative), are also
commonly known.
If students carry out research on codominant alleles, they may come across the
confusion that exists with incomplete dominance. Where two alleles show incomplete
dominance, one allele has a partial effect on the expression of the other, for example
black + white = grey. In codominance, both alleles are expressed fully, for example black
+ white = black/white speckling.
The ALDS presentation SB3i Inheritance of ABO blood groups contains a set of slides
that describe the genetics of the ABO blood group system and how blood groups are
inherited. Questions test students’ understanding of these ideas.
Support: Work with students to answer the questions.
Stretch: Give students another example of codominance, such as flower colour in
snapdragons, where one allele produces white flowers and the other produces red
flowers, and the presence of both alleles produces white flowers splashed with red
markings. Ask students to construct Punnett diagrams for different combinations of
parents and to explain what they find.

2. Blood-typing demo
Use a blood-typing kit to demonstrate to students how ABO blood groups are identified
and to explain why knowing a patient’s blood group is important before he or she
receives a blood or organ donation. Read through all the instructions for the kit before
the demo, and carry out the test carefully to ensure safety and to get the clearest results.
Note that test cards usually identify Rhesus factor as well as ABO group; explain to
students that Rhesus is another characteristic of blood type that varies
(positive/negative) and causes clumping of blood cells if blood is mixed with that of the
wrong type. Discuss with students why clumping of red blood cells is dangerous, and so
why knowing a person’s blood group is important for matching before blood or organ
donation, to prevent harm to the person receiving the blood or organ.
Kits usually contain four tests: anti-A, anti-B, anti-D and a control. Ask students why the
control test is included (clumping of cells in this test shows that the test has not been
carried out properly and that other results cannot be considered valid). Anti-D indicates
the Rhesus factor: clumping shows that the factor is present (the blood is Rhesus
positive); lack of clumping shows it is absent (the blood is Rhesus negative). The anti-A
and anti-B results identify the ABO blood group. The kit should include guidance on how
to read the results.
Important: Do not allow anyone to touch blood that is not their own. If you are unable
or unwilling to carry out the test on yourself, then ask a colleague to do so. All used
materials should be disposed of safely, as described in the kit instructions.
Note that this is an opportunity to introduce one element of how the immune system
works, by identifying antigens on cells – which is covered in more detail in topic SB5j
The immune system.
Support: Lead students through the process of identifying the blood group tested and
why other blood groups give different results.
Stretch: Before carrying out the demonstration, show students the card and ask them to
predict the results for each of the four ABO blood groups in the anti-A and anti-B tests.
Explain to students that people of blood group A have anti-B antibodies in their blood
plasma, those of blood group B have anti-A antibodies, those of group O have both anti-
A and anti-B, and those of group AB have no antibodies. They should use this
information to try to explain why blood group O is called the universal donor and blood
group AB the universal recipient.
Equipment: commercial blood-typing kit (e.g. Eldon card), available from sources on
the Internet

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB3i Multiple and
missing alleles in the Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident
about answering them. Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity.
Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs or fours to answer question S1 in the Student Book
and/or the questions on Worksheet SB3i.2. Questions 1 and 2 on the sheet provide help
and scaffolding for answering question S1. Students should complete question 1 on the
worksheet collaboratively, identifying the four possible combinations of genotype for
group A and for group B. They should then share out the Punnett squares in question 2
and check each other’s work before identifying which combination produces the
possibility of having a child with any of the four blood groups. Question 3 on the
worksheet tests understanding of the term codominance.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to challenge each other to construct genetic
diagrams or Punnett squares from the possible genotypes for the ABO blood system.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. They should
compare their answer with that of another pair, to identify any similarities and
differences. They should also compare their diagrams showing inheritance in males and
females. Take examples to show on the board, and ask students to explain their
diagrams. Invite other students to ask questions, to make sure their understanding is
sound.

4. Reflect
Ask students to work in small groups to design a mark scheme and a model answer for
the exam-style question at the end of SB3i Multiple and missing alleles in the Student
Book. Go through some model answers with randomly selected groups and identify any
lingering misconceptions.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB3i.3 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Check that students understand the questions, particularly the blood group
genotypes, before completing the sheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB3i.4 is suitable for homework and contains some more challenging
questions about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question at the end of the sheet.

SB3h Inheritence
Explaining inheritence using genetic diagrams.
Objectives
B3.14 Explain monohybrid inheritance using … Punnett squares and family pedigrees.
B3.15 Describe how the sex of offspring is determined at fertilisation, using genetic
diagrams.
B3.16 Calculate and analyse outcomes (using probabilities, ratios and percentages)
from monohybrid crosses and pedigree analysis for dominant and recessive traits.
Maths requirements
1c Use ratios, fractions and percentages.
2c Construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and histograms.
2e Understand simple probability.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to answer the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet, and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their
own baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
2. Sex chromosomes
Tell students that humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes and one of these pairs is a pair
of sex chromosomes, of which there are two types: X and Y. These chromosomes are
what controls whether we are male or female. Males have XY and females have XX. Ask
students to draw a genetic diagram to explain why about 50% of the UK population are
male and about 50 per cent of the population are female. Go through the answer on the
board and use this to introduce the work at the start of SB3h Inheritance in the Student
Book.

Exploring Tasks
1. Family pedigrees – Suggested practical
We suggest the use of models to satisfy the requirements of the suggested practical
(‘Investigate inheritance using suitable organisms or models’), using this activity and
Exploring Tasks 1 from SB3g. However, it should be noted that, if time is available,
inheritance using organisms such as Arabidopsis can be studied by students at this
level, and the Nottingham Arabidopsis Stock Centre (NASC) may be able to supply you
with a free pack that can be used to investigate Mendelian inheritance.
Worksheet SB3h.1 provides students with some pieces to cut out and stick down in
order to construct a family pedigree for a family in which cystic fibrosis occurs. Students
work in groups and discuss the clues in order to construct the pedigree. They then
shade in the symbols to match the key.
You can extend this activity by asking students to construct Punnett squares for some of
the couples or to think about some ethical issues. For example, tell students that when
Beth got married and was thinking about starting a family, she took this family pedigree
to a doctor. Students should suggest the advice the doctor would have given based on
the pedigree. Or encourage students to discuss why doctors are in favour of screening
for diseases such as cystic fibrosis but not other inherited traits such as polydactyly
(having an extra toe or finger).
Support: Consider giving groups of weaker students the family pedigree chart ready
made (see answers), so that they only need to fill in the missing genotypes, names and
shading.
Stretch: Tell students that someone who has one recessive allele, and so can pass the
disorder on even though they do not suffer from it, is called a carrier. Ask students to
add carriers to the key and to shade them in a different colour.
Expected results
Students create a family pedigree showing the inheritance of a recessive allele.
Equipment: scissors, glue

2. Recessive genetic disorders

Ask students to find out about one or more of the following genetic disorders (all of
which are caused by recessive alleles). Students should present their results as a short
report. Each example given here is for an autosomal genetic disorder (i.e. it is carried on
a chromosome that is not a sex chromosome – sex-linked disorders are covered in the
Single Biology specification only):
• Phenylketonuria (PKU) (mentioned in the Student Book; see diagram D in
SB3h Inheritance)
• beta-thalassaemia
• MCADD
• Tay–Sachs disease.

Support: Students should just find out about the symptoms of the diseases above and
present their findings in a simple table.
Stretch: Do not give students the names of the diseases; just ask them to find out about
other genetic disorders that are inherited in the same way as cystic fibrosis and PKU.
Encourage students to present their research as a table with clear headings. Students
could then be encouraged to turn their tables into longer pieces of writing using
paragraphs.
Equipment: Internet/library access

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB3h Inheritance
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
The video SB3h Cystic fibrosis and its cause deals with the symptoms of cystic fibrosis
and then looks at the cause in terms of inheriting two recessive alleles of the CFTR gene.
The video can also be used as an introduction to further work in SB3j.
Support: Revise the concepts of decimals, ratios, percentages and/or probability with
the help of Skills Sheets MS1, MS2 and MS8.
Stretch: Explain that people who have inherited one copy of a recessive allele that
causes a genetic disorder are known as carriers. Challenge students to identify the
carriers on diagram D.

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB3h Inheritance in
the Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident about answering
them. Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who
demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SB3h.2. Question 1 on the sheet provides help and scaffolding
for answering questions S1 and S2 (the latter of which requires the same method as
question 1g).
Give each group a large sheet of paper and ask one student to draw a large but
completely blank Punnett square on it. Students then take it in turns to add just one
element to the square until the square is complete. Students should individually
calculate the probability in question S2 and then share their answers to make sure that
they all agree. Go through the answers with students, making corrections as needed.
Agree with students on a list of possible pitfalls and things to watch out for when
completing Punnett squares and calculating probabilities. Make sure that students are
clear on the differences between gene/allele, genotype/phenotype,
homozygous/heterozygous, dominant/recessive and with how genotypes are written
down.
As an alternative or extension, challenge students to design their own family pedigree
charts (based on diagram D in the Student Book) and to produce three questions to go
with the chart, together with a mark scheme. One of the questions must be to draw a
Punnett square. Students then answer each other’s questions and mark their work in
pairs, pointing out places in which an answer or the question or the mark scheme could
be improved. Encourage students to come up with a plan of action to tackle problem
areas.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question E1 in the Student Book. Pairs then join
into fours to discuss their responses before working through question 1 on Worksheet
SB3h.3. This question provides scaffolding for question E1 (with question 1i asking a
parallel question to E1). Ask students to make corrections/amendments to their
original answers to E1 before working collaboratively on question 2.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB3h Inheritance. Students
could work together to draw a Punnett square for sex determination and then use that
to help them answer the question. Point out to students the command word ‘explain’
before they start and ensure that students understand what this means (the use of Skills
Sheet ET1 may be useful). Challenge students to use at least one sentence that uses the
word ‘because’ in their answers.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB3h.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Cut up the words and definitions for this topic from Word Sheet SB3, and get
students to match them up again in order to revise the key terms before students
answer the questions on the sheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB3h.5 is suitable for homework and contains some more challenging
questions about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question. Note that this question
involves dihybrid inheritance, which is beyond the scope of the specification but will
challenge students’ analysis and application skills, and test a deeper understanding of
the concepts of alleles, genotypes and phenotypes.

SB3g Alleles
Alleles and their role in inheritance and variation.
Objectives
B3.12 Explain why there are differences in the inherited characteristics as a result of
alleles.
B3.13 Explain the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, genotype,
phenotype and zygote.
B3.14 Explain monohybrid inheritance using genetic diagrams…
Maths requirements
1c Use ratios, fractions and percentages.
2c Construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and histograms.
Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to answer the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet, and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their
own baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
2. Genes, genotypes and phenotypes
Write a series of DNA base letters on the board (or have it written up as students enter
the room). Invite a student to write in the correct complementary base pairs
underneath (or invite each student to write in the next complementary base as students
come in). Then ask students what this code is for, and establish that it is a code for
making a protein.
Change one of the letters and ask students to suggest what effect this might have.
Establish the idea that this may change the protein – sometimes by a very small amount
and sometimes by a very big amount (it depends on the protein). However, the gene is
still the same. Tell students that genes that have slightly different codes are called
alleles. The alleles that someone has are known as the genotype, and the effects of those
alleles are known as the phenotype. Finish by asking random students to give one
example of their phenotype (e.g. brown hair, blue eyes).

Exploring Tasks
1. Eye colour modelling – Suggested practical
There are many genes that control eye colour, but a major player is OCA2, the alleles of
which control the shade of the eyes – dark (such as brown) or pale (such as blue or
grey). In this model, we assume that there are no other genes that control eye darkness.
Tell students that a woman has two alleles for eye colour: Dd. D is for dark eyes (e.g.
brown eyes) and d is for pale eyes (e.g. blue, grey). Ask students what her genotype is
and what her phenotype is. Then tell students that her partner has the genotype dd. Ask
students what colour eyes he will have.
Students then take 10 dark beads and 10 pale beads mixed together in a plastic cup
(representing the eye colour alleles of the mother) and another plastic cup containing
20 pale beads (representing the partner’s genotype). Two further plastic cups are
labelled ‘dark eyes’ and ‘pale eyes’. Without looking, students take one bead from the
‘father’s’ cup and one bead from the ‘mother’s’. Students record the genotype in a tally
chart as they go. If both beads are pale, they are put in ‘pale eyes’ cup. If one is dark,
they are placed in the ‘dark eyes’ cup.
Ask students to draw bar charts to show the numbers of the two possible genotypes.
They should then shade in the bar for each genotype that results in dark eyes (to show
the phenotype of each genotype bar). Students could check the numbers of the resulting
phenotypes by counting the beads in the ‘pale eyes’ and ‘dark eyes’ cups. Finally, ask
students to draw genetic diagrams for this cross.
As an alternative or an extension, this activity can be done with two heterozygous
parents (Dd), and this will produce three possible genotypes.
Support: Prepare the table for students to fill in and help them choose appropriate axes
for their bar charts. Skills Sheets PD2 and PD3 may be useful. Provide access to diagram
D in SB3g Alleles in the Student Book to help with their genetic diagram drawings.
Stretch: Challenge students to calculate the ratio of phenotypes predicted by their
genetic cross diagrams, and relate this back to their experimental findings. Skills Sheet
MS1 has some work on ratios.
Expected results
Students should find that about 50 per cent of the phenotypes will be pale eyes and 50
per cent will be dark eyes. These figures will be exact if you allow all the beads to be
used.
Equipment: 10 pale beads/buttons, 30 dark beads/buttons, four plastic cups (or other
suitable containers), marker pen, graph paper
Optional: 10 further pale beads/buttons for the heterozygous cross

2. Alleles and variation

This simple activity uses strips of paper divided into equal squares to help students
understand how much variation is possible in sexual reproduction.
Explain to students that each strip represents a chromosome. Ask students to pair up
the chromosomes and to colour in the squares to represent alleles. Students could use
variations of the same colours or variations in shading (e.g. solid, cross-hatched).
When the strips are complete, students should take one strip from each pair at random
to simulate the formation of a gamete. How many different gametes can they make? The
answer is eight.
Support: Remind students that each chromosome contains a molecule of DNA that
contains sections along its length called genes. The genes on each chromosome of a pair
are of the same kind and in the same order (but the alleles may be different). So,
students will need to colour in the squares accordingly. Remind students that alleles are
different versions of the same gene, so the gene on one chromosome might be coloured
in scarlet and the one on the matching chromosome dark red (to show two variations –
two alleles). Of course, sometimes the alleles on both chromosomes will be the same.
Stretch: More able students may understand the relationship for the numbers of
possible gametes: 8 = 23. Ask them to predict the number of different gametes before
using the model, so using the calculation to check how well the model works. Then ask
students how many different possible offspring there could be if all their possible
gametes fused with all the possible gametes of another student. With eight possible sex
cells, the answer is 82 = 64.
Expected results
Students should find that they can make eight different gametes.
Equipment: six narrow strips of squared paper per student or group (two strips should
be five squares long, two should be four squares long and the last two should be three
squares long), coloured pens/pencils

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB3g Alleles
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
Students are often confused by the lettering for alleles and try to write, for example, ‘D’
for dark eyes and ‘p’ for pale eyes. Ensure that students understand that they need to
use the same letter because it represents the same gene, and that the different versions
of the letter represent different alleles of the gene. It is useful, when talking about these
letters, to refer to ‘small d’ and ‘big D’ to avoid confusion. Avoid choosing examples
where the small and capital versions of a letter are the same shape.
Students often confuse the words ‘homozygous’ and ‘heterozygous’, and ‘genotype’ and
‘phenotype’. It is worthwhile spending some time helping students to find ways of
remembering these terms. Genotype/phenotype – a genotype is found ‘in the genes’
whereas the word ‘phenotype’ comes from the Ancient Greek ‘phainein’, meaning ‘to
appear’, and is where English gets words such as ‘phantom’ and ‘phenomenon’.
Homozygous/heterozygous – ‘homo’ means ‘the same’ (as in homosexual, homogenise),
and ‘hetero’ means ‘different’ (as in heterosexual).
Some students may find it helpful to think about a ‘gene’ as referring to a position on a
chromosome rather than a physical entity, with the alleles being the physical entities in
that ‘gene location’.
At this level, the inheritance of only one gene is considered, which is what the term
‘monohybrid inheritance’ refers to.
The ALDS presentation SB3g Genetic diagrams explains how a genetic diagram is
constructed and how you can use it to work out the possible combinations of alleles in
offspring.
Support: Help students to understand the concept of dominant and recessive by using
red and black felt pens. They are both felt pens, but if the black and red ones are used to
make a line in the same place only the black one is seen because the black one is
dominant.
Give students further practice in writing genotypes and phenotypes by giving examples
for them to write down along the lines of: ‘The gene for pea colour in pea plants is G.
The big G allele causes green peas and the recessive allele causes yellow peas. Write out
the genotypes for heterozygous and homozygous sets of alleles and their phenotypes.’
Correct mistakes and then give another example. Continue this process until all students
are happy with the system of showing genotypes.
Stretch: Explain that scientists talk about alleles as being ‘expressed’, to mean whether
they have an effect. So a recessive allele is only expressed when both alleles for a gene
are recessive.

2. PTC (phenylthiocarbamide) alleles

Read through the Did you know? box of SB3g Alleles in the Student Book. Tell students
that since the PTC-tasting allele is dominant, we would expect more students to be able
to taste it than those who cannot. Randomly select eight students to taste either a PTC
strip (commercially available) or a control strip (no PTC), without telling students
which is which. Ask the students to taste their strip in turn and say whether they can
taste a bitter substance. Record the findings on the board and then reveal which were
the control strips. The finding that most (or all) of the subjects can detect PTC supports
the idea that this phenotype is caused by a dominant allele.
Ask students whether they would expect any children born to two people who could
both taste PTC to be unable to taste it. Using T and t for the alleles, establish that the
tasters could be TT or Tt and then draw genetic diagrams for TT × TT and TT × Tt and Tt
× Tt (the three possible combinations). Show that only the last combination will
produce zygotes that are non-tasters. The presentation SB3g PTC and genetics contains
these genetic diagrams, to save drawing them out.
Note that, as with many things in genetics, what was once thought to be a simple case of
a characteristic being controlled by different alleles of the same gene turns out to be a
bit more complex: there are other genes and environmental influences that affect the
ability to taste PTC.
Important: Do not carry out the tasting part of this activity in a lab.
Support: Before the main part of this activity, remind students of the terms ‘dominant’
and ‘recessive’ and explain the circumstances under which a recessive trait will be seen.
Stretch: Challenge students to draw genetic diagrams for tasting PTC before you show
them on the board.
Equipment: four PTC tasting strips, four control strips (with no PTC)

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB3g Alleles in the
Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident about answering them.
Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate
good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SB3g.1. Question 1 on the sheet provides help and scaffolding
for answering question S1.
Once pairs have completed their answers they should join with another pair to discuss
their responses and refine them. Allow access to the Word Sheet and/or Student Book
glossary so that students can remind themselves of the key words and their meanings.
You could hold a vote for the answers to the parts of question 1 on the sheet, in order to
get feedback on where students are having difficulties. Go through the answers, with
students making corrections as needed. Agree with students a list of possible pitfalls
and things to watch out for when answering questions on this topic and completing
genetic diagrams. Make sure that students are clear on the differences between
gene/allele, genotype/phenotype, homozygous/heterozygous, dominant/recessive.
As an alternative or extension, challenge students to design a similar question to S1 for
their peers to answer, together with a mark scheme. Students then answer each other’s
questions and mark their work in pairs, pointing out places in which an answer or the
question or the mark scheme could be improved. Encourage students to come up with a
plan of action to tackle problem areas.

3. Extend
• Ask students to work in pairs to answer question E1 in the Student Book. Pairs then
join into fours to discuss their responses before working through questions 1 to 3 on
Worksheet SB3g.2. These questions provide scaffolding for question E1. Ask students to
make corrections/amendments to their original answers to E1 before working
collaboratively on question 4.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB3g.3 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Go through differences between gene/allele, genotype/phenotype,
homozygous/heterozygous, dominant/recessive before students complete the sheet.
Some students may benefit from being able to use the Word Sheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB3g.4 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question. Note that this question
involves dihybrid inheritance, which is beyond the scope of the specification but will
challenge students’ analysis and application skills, and test deeper understanding of the
concepts of alleles, genotypes and phenotypes.

SB3f Mendel
Mendel's work
Objectives
3.11B Describe the work of Mendel in discovering the basis of genetics and recognise
the difficulties of understanding inheritance before the mechanism was discovered.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Objectives activity at the top of the
Progression Check sheet. Alternatively, ask students to answer the Progression
questions in the Student Book and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a
baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. Variation
Ask students to write phrases describing two or three ways in which they are different
to a friend. Then ask them to write down the reasons for each of these differences. Take
random answers from the class and highlight any key terms that have been used (such
as variation, inherited/genetic variation, environmental variation, gene, mutation,
allele). Go through the meanings of the words and correct any misconceptions.
Support: Write a list of the key terms above on the board, and go through the meanings
before students write their phrases. Some of the terms have been covered in KS3.
Stretch: Challenge students to use the terms phenotype, genotype, mutation and allele
in their phrases.

Exploring Tasks
1. Modelling pea flower inheritance
Students follow the instructions on Worksheet SB3f.1, in which they are essentially
recreating diagram C in topic SB3f in the Student Book but using flower colour rather
than plant height. There is more work on using pea flower colour in plant-crossing
experiments in the next topic (SB3g). The idea here is that students explore how Mendel
set up his crosses and how he interpreted the results. Full instructions are given on the
worksheet and, due to the large number of buttons/plastic discs involved, it is imagined
that students will work in groups. If you want students to work in smaller groups or
individually, consider using coloured paper discs instead (available in craft shops).
The worksheet suggests that students perform a certain number of steps and then get
their work checked (either by a member of staff or by their peers). An alternative is to
get students to take photos of each step (e.g. using mobile phones) and then to put the
photos into a flow chart as part of a report at the end of the activity.
Support: Go through diagram C in the Student Book step by step with students, telling
them that they are essentially going to recreate this diagram, but using flower colour as
the characteristic.
Stretch: Extend the work by asking students to start with parent plants that have other
combinations of ‘factors’ (e.g. both parents with one purple plus one white, or one with
both purple and one with purple plus white or vice versa).
Important: There is a slip hazard from dropped buttons. Any dropped buttons should
be picked up immediately.
Equipment: buttons or opaque plastic discs/counters or paper discs of two colours
(one light and one dark) – at least eight of each colour

2. Mendel’s laws
Worksheet SB3f.2 challenges students to link Mendel’s laws of inheritance to some of
the evidence Mendel used to draw them up.
Support: Give students the links between the laws and the evidence (A2, B4, C1 and 3)
and just ask students to explain the links.
Stretch: Challenge students to give a letter code to each version of the tallness factor in
number 3. Ask them to use their codes to show how the inheritance of tallness occurs in
pea plants. This looks forward to work in the next topic, and students could be
encouraged to check their work by reading on in the Student Book and correcting their
original thoughts.

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB3f Mendel
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
The student materials state that 20 amino acids are found in human proteins. In fact,
this is the number encoded by the genetic code; there is a further amino acid
(selenocysteine), which is incorporated into a polypeptide chain in a different manner
than standard translation. There are also other amino acids that are not found in human
proteins. The ALDS presentation SB3f Mendel and his work summarises the story of
Mendel’s pea-crossing experiments.
Support: Ensure that students understand the link between Mendel’s ‘factors’ and
genes.
Stretch: Encourage students to think about why pea plants are a useful study organism.
(They are cheap, easy to obtain, produce many offspring and do not take long to grow
from seed and reproduce again.)

2. Making connections
On the board, write out part of the mRNA sequence transcribed from the Le gene, which
controls plant height in peas:
GGU CUC GCC CCG CAC ACA
Then draw out the corresponding part of the mutant allele:
GGU CUC ACC CCG CAC ACA
Ask students to spot the mutation. Then (with or without help from students and
diagram A on SB3e Genetic variants and phenotypes in the Student Book) translate the
code into an amino acid sequence:
polypeptide sequence from Le: Gly Leu Ala Pro His Thr
polypeptide sequence from mutant allele : Gly Leu Thr Pro His Thr
Tell students that the Le gene codes for an enzyme that is responsible for making a
gibberellin (a type of plant hormone, which students will meet in unit SB6 Plant
Structures and their Functions). The gibberellin stimulates growth in pea plants.
Establish the fact that the mutant allele results in substitution of Ala (alanine) by Thr
(threonine) in the polypeptide chain. This particular part of the chain forms part of the
active site of the enzyme, and the mutation prevents the enzyme working well. This
results in greatly decreased levels of the gibberellin, and so plants with two copies of
the mutant allele do not grow very tall. This is the mutation that Mendel identified in his
experiments on height in pea plants.
Support: Go through the process of translation step by step with students, reminding
them of work in the previous topic.
Stretch: Challenge students to write out the coding and template strands for the
corresponding section of gene for the mRNA strands shown above.

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB3f Mendel in the
Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident about answering them.
Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate
good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.
2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SB3f.3. Question 1 on the sheet provides help and scaffolding
for answering question S1. Once pairs have completed their answers they should join
with another pair to discuss their responses and refine them. The rest of the questions
on the sheet cover the other material from this topic.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to write either a full caption or detailed
labels for diagram C in the Student Book, explaining why plant height is inherited in this
way. Encourage them to use the terms gene and allele and to point out in their
caption/labels what Mendel called these.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Once pairs
have agreed an answer, they should join with another pair to discuss their responses
and refine their ideas.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to write a short paragraph on why they
think Mendel is sometimes referred to as the father of genetics.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB3f Mendel in the Student
Book.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB3f.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Go through the diagram on the sheet, explaining what it shows, before
students start the sheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB3f.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge questions. Question 8 involves
ideas about evolution, which students may not yet have covered in detail.

SB3e Genetic variants and

phenotypes
Mutations and the causes of genetic variation
Objectives
3.9B H Describe how genetic variants in the non-coding DNA of a gene can affect
phenotype by influencing the binding of RNA polymerase and altering the quantity of
protein produced.
3.10B H Describe how genetic variants in the coding DNA of a gene can affect phenotype
by altering the sequence of amino acids and therefore the activity of the protein
produced.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Objectives activity at the top of the
Progression Check sheet. Alternatively, ask students to answer the Progression
questions in the Student Book and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a
baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
2. Sentence mutations
Write the following sentence on the board: ‘Some mutations have small effects.’ Explain
that a mutation is a change in the DNA of a gene. Change the word ‘small’ in the sentence
to ‘smell’ (a one-letter change) and ask students how this has changed the sentence.
Discuss other one-letter changes with students, such as ‘effects’ to ‘effectt’, ‘some’ to
‘sore’, ‘have’ to ‘gave’, ‘have’ to ‘hate’. For the first of these, point out that although
‘effectt’ is now misspelt, the sentence still makes perfect sense. For the last two of these,
‘hate’ changes the meaning of the sentence quite substantially, potentially turning it into
nonsense, but ‘gave’ changes the tense of the sentence while retaining a similar meaning
to the original.
Point out to students that the same thing happens in DNA. Some mutations change a
single letter of the code; these can have no overall effect on the meaning, a small effect
on the meaning, or a large effect on the meaning (rendering the gene useless).
Stretch: Challenge students to suggest why a mutation in the DNA of a gene can have
different effects.
Exploring Tasks
1. Protein shapes and mutations
Worksheet SB3e.1 challenges students to explore some ideas about the 3D shape of
proteins, and how this is affected by the amino acid sequence in the protein. Note that
proteins are far larger and more complex than the bead models that students will
produce. Also note that better clumping of the beads is obtained if a variety of different
shapes and sizes of bead are used and the elastic is pulled tightly in step C. Students
could take pictures of their bead clumps rather than drawing them.
This activity could be supported by showing students an Internet animation of a
polypeptide chain folding. Search for terms such as ‘animation protein folding kinesin’
on Internet video storage sites.
Support: Have a pre-prepared chain to show students, explaining how the different
beads represent different amino acids. Demonstrate how they should do each step of
the method.
Stretch: Ask students to evaluate how well the model can explain protein shapes, and to
develop criteria to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of this particular model.
Safety: There is a risk of flying clips and beads. Students should wear eye protection.
There is a slip hazard from dropped beads. Any dropped beads should be picked up
immediately.
Equipment: 30 cm length of elastic strip (the type used in clothing, for elasticated
waists etc.), sheet of A4 paper, pencil, at least 20 beads of different sizes and colours (as
wide a range of different sizes, shapes and colours as possible will aid the formation of
different 3D shapes), clips (bulldog or freezer bag clips)

2. The genetic code

Students will need access to the genetic code showing mRNA codons (Worksheet SB3e.2
or diagram A in topic SB3e in the Student Book).
Ask each student to think of a DNA genetic code of 12 bases and then write it out at the
top of two pieces of paper (one on each piece). They should write their names next to
their codes. Each student keeps one piece of paper and passes the other to a neighbour.
Once everyone has received someone else’s genetic code, each student writes the
corresponding mRNA code below it. Once this has been completed, the pieces of paper
are passed around again and each student translates the code into a protein (using the
genetic code table). They should show their proteins as a chain of circles with the three-
letter amino acid symbols written on them. Collect the pieces of paper and ask students
to write the mRNA and protein sequences for their own genetic codes (on the second
piece of paper). The collected pieces of paper are then handed back to the original
students for them to check. They should highlight any mistakes and discuss among
themselves who is right.
This activity can be given a more kinaesthetic twist by defining certain areas of the
room as nucleus, nuclear membrane and cytoplasm, and asking students to move
around accordingly.
The lower part of Worksheet SB3e.2 can be removed before giving it to students or left
in place for those students who finish early to do some research and complete the
information in the table about amino acid naming systems.
Support: First give students mRNA codes to translate into proteins. Once students have
got the idea of this, remind them how mRNA is generated from DNA and then carry out
the activity as described above, providing input where needed.
Stretch: Tell students that the code to start the translation of a piece of mRNA is AUG.
Ask students to design a piece of mRNA in which translation does not start at the
beginning, and challenge them to explain why mRNA is usually like this (because RNA
polymerase attaches to non-coding DNA before the start of the ‘gene’).
Equipment
Optional: Internet/library access

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB3e Genetic variants and phenotypes
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
The student materials state that 20 amino acids are found in human proteins. In fact,
this is the number encoded by the genetic code; a further amino acid (selenocysteine) is
incorporated into a polypeptide chain in a different manner from standard translation.
There are also other amino acids that are not found in human proteins.
The ALDS presentation SB3e Genetic variants and phenotypes illustrates the effects of
point mutations in the genetic code.
Support: Ensure that students realise that the genetic code table (diagram A in SB3e
Genetic variants and phenotypes in the Student Book) shows the mRNA codons, and not
the DNA codons. Point out that the presence of uracil (U) in the table indicates that
these are mRNA codons.
Stretch: The student materials cover point mutations in genes (changes in single bases
in the genetic code). Challenge students to find out about the range of different
mutations that can occur (e.g. missense mutation, nonsense mutation, insertion,
deletion, frameshift, duplication).

2. Modelling translation
Model the process of translation and the effect of mutations using interlocking coloured
plastic building bricks. The easiest option is to find bricks with colours that match those
in diagram A in SB3e Genetic variants and phenotypes on the Student Book pages; you
do not need all the colours. Then write out a sequence of mRNA bases that will allow
you to choose the colours of brick that you have available. The bricks should be different
shapes and sizes.
In front of the students, write the mRNA sequence on the board together with the table
from diagram A in the Student Book. Then go through your sequence, one codon at a
time, adding the different bricks to form a twisting chain/tower. Point out that each
brick represents an amino acid, and the sequence of these dictates how the resulting
polypeptide will fold to become a functional protein.
Continue the analogy by showing students one mutation in your original sequence that
will still generate a brick chain/tower with the same shape, and one that will produce a
chain/tower with a different shape caused by a difference in the sequence of amino
acids.
At the end, ask students what each part of the model represents.
Stretch: Start by clearly explaining what each part of the model represents, checking
this understanding again at the end.
Support: Ask students to evaluate the model.
Equipment: selection of interlocking coloured plastic building bricks

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB3e Genetic variants
and phenotypes in the Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident
about answering them. Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity.
Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SB3e.3. Questions 1 and 2 on the sheet provide help and
scaffolding for answering question S1. Once pairs have completed their answers they
should join with another pair to discuss their responses and refine them.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to work in groups to produce two flow
charts to show how mutations in the non-coding region before a gene and in the gene
itself can both cause effects in a cell. Students should compare their flow charts and
work together to correct and add information as appropriate. One way of doing this is to
get students to cut their flow charts into rectangles. The rectangles from two or three
groups are then muddled up and students sort them back into one flow chart, piling
rectangles for the same step on top of one another. This helps to highlight differences
between the descriptions of the different steps and also any missing steps.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Once pairs
have agreed an answer, they should join with another pair to discuss their responses
and refine their ideas.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to write down eight base triplets from an
mRNA molecule. They then translate this, using diagram A from the Student Book or one
of the worksheets. Students then mutate the original sequence in various ways and
determine the effects on the final protein.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB3e Genetic variants and
phenotypes in the Student Book.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB3e.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Go through how the codon table is constructed before asking students to
complete the sheet. It may also be useful to run through the key features of an enzyme.
(An enzyme is a protein and has an active site, the shape of which is determined by how
the amino acid chain folds.)

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB3e.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question, which links to back to
work on meiosis and mitosis.

SB3d Protein synthesis

The structure of DNA and its role in protein synthesis
Objectives
3.7B H Explain how the order of bases in a section of DNA decides the order of amino
acids in the protein and that these fold to produce specifically shaped proteins such as
enzymes.
3.8B H Describe the stages of protein synthesis, including transcription and translation:
a RNA polymerase binds to non-coding DNA located in front of a gene
b RNA polymerase produces a complementary mRNA strand from the coding DNA of the
gene
c the attachment of the mRNA to the ribosome
d the coding by triplets of bases (codons) in the mRNA for specific amino acids
e the transfer of amino acids to the ribosome by tRNA
f the linking of amino acids to form polypeptides.
Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Objectives activity at the top of the
Progression Check sheet. Alternatively, ask students to answer the Progression
questions in the Student Book and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a
baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. Linking words
Write the following words on the board: amino acids, gene, genetic code, keratin,
protein. Challenge students to work in groups to produce meaningful sentences using
two or more of the words linked together. Take examples from randomly selected
groups and try to build up a sentence that links all the words together on the board,
although this will probably not be possible. Then share this sentence: ‘Genes contain a
genetic code that is used to link amino acids in chains to produce proteins such as
keratin.’ Explain that this is what they will learn about in this topic.
Support: Go through the meanings of the words before starting.
Stretch: Challenge students to produce sentences using at least three of the words.

Exploring Tasks
1. Modelling transcription
Instructions for this activity are given on Worksheet SB3d.1. Do not make a double-
sided copy of this worksheet as students will need to cut out the boxes on page 2.
Students construct a simple model of DNA and use it to illustrate the process of
transcription. Ensure that students realise that they do not need to cut out the shapes of
the nucleotides, only the rectangular cards.
The activity can be extended by asking students to make a short film demonstrating
translation (e.g. using stop-motion software on a computer or a stop-motion
smartphone app). If students do this, challenge them to think about how they could
model DNA polymerase (e.g. by using a cardboard cut-out of the enzyme and moving it
underneath their DNA models).
Support: Show students how to stick the nucleotides together when starting to
construct the model.
Stretch: Give students a short section of mRNA bases and ask them to predict the coding
and template strands of the gene that produced it, using the information on the sheet.
Note that students are not expected to remember the difference between the coding
strand and the template strand of the DNA in a gene.
Equipment: scissors, sticky tape Optional: (video) camera attached to computer with
suitable stop-motion software or smartphone with stop-motion app

2. Transcription and translation

Worksheet SB3d.2 contains a series of cards to sort into order to describe transcription
and translation. An alternative is to give students one card each and ask them to group
themselves so that each group contains only one of each card. Students then sort the
cards into order in their group. Giving some students more than one card will allow you
to cater for different class sizes.
Support: Tell students the first card (‘Inside the nucleus, RNA polymerase attaches to a
non-coding section of DNA.’) and last card (‘The types and order of amino acids in the
chain cause it to fold into a specific shape.’).
Stretch: Remove one or more of the cards from the sheet before printing/photocopying,
and challenge students to complete the missing stage(s).
Equipment: scissors, glue

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB3d Protein synthesis
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the Checkpoint.
Ensure that students understand that a gene carries the instructions for making one
chain of amino acids, which is called a polypeptide. Some proteins (e.g. haemoglobin)
are made up of more than one polypeptide chain.
Ensure that students understand that a gene carries the instructions for making one
chain of amino acids, which is called a polypeptide. Some proteins (e.g. haemoglobin)
are made up of more than one polypeptide chain.
Students are not expected to remember the difference between the coding strand and
the template strand of DNA in a gene. The coding strand contains the code, and is the
same as the code on the mRNA strand (apart from the use of uracil in mRNA as opposed
to thymine).
The ALDS video SB3d Protein synthesis shows the processes of transcription and
translation.
Support: Suggest a way for students to remember the difference between transcription
and translation. One idea is to explain that when you handwrite a copy of some text onto
a piece of paper, you are transcribing it. The transcription will not look exactly like the
original, but will still carry the same information. Translation, on the other hand, is like
translating a text from one language into another.
Stretch: Challenge students to find out about the structure of tRNA and the similarities
and differences between it and mRNA (e.g. base pairing in tRNA; both having ribose
sugars; both having uracil bases).

2. Binary codes and beads

Remind students (from their work in mathematics) what a binary number is: one that
consists of only 1s and 0s. Invite every student to write down a three-digit binary
number on a scrap of paper – one of 111, 011, 001, 000, 100, 101, 110, 010. Ask
students to join into small groups of five or six and use sticky tape to join their numbers
together. Ask a spokesperson in each group to copy the numbers from the completed
string of numbers. Then ask a spokesperson from a random group to bring the group’s
copy of the numbers to the front. Explain that this is a code and you have a table to
decode it in order to attach beads to a thread. Display a ready prepared table on the
board so that each possible binary combination matches a certain colour of bead (e.g.
111 = blue, 011 = yellow). Then read out the binary numbers in turn and add beads.
Explain to students that this is a model of what happens in protein synthesis: a code
from a gene is copied and sent to the cytoplasm, where it is translated into a protein.
Support: Point out to students some of the weaknesses of the model (e.g. the original
code is already in the gene, and does not need to be invented randomly; the model does
not show the nucleus or the cytoplasm).
Stretch: Challenge students to suggest ways in which the model is good and ways in
which it is weak.
Equipment For students: cards/pieces of paper for students to write on, sticky tape For
the teacher: thread, eight colours of beads, pre-prepared code-breaker table (see above)

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB3d Protein synthesis
in the Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident about answering
them. Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who
demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SB3d.3. Questions 1 and 2 on the sheet provide help and
scaffolding for answering question S1. Once pairs have completed their answers they
should join with another pair to discuss their responses and refine them.
As an alternative or extension, ask each student to write ‘Protein synthesis’ and his or
her name at the top of a piece of paper. Then ask what the first step in protein synthesis
is. Agree an answer, such as ‘RNA polymerase attaches to the non-coding region before
a gene.’ Students then write this under the title, and pass their papers on to one another.
The next student writes the next stage in the process and adds any
corrections/additions to the sentence above. (There will not be any for the first
sentence.) This continues until a folded protein is formed or until students think they
can get no further. The papers are returned to the original authors, who analyse them
and make further corrections in discussion with their peers. Encourage groups to
identify the most commonly forgotten step, the most frequently misspelt word and the
most misunderstood step. Go through these with students, helping them to identify
ways in which they can improve their understanding and knowledge.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Once pairs
have agreed an answer, they should join with another pair to discuss their responses
and refine their ideas.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to write down four base triplets that could
form the coding strand of a DNA molecule. Below this, they then write out the sequences
for:
• the complementary template strand
• the mRNA strand that would be produced
• the complementary codons needed on the tRNA molecules.
Students then write out their coding sequences again on a separate piece of paper,
which they swap with a partner. They then complete the other sequences for the coding
sequence they have just been given (for the template strand, the mRNA strand and the
tRNA codons). Working in pairs, they then compare their answers and identify any
mistakes in the sequences developed from the original coding sequence.

4. Reflect
Ask students to look at the exam-style question at the end of SB3d Protein synthesis in
the Student Book. Ask students to identify the command word (‘explain’) and describe
what they have to do. Establish that this means the answer must contain some element
of justification or reasoning. Then ask students to pick out the other key terms and state
what they mean (‘template strand’, ‘sequence’, ‘amino acid’). After discussion, challenge
students to answer the exam-style question.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB3d.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Go through the words in bold on the sheet, ensuring that students understand
their meaning.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB3d.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question.
 SB3c DNA
The structure and extraction of DNA.
Objectives
B3.4 Describe DNA as a polymer made up of:
(a) two strands coiled to form a double helix
(b) strands linked by a series of complementary base pairs joined together by weak
hydrogen bonds.
B3.6 Investigate how to extract DNA from fruit.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to answer the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet, and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their
own baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. DNA evidence
Start by asking students what scenes of crime officers (SOCOs) do (people who wear
white or purple body suits and work at the scenes of a crime), or show students a clip
from the news or a detective/crime programme with SOCOs at work. Ask students what
is going on and what sort of evidence is being looked for. You should get the answer
‘DNA’, among others – if not, make the suggestion yourself. Write ‘DNA’ on the board
and ask students where it is found in the body and why it can be used to convict
criminals. Discuss students’ answers (and consider keeping those initial answers to
discuss further and amend as part of a lesson plenary).

Exploring Tasks
1. Extracting DNA
A set of instructions for this practical are given on Worksheet SB3c.1. The sheet
suggests the use of two drops of an enzyme solution. This should be a protease, to break
down some of the proteins that are in the filtrate, allowing the final DNA to be purer.
The recommended protease is Neutrase® from Novozymes, but cheaper alternatives
include: a spatula of powdered meat tenderiser (often found in Oriental/Asian food
stores), 1–2 cm3 of fresh (unpasteurised) papaya or pineapple juice, or 1 cm3 of contact
lens cleaning solution. Note that the practical still works without the addition of a
protease, but the resulting DNA will be quite contaminated with protein.
Extend the practical by asking students to read the instructions and then to come up
with a list of hazards before they start. Then ask them to say how they will reduce the
risks from each of the hazards (e.g. no naked flames near ethanol, handle glassware with
care, report any breakages or spillages immediately, do not touch broken glassware,
wash hands, wear eye protection).
If students have done this practical or a very similar one at Key Stage 3, consider
making it into an investigation (see Stretch idea below) or using different types of fruit,
such as banana (which is easy for students to mash).
Important: Wear eye protection. Wash your hands after the experiment. Keep ethanol
in a sealed plastic bag in the freezer until needed, with the bottle tightly stoppered.
Support: Demonstrate each step to students, before asking them to copy what you have
just done.
Stretch: Consider making the practical into an investigation by asking whether washing
powder works better than washing-up liquid in terms of the amount of DNA produced
at the end of the experiment. You could try out a variety of detergents. Alternatively,
students could propose changes to the experiment, such as using: different types of
protease suggested or different types of enzymes, different temperatures for the water
bath, different lengths of time in the water bath, different lengths of time before adding
the ice-cold ethanol. There are a range of Skills Sheets that will support this work (e.g.
PI1–9, RC6, RC7, RC8, RC12).
Expected results
Students should be able to obtain a white layer of DNA in their tubes.
Equipment: 100 cm3 measuring cylinder, two 250 cm3 beakers, 100 cm3 beaker,
granular sodium chloride (common salt), frozen peas (thawed) or banana or other
easily mashed fruit, balance, washing-up liquid, pestle and mortar, water bath at 60 °C,
filter funnel and paper, clamp and stand, boiling tube and rack, pipette, enzyme solution
(e.g. Novozymes’ Neutrase®, powdered meat tenderiser, fresh unpasteurised papaya or
pineapple juice, or contact lens cleaning solution), ice-cold ethanol, stirring rod

2. DNA model
Students use Worksheet SB3c.2 to make a 3D model of the DNA double helix, which
helps to fix both the complementary base pairs and the overall structure of the molecule
in their minds. The process involves colouring and sticking. It takes some time,
especially while allowing glue to dry, which can be used to insert other aspects of the
lesson. The making of the model can be greatly speeded up by using double-sided sticky
tabs, but some students find these very fiddly.
For question 3 on the sheet, students should write their answers on white tie tags,
which can then be tied carefully to the models.
Support: Help and remind students to colour the same bases in the same colour and to
recognise that only certain pairs of bases can be formed.
Stretch: Challenge students to evaluate the models that they have made, in terms of
good and poor points about the usefulness of their models.
Equipment: scissors, glue or double-sided sticky tabs, coloured pencils, mini bulldog
clips, paperclips or clothes pegs, stapler, string, white tie tags (four per model)

Explaining Tasks
1. Presentation SB3c DNA
The presentation DNA structure starts with the way that DNA is arranged in
chromosomes and then moves on to look at the detail of DNA structure.
Ensure that students understand that the term ‘complementary’ means ‘fitting together’
(rather than ‘matching’). Illustrate this by using jigsaw pieces, coloured plastic building
bricks or pieces of quick-fit lab apparatus to show that parts fit together when one part
is complementary to another. A useful model with which to demonstrate base pairing is
to compare standard coloured plastic building bricks with a larger version of such
bricks – two colours of small brick (to represent A and T) and two colours of large brick
(to represent C and G). A and T are complementary to one another and, although they
have a similar shape to the larger bricks (they are bases), they are not complementary
to the larger bricks.
Point out that the sugar in DNA is called ‘deoxyribose’ and it’s why DNA’s full name is
deoxyribonucleic acid.
Support: Encourage students to spot other examples of things that are complementary
to one another.
Stretch: Challenge students to write a script for a video using different sizes and colours
of plastic building bricks to illustrate the meaning of the term ‘complementary base
pair’. Or encourage them to develop a model of DNA using coloured plastic building
bricks.
Equipment optional: jigsaw puzzle, different colours and sizes of coloured plastic
building bricks and/or pieces of quick-fit lab equipment

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions in SB3c DNA in the
Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident about answering them.
Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate
good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.
2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SB3c.3. Question 1 on the sheet provides help and scaffolding
for answering question S1.
Once pairs have completed their answers they should join with another pair to discuss
their responses and refine them. Allow access to the Word Sheet and/or Student Book
glossary so that students can remind themselves of the key words and their meanings.
Remind students that the term ‘complementary’ means ‘fitting together’ (a bit like the
pieces of a jigsaw puzzle). A (adenine) is only complementary with T (thymine), and G
(guanine) only pairs with C (cytosine). See the model described in Explaining Tasks 1. It
may be useful to construct a coloured plastic building brick model of DNA with students
and identify the parts. Once the model is complete, ask students to orally answer the
Progression questions in the Student Book with reference to the model.
As an alternative or extension, ask each student to make a list of all the words they can
remember meeting during the study of this topic. Students then join together in small
groups to add to their lists and to agree on a definition of each word. They then compare
their definitions with the Word Sheet, and identify any words they missed, any words
they had difficulty spelling and any words with definitions they found difficult to get
completely correct. Encourage students to come up with a plan of action to tackle these
areas.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Once pairs
have produced their drawings, they should join with another pair to discuss and refine
their ideas. Ask students to label their drawings so that all the important words from
this topic are included. Then give students the Word Sheet for them to check their
finished labelled drawings.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB3c.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic. Question 4 assumes that students have done the relevant practical
(Exploring Tasks 1).
Support: Remind students of DNA structure again by showing a model and going
through its component parts, before students complete the sheet. Use the words and
sentences in questions 1 and 2 during your explanation to help students to complete
their answers.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB3c.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic. Ensure that students are confident about calculating ratios for question
2a.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge research question.
 SB3b Meiosis
The process and products of meiosis.
Objectives
B3.3 Explain the role of meiotic cell division, including the production of four daughter
cells, each with half the number of chromosomes, and that this results in the formation
of genetically different haploid gametes. The stages of meiosis are not required.
B3.5 Describe the genome as the entire DNA of an organism and a gene as a section of a
DNA molecule that codes for a specific protein.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to answer the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their
own baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. Linking words
Write the following words on the board: cell, chromosome, DNA, gene, nucleus.
Challenge students to work in groups to produce a labelled drawing to show the relative
positions of these features. Invite a randomly selected student to draw their group’s
answer on the board, and ask other students to suggest ways in which the answer is
good and any ways in which the answer could be improved. Ask students for ideas on
what the term ‘genome’ means and establish that this describes all the DNA in an
organism. Invite students to suggest how their genomes are different from other
students’, revising the idea of genetic/inherited variation from Key Stage 3. Students are
likely to suggest differences in their genomes causing differences in obvious
characteristics (such as hair colour, skin colour, eye colour).
Support: Go through the meanings of the initial words on the board before setting the
drawing challenge.
Exploring Tasks
1. Modelling meiosis
Instructions for this practical are given on Worksheet SB3b.1. The sheet gives the
components to cut out to create a set of scenes that form the sequence of events in
meiosis, although note that details of the breakdown and reformation of the nuclear
membrane are not covered.
Students do not need to recall the events that occur during meiosis, but studying the
process in a bit more detail allows them to understand the process and its implications,
rather than just recall the basic facts. This activity will help students to see why meiosis
produces four daughter cells, why chromosomes are often represented as X shapes and
why meiosis is needed to produce gametes.
If there is time (or as part of an extracurricular science club), you could challenge
students to use the sheet to develop a stop-motion video of the process.
Support: Once students have cut out the pieces, help them to set up the first scene
before challenging them to go on to the next.
Stretch: Challenge students to use another copy of the worksheet to show what
happens to gametes during fertilisation.
Expected results
Students should produce a poster showing the main events that take place during
meiosis. This will be similar to diagram D in SB3b Meiosis in the Student Book.
Equipment: scissors, glue, additional sheet of paper
Optional: stop-motion video equipment, or smartphone with a suitable stop-motion app

2. Modelling protein manufacture

Worksheet SB3b.2 explores the usefulness of a car factory model as an analogy for
protein manufacture. The demand of the sheet is increased if the words at the bottom of
the sheet are removed.
The sheet includes the mention of ribosomes, which will probably have been met during
the study of SB1b. If students have yet to cover this material, tell them that the robots in
the analogy correspond to ribosomes.
Support: Leave the words on the bottom of the page. Students could cut these out and
link them to the different italicised words in the passage. There is one card for each
italicised word.
Stretch: Challenge students to think up or find another model on the Internet that
addresses any weakness they have identified with the car factory model. Extend this by
asking them to evaluate the two models for their effectiveness in modelling protein
synthesis. Alternatively, challenge students to think of/find another analogy model that
is used in science.
Equipment: scissors
Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB3b Meiosis
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
Note that technically one gene carries the instructions for making one chain of amino
acids, which is called a peptide or a polypeptide. Generally ‘peptide’ is the word used to
refer to any short chain of amino acids, and ‘polypeptide’ is used to refer to a long chain
of amino acids that has the ability to fold and have a biological function. Some proteins
(e.g. haemoglobin) are made up of more than one polypeptide chain. This is not
mentioned in the student materials.
When DNA replicates in a chromosome it forms an X-shaped structure containing two
copies of the DNA. These two copies are called chromatids. However, this terminology is
often confusing to students and has not been used here. Meiosis is usually divided into
two stages: meiosis I (when the chromosomes separate) and meiosis II (when the
chromatids separate). These stages are not referred to in this course, and students are
not expected to remember the events that occur during meiosis. However, by studying
models of what happens, students build up an understanding of the process, which
provides a deeper level of more secure learning, rather than just learning the outcome
of meiosis by rote.
The animation SB3b Meiosis shows how four daughter cells are produced, each with half
the number of chromosomes. It also covers the importance of meiosis and can be used
in SB3g.
Support: Help students to find a way of remembering the difference between mitosis
and meiosis. Two possibilities are:
• ‘Mitosis happens everywhere, even in my TOE, but meiosis only happens in my OH!’
• Or mi-‘two’-sis and me-‘1’-osis to remember that mitosis produces diploid (2n)
daughter cells and meiosis produces haploid (1n) daughter cells.

Stretch: Challenge students to design a table to compare mitosis and meiosis.

2. Sock meiosis (and mitosis)

Demonstrate meiosis (and compare it with mitosis, if students have covered SB2a at this
point) using socks, buttons or Euro coins. Using dark and pale socks will allow you to
model the behaviour of ‘sets’ of chromosomes, with dark colours being one set and pale
colours being the other. String can be used to model the nuclear and cell surface
membranes. The overall effect should follow that set out in diagram D in SB3b Meiosis
in the Student Book. Then ask students how the model should be adapted to show
mitosis, and demonstrate this (following diagram B in SB2a Mitosis).
Or take a 1€ coin from one country and another from another country. Do likewise with
a 2€ coin. Explain that you have two complete sets of whole-Euro coins, one set being
slightly different to the other in that it comes from a different country. Placing another
of each coin next to each of the original ones represents DNA replication. Or this could
also be done with coloured counters, but you will need counters purchased from two
suppliers so that you end up with two sets – each set contains counters of four to five
different colours, but one set differs from the other in the exact shades of each of these
colours.
Repeat the demonstration to illustrate that the gametes produced by one cell
undergoing meiosis are not necessarily the same as another (e.g. two ‘gametes’ in the
first round end up with the dark coloured socks and two with the pale coloured ones,
but in the second round each ‘gamete’ has one pale and one dark). Explain that if we
take this concept further and look at all 46 human chromosomes, there is a lot of variety
in the ways in which the chromosomes can end up in the gametes. (This variety is
further increased by crossing over, but this is not part of the GCSE specification.)
If there is time (or as part of an extracurricular science club) you could challenge
students to use the sheet to develop a stop-motion video of the process. Or challenge
students to develop their own models and get them peer-reviewed, with students
pointing out two good things about another’s models and one thing that could be
improved.
Support: Ensure that students understand what each part of the model represents by
continuously reminding them that, for example, the string shows the cell membrane.
Stretch: Challenge students to suggest ways in which the model is good and ways in
which it is weak.
Equipment: two socks of a dark colour and two of the corresponding pale colour, two
socks of another dark colour and two of the corresponding pale colour, two pieces of
string – one long and one shorter OR 2 × 1€ and 2 × 2€ coins from one country, 2 × 1€
and 2 × 2€ coins from another country OR sets of coloured counters (in the same colour
combinations as the socks)
Optional: stop-motion video equipment, or smartphones with a suitable stop-motion
app

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB3b Meiosis in the
Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident about answering them.
Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate
good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SB3b.3. Question 1 on the sheet provides help and scaffolding
for answering question S1.
Once pairs have completed their answers they should join with another pair to discuss
their responses and refine them. Allow access to the Word Sheets and/or Student Book
glossary so that students can remind themselves of the key words and their meanings.
Establish with students that the genome is all the DNA in a body cell of an organism,
reminding them that all body cells have identical copies of the genome. Draw on the
board a diagram of a sperm cell and an egg cell forming a zygote, with two
chromosomes in one of the gametes (see Worksheet SB3b.3). Fill in the remaining
chromosomes, explaining what is happening. Extend the diagram to the left, by showing
how the gametes are produced using meiosis. Then extend the diagram to the right to
show mitosis producing an embryo from the zygote.
As an alternative or extension, look at the Progression questions in the Student Book
again, asking students to come up with lists of bullet points to include for each one. Ask
students to work together in small groups to prepare lists, which can then be shared
with the class to build up a definitive list of points. The bullet list for the second
question could be used as the basis for answering a long-answer style question, with
students making use of Skills Sheet ET4.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Once pairs
have arrived at an answer, they should join with another pair to discuss their responses
and refine their ideas. Show students the answer and then challenge them to design a
graphic for a parenting guide to explain why brothers and sisters do not look identical.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB3b Meiosis. Students will
need to have covered SB2 in order to approach this question. Students could be
encouraged to work together to come up with lists of differences and similarities before
working individually to write their answers. Skills Sheet ET4 may be useful as a guide.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB3b.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic. The sheet mentions both mitosis and ribosomes, and requires
knowledge of the basic parts of an animal cell. Ensure that these ideas have been
covered (from SB1b and SB2a) and, if not, give students the answers to these questions.
Support: Give students access to the Word Sheets from SB1, SB2 and SB3.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB3b.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic. The sheet mentions both ribosomes and mitosis (from SB1b and SB2a).
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question.
 SB3a Sexual and asexual
reproduction
Features of sexual and asexual reproduction
Objectives
B3.1B Explain some of the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction,
including the lack of need to find a mate, a rapid reproductive cycle, but no variation in
the population.
B3.2B Explain some of the advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction,
including variation in the population, but the requirement to find a mate.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Objectives activity at the top of the
Progression Check sheet. Alternatively, ask students to answer the Progression
questions in the Student Book and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a
baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. Reproduction concept map
Give students a few minutes to work in pairs or small groups to construct a concept map
around the term reproduction. If needed, prompt with the suggestion of how
reproduction varies in different organisms, including animals, plants and bacteria. This
may help to elicit ideas of asexual reproduction (e.g. plant cuttings and bacterial
division), even though students may not have studied it yet. Take examples of terms
from around the class to help students extend their concept maps. Students could keep
their maps for the end of the lesson, when they can add their new learning.
Equipment: scrap paper
Exploring Tasks
2. Different kinds of reproduction
Students should research reproduction in a range of different organisms, such as:
• budding in Hydra or yeast
• binary fission (cell division) in single-celled organisms such as Paramecium
• mammals
• sharks
• plants, via flowers or via vegetative structures (such as the use of storage organs in
overwintering for potato plants, fragmentation of roots in couch grass, or by roots as in
elm trees).
Students should state whether each example is of sexual or asexual reproduction, and
aim to identify the benefits and problems with each reproductive method. Students
should present their findings in two tables, one that compares how different organisms
reproduce (asexually, sexually or both), and one that compares the features of the
different types of reproduction, and states why each of those features can be a
disadvantage and why each of those features can be an advantage. The example of elms
and the impact of Dutch elm disease is good preparation for understanding the risks of
lack of genetic diversity, which links to plant breeding in unit SB4 Natural Selection and
Genetic Modification and biodiversity in unit SB9 Ecosytems and Material Cycles.
Support: Before students begin their research, discuss specific questions that they
should answer, such as:
• What is the evidence for asexual or sexual reproduction in the example?
• Which of the following is an advantage for this form of reproduction in the example:
fast reproductive cycle, identical offspring, no need to find a mate?
• Which of the following is a problem for this form of reproduction in the example: slow
reproductive cycle, non-identical offspring, time taken finding a mate?
Stretch: Students should research species that show both asexual and sexual
reproduction at different stages of their life cycle, such as many plants (including
potatoes), water fleas (Daphnia), and some animals (e.g. earthworms). Students should
then explain the benefit to the organism of using different forms of reproduction at
different life stages.

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB3a Sexual and asexual reproduction
Work through the Student Book pages, answering questions up to the checkpoint.
If students have studied SB2a Mitosis, remind them of what happens in mitosis and how
mitosis is related to asexual reproduction.
The presentation SB3a Asexual reproduction in animals contains a set of slides covering
examples of asexual reproduction in starfish, sharks, Komodo dragons and aphids.
Questions test students’ understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of asexual
reproduction for these species.
Support: Work with students to answer the questions.
Stretch: In examples where an organism uses both sexual and asexual reproduction,
students should try to explain why each form of reproduction occurs when it does in the
life cycle.

2. Asexual reproduction in plants

Without explaining the relationship, show students a selection of examples of asexual
reproduction in plants, either as images from the Internet or as real plants. Include a
range of different examples, such as: potatoes or other overwintering underground
structures; strawberry, spider plant or buttercup runners; and Kalanchoë (‘mother of
thousands’) or other species that reproduce through fragmentation (breaking off of
parts). Ask students to identify the connection between the examples of asexual
reproduction. If needed, remind them of the link with mitosis in SB2a, to help students
explain why the offspring are clones of the parent.
Then ask students to identify other similarities in the way the plants produce new
individuals. To help students, contrast the examples of asexual reproduction with the
formation and dispersal of seed in sexual reproduction in plants (e.g. through
strawberry seeds). Students should be able to identify that new plants formed by
asexual reproduction can be produced more rapidly in larger numbers, and that they
are formed close to the parent plant. Link the latter to variation in the environment –
environmental factors are more likely to differ from those experienced by the parent
plant the further the distance from the parent plant. Finally, associate variation with the
chances of survival – offspring with the same genetic instructions as the parent plant
are more likely to survive near to a parent plant, while offspring that show genetic
variation compared with the parent may have a better chance of surviving at a greater
distance from the parent plant.
Support: List on the board the advantages of sexual and asexual reproduction. Then ask
students to work in groups to link each of these to the two forms of reproduction in
plants.
Stretch: Students could consider and research why asexual reproduction is more
common in plants and unicellular organisms than in multicellular animals. This links to
work on growth in unit SB2 Cells and Control.

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB3a Sexual and
asexual reproduction in the Student Book and assess whether students feel more
confident about answering them. Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’
activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’
activity.
2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SB3a.2. The worksheet provides cards for sorting and a set of
questions that support and extend question S1.
Students could work in pairs to sort the cards for questions 1–4. Ask pairs to compare
their answers before moving on to the remaining questions in their pairs. Some
students may need support in answering questions 5–7. This could be provided by
students discussing the questions as a group before pairs complete their answers.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to construct their own summary table using
information from SB3a Sexual and asexual reproduction in the Student Book. Students
should then take examples from the same pages, or from their own research, to provide
an advantage of each type of reproduction and a disadvantage of each type of
reproduction.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. A diagram
showing the life cycle of aphids is presented on the last slide of presentation SB3a
Asexual reproduction in animals and could be used to support this task. Students should
first identify where asexual and sexual reproduction is taking place in the life cycle.
Pairs should compare answers to make sure they have done the latter correctly, before
moving on to identify an advantage of each type of reproduction. Make sure students
link any advantage to the stage of the life cycle; for example, fast reproductive cycle of
asexual reproduction in summer when plenty of food is available; variation in offspring
from sexual reproduction in autumn, because the environment may vary in the
following year.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB3a Sexual and asexual
reproduction in the Student Book.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB3a.3 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic. Read the two bullet points at the top of the sheet with students to make
sure they understand them.
Support: Check that students understand the questions before completing the sheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB3a.4 is suitable for homework and contains some more challenging
questions about this topic.
Stretch: Students complete the Extra challenge question at the end of the sheet.
 SB2i Neurotransmission speeds
Nervous system and the transmission of electrical impulses
Objectives
B2.13 Explain the structure and function of motor neurones and synapses in the
transmission of electrical impulses including the axon, dendron, myelin sheath and the
role of neurotransmitters.
B2.14 Explain the structure and function of a reflex arc including sensory, relay and
motor neurones.
Maths requirements
2b Find arithmetic means.
3c Substitute numerical values into algebraic equations using appropriate units for
physical quantities.
4a Translate information between graphical and numeric form.
4b Understand that y = mx + c represents a linear relationship.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to answer the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their
own baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. Reaction times
Ask some volunteer students to come to the front to have their reaction times
measured. This is ideally done using a smartphone/tablet app or an online reaction
timer. Ask students to sketch flow charts to explain what is happening in the nervous
system of the person who is being tested, and use this to revise the idea of impulse
transmission from the last topic. Then challenge students to suggest factors that affect
the reaction time. Establish that the reaction cannot become faster than a certain speed,
because the speed of impulse transmission along neurones is a limiting factor.
Equipment Optional: smartphone/tablet with reaction time app or Internet access
Exploring Tasks
1. Measuring impulse speeds
There are two closely related suggested practicals that could be done at this point,
although one of them (investigate reaction times) is likely to be covered in the physics
component of the course. For the reaction time practical refer to CP2g Exploring Tasks
1.
The second suggested practical is to investigate the speed of transmission of electrical
impulses in the nervous system. Full instructions for this are given on Worksheet
SB2i.1. Students work in groups to calculate the mean speed of an impulse.
Support: Guide students through the calculations for total distance travelled by the
impulse in the circle, impulse speeds and means. Help students to draw an appropriate
table in which to record their results. Some of the skills sheets for presenting data may
prove useful.
Stretch: Ask students to find the mean speed of the ‘squeeze message’ through different
numbers of students and compare the results.
Expected results
Students are likely to calculate speeds of about 10 m/s. This is somewhat slower than
the speed at which an impulse is actually transmitted along a neurone, because the
investigation involves many other factors (including synapses, brain processing and
students’ reaction times), which slow the process down. In the body there are a range of
different types of neurone, which will transmit impulses at different speeds, mainly
between 20 and 100 m/s. Some neurones are considerably slower, such as those
carrying impulses about poorly localised pain from the toes. These sensory neurones
(C-fibres) are unmyelinated and transmit impulses at about 0.6 m/s, which is the reason
why it takes some time for you to feel the pain from stubbing your toe.
Equipment: stop clock, tape measure

2. Impulse speeds
Students use Worksheet SB2i.2 to compare transmission speeds in different types of
neurone and to draw conclusions. Extend the activity by asking students to draw
labelled diagrams of one or more of the neurones described in the tables on the bottom
half of the sheet.
Support: Help students to draw the scatter graphs, along with lines of best fit. Some of
the Skills Sheets on data presentation (particularly PD6) will prove useful.
Stretch: Challenge students to draw a line of best fit on their graphs and to work out its
gradient in order to derive a formula relating transmission speed to axon diameter for
neurones in a macaque brain. Ask students to suggest what is different about the
neurones at the bottom of the sheet compared with the macaque brain neurones.
Students should be able to suggest that these neurones may have greater axon
diameters compared with the macaque brain neurones. (Neurone conduction speeds in
humans range from 0.4 to 120 m/s.)
Equipment: scissors, graph paper
Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB2i Neurotransmission speeds
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the Checkpoint.
Note that the diagram of the reflex arc is a simplification since impulses are also sent to
the brain so that the brain ‘knows’ what is happening.
Some students may ask why relay neurones are needed. Relay neurones have many
axon terminals on them, which allows impulses also to be sent to the brain so that the
brain registers what is happening. Some students may also spot that relay neurones (as
shown in diagram B) do not have myelin, and question why this is so if myelin speeds
up impulse transmission. The lack of myelin is to allow the relay neurone to receive
other subtle signals from impulses in neighbouring neurones within the spinal cord.
They are very short so the speed decrease is negligible.
The interactive SB2i Reflex arc asks students to order the events that occur in a reflex
response.
Support: Go through the diagrams of the motor neurone and the relay neurone
carefully, pointing out the differences and similarities between the two types of
neurone. Compare these with the sensory neurone (see SB2g The nervous system).
Stretch: Challenge students to spot the simplification in the reflex arc diagram and
decide what else needs to be added to the drawing (neurones leading from another
branch of the sensory neurone, which can take impulses to the brain).

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB2i
Neurotransmission speeds in the Student Book and assess whether students feel more
confident about answering them. Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’
activity. Students who demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’
activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SB2i.3 Neurotransmission speeds – Strengthen. Question 1 on
the sheet provides scaffolding clues for answering question S1.
Once pairs have completed their answers they should join with another pair to discuss
their responses and refine them. Allow access to the Word Sheet and/or Student Book
glossary so that students can remind themselves of the key words and their meanings.
Draw a diagram of a reflex arc on the board, pointing out the different neurones
involved and using your diagram to remind students about synapses and the
adaptations that the various neurones have to their functions (see the diagram on
Worksheet SB2i.4). Ensure that students are confident about the role of the reflex arc in
decreasing response times (e.g. in order to prevent damage to the body), and that this is
achieved by a shorter pathway and lack of processing time needed by the brain.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to draw flow charts to compare a response
to a stimulus that requires processing by the brain (such as picking up a pencil) and the
reflex action that stops someone burning their fingers if they touch something very hot
by accident. Ask students to work in groups to come up with a list of important points
that they could then label on their charts (e.g. names of neurones, adaptations of
neurones, parts of neurones, synapses, parts of the nervous system). Working together,
students should agree on two charts to draw and then add labels, working through their
list of important points. Encourage students to check their work by comparison with the
Student Book and come up with a plan of action to tackle any points that they have
forgotten or find difficult to understand.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Challenge
students to work in groups to develop a mark scheme for the question; after a few
minutes, take a poll of how many marks they think the question should be worth. With
students, agree on a suitable number of marks (three is suggested – see Answers) and
then ask students to amend their mark schemes as necessary. Students could then write
answers to the question and get their answers marked using the mark scheme from
another group, followed by discussion on how the mark scheme and the answer could
be improved. Some students may wonder why some reflex arcs have relay neurones
(see Explaining Tasks 1).

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB2i Neurotransmission
speeds. Encourage students to work together in groups and use scraps of paper on
which to write phrases that describe the events in the reflex arc. They can organise
these pieces of paper in order and then use the phrases to construct sentences.
Encourage them to think about the use of conjunctions (to link phrases together) and
prepositions (to show a logical order of events). They should then work individually,
using their sentences to write full paragraphs.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB2i.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Ensure that students recognise the motor and sensory neurones in the upper
diagrams, and the components of the reflex arc in the lower diagram.
Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB2i.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question.

SB2h The eye

The structure and function of the eye
Objectives
B2.15B Explain the structure and function of the eye as a sensory receptor including the
role of:
• a the cornea and lens
• b the iris
• c rod and cone cells in the retina.

B2.16B Describe defects of the eye including cataracts, long-sightedness, short-

sightedness and colour blindness.
B2.17B Explain how cataracts, long-sightedness and short-sightedness can be corrected.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet. Alternatively ask students to answer the Progression
questions in the Student Book and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a
baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
1. Glasses and contact lenses
Throughout this activity, bear in mind that some students may be very sensitive about
their sight defects or those of someone close to them. Ask students why some of them
wear glasses/contact lenses. Establish the fact that lenses help to correct certain vision
problems and that for young people this is usually short-sightedness (in which the eye
cannot focus clearly on objects that are far away). Then ask what older people often use
glasses for, and establish the idea that many older people are long-sighted (in which the
eye cannot focus clearly on objects that are close – mainly text).
Explain that glasses have lenses in them and that contact lenses are lenses, and that the
eye also has a lens. Demonstrate a lens (borrowed from the physics department).
Explain that, in the eye, the lens fine-tunes the focusing of an image, and that many
short-sighted people have lenses in their eyes that cannot get thin enough to form a
clear image for objects in the distance. Long-sighted people often have lenses that
cannot get fat enough to form a clear image of close objects. As they get older, some
people have lenses that cannot get thin or fat enough and so need bifocal or varifocal
lenses.
A demonstration can be added to this activity using an old-style projector to project an
out-of-focus image that is then corrected by placing a lens in front of it (or altering the
lens in the projector). A similar demonstration can also be done using a webcam, with
physical focusing adjustment or with software that allows the focus to be adjusted.
Equipment Optional: large lens, projector or webcam (which allows focus adjustment)

Exploring Tasks
1. Changing lenses
Worksheet SB2h.1 provides instructions for this practical, in which students focus an
image from outside the lab (through a window) onto a white card. They then use a lamp
closer to the lens and find out whether a thicker lens or a thinner lens is needed to focus
the image of the closer object (the lamp) on the card.
Expected results
Students will find that a thicker (fatter) lens is needed to focus the image of the lamp on
the screen. They should then equate this model to the eye, to state that as we look at
closer objects the lenses in our eyes need to become thicker/fatter.
Support: Go through the top of the worksheet with students to help them understand
why the image appears upside down.
Stretch: Challenge students to use the apparatus given to develop their own plans to
find out how a converging lens needs to change shape as the distance to an object
changes. Students could be given the worksheet after they have made their plans.
Important: Do not allow students to use the lenses to focus sunlight or look through the
lenses. Warn students that the lamp will become hot and not to touch it.
Equipment: three biconvex lenses of different powers, lens holder, white card, retort
stand and clamp, lamp

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB2h The eye
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
Note that calling the cones red, blue and green is a convenient simplification; it is better
to categorise them as detecting short, medium and long wavelengths. (For example, the
red, or long-wavelength, cone is actually most responsive to a yellow-green colour.)
Note also that the glass or plastic lenses used to model the lens in the eye do not refract
(change the direction of the light rays) in the same way that a lens in the eye does. In a
standard lab lens, the change in direction of the light rays takes place at the interface
between the air and the glass, and again at the interface between the glass and the air
(as the ray leaves the lens). In the eye, the lens is made of layers of material, each of
which causes a small change in the direction of a light ray, and so the rays continuously
change direction (in a curve) inside the lens in an eye.
A 3D eye model is a useful teaching aid.
The ALDS presentation SB2h The eye explains what happens to light rays as they enter
and travel through the eye.
Support: Some students may find the idea that light rays from distant objects enter the
lens parallel to one another difficult to visualise. A useful demonstration is to cut a large
lens shape out of a piece of card and stick it to one end of a long wall (or mount it on a
clamp and stand). Then use long pieces of string or wool to represent light rays coming
from a single point close to the lens, before showing what happens to the angle between
the lens surface and the light rays as you move the point further and further from the
lens.
Stretch: Challenge students to find out about how laser eye surgery is done, or more
about cataract operations. They could produce a series of sketches to show how either
process is done, designed for use by volunteer doctors working in far-flung parts of the
world where no English is spoken.
Equipment Optional: 3D model of the eye, string/wool

2. Modelling the eye

In a darkened lab, shining rays of light through a flask through a lens will reveal the
path of the rays through the ‘eye’. It will show what happens if the lens is too strong or
weak and how this is corrected. A model eye kit is available from some suppliers;
alternatively, the model can be constructed from three convex lenses and a flat-
bottomed flask filled with water as follows. The lens powers have been calculated to fit
a 4-litre flat-bottomed Pyrex boiling flask with diameter about 210 mm.
Fill the flask with fluorescein solution (or water with a few drops of milk) to show up
the beam by scattering the light. The dilution must be such that the whole path of the
rays in the flask is clearly visible. Fluorescein is not very soluble, so dissolve it first in a
little alcohol then dilute with water. Fluorescein is best used in concentrations between
5 × 10–4 g dm–3 and 5 × 10–3 g dm-3, most easily obtained by dissolving 1 g of
fluorescein in 1 dm3 of water to make a stock solution. Then use between 0.5 cm3 and 5
cm3 of this stock solution to each dm3 of water. Lower concentrations give very good
contrast between the light and dark parts of the water. Higher concentrations give
brighter rays and are probably better for long-distance viewing.
For a ‘normal’ eye viewing an object in front of the flask, fix a glass lens of power +8 D to
the front of the flask with sticky putty. A lens of +5 D is needed instead for the long-
sighted eye model. A lens of +10 D is needed for the short-sighted model. Attach the
three lenses, side by side, along the horizontal equator of the flask. Twisting the flask by
its vertical neck will bring one lens after another into position. The lenses should be
convex meniscus lenses so that they fit snugly on the flask.
The lenses must be chosen to combine with a suitable object distance (about 25 cm) and
the size of the flask to form an image exactly at the back of the flask. Choose two lenses
for correction so that they fit those other choices. In this case, the spectacle lens for
correcting the short-sighted eye is one with power –2 D, and the lens for the long-
sighted eye is +3 D.
Set up the compact light source as the object to be viewed. This will ideally consist of a
bright halogen lamp in a suitable housing (e.g. 100 W, 24 V tungsten-halogen). Support
a card with a 50 mm hole in it vertically in front of the flask so that the hole is level with
the lenses and serves as an iris. Rotate the flask until the +8 D lens is behind the hole,
and arrange the light source to lie level with the hole and the centre of the flask. Move
the light source until a sharp image of it is formed on the surface of the flask. (You may
prefer to put a small piece of wet paper on the back surface of the flask as a ‘retina’ on
which the image will be easily visible.)
Keep the light source fixed and rotate the flask to bring first one and then the other of
the two extra lenses behind the hole to show long sight and short sight. Show that the –
2 D lens corrects the short- sighted eye, and the +3 D lens corrects the long-sighted eye.
Remove the correcting lenses and show what the short-sighted eye and the long-sighted
eye can see. Turn the flask to make a short-sighted eye, and move the light source until
its image is formed on the back of the flask. Show students that the light source has to
be much closer to the eye; it is a ‘short- sighted’ eye. Similarly show that the ‘long-
sighted’ eye ‘sees’ objects clearly when they are further from the eye.
Support: Relate the parts of the model to the various structures in the eye before
looking at the details of correction.
Stretch: Ask students to summarise the features of the model that are similar to those of
a real eye, and the features that are different.
Safety: Be aware that compact light sources using tungsten–halogen bulbs without
filters are significant sources of UV. Ensure that no-one can look directly at the bulb. The
bulb will become hot and must not be touched.
Equipment: 4-litre flat-bottomed flask OR round-bottomed flask standing on a cork
ring, convex meniscus lenses with powers +5 D, +8 D and +10 D, +3 D and -2 D
‘correcting lenses’, light source, compact (100 W, 12 V), power supply for light source,
variable voltage, capable of supplying 8 A, retort stand and clamp, thick card with
central 50 mm hole, fluorescein solution (or milk), lens holder, sticky putty
Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB2h The eye in the
Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident about answering them.
Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate
good understanding should move onto the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SB2h.3. Question 2 on the worksheet provides help and
scaffolding for answering question S1. Once pairs have completed their answers they
should join with another pair to discuss their responses and refine them.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to work in groups to make a drawing of an
eye and to add labels to show the positions and functions of all the different parts.
Encourage them also to list some eye defects caused by problems with the lens and
retina.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Once pairs
have arrived at an answer, they should join with another pair to discuss their responses
and refine their ideas.

4. Reflect
Ask students to look at the exam-style question at the end of SB2h The eye in the Student
Book. Working together, they should work on an ideal answer that they think will be
worth full marks. Ask random pairs what they think the marks are for and then go
through the answer.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB2h.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Before students complete the sheet, ensure that students can interpret the
graph at the bottom.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB2h.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question. Note that this question
requires some independent research and students will be helped by knowledge of genes
and alleles.

SB2g The nervous system

The nervous system and how it works
Objectives
B2.13 Explain the structure and function of sensory receptors, sensory neurons, relay
neurons in the CNS, motor neurons and synapses in the transmission of electrical
impulses including the axon, dendron, myelin sheath and the role of neurotransmitters.
Maths requirements
2c Construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and histograms.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to answer the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their
own baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starters
2. How many senses?
Ask students how many senses they think they have and their reasons for thinking this.
Elicit the idea of what a sense is and hint at the fact that there are more than five. There
is actually a long list of them, including touch, pressure, hearing, sight, taste, smell,
balance, heat detection, motion and tension in muscles, urine in the bladder, hunger and
thirst. Point out that our bodies sense things both around us and inside us.
Exploring Tasks
1. Skin sensitivity
A set of instructions for this suggested practical are given on Worksheet SB2g.1, in
which students use a touch tester with two points to find out which parts of the arms
and hands are the most sensitive to touch.
Support: Help students to think about how many times they should repeat their
measurements. Help them to set the correct distances in the touch tester for each trial.
Ask students to use the table on the second page of the worksheet, which shows a range
of areas to test and the different settings for the touch tester (rather than asking
students to decide on this in step B). You may wish to limit the number of tests to try.
Stretch: Challenge students to plan their own investigation based on the introductory
material at the top of Worksheet SB2g.1 and ask them to write up their investigation as
a report. Skills sheets PI1–9 and RC6–8 may be useful.
Safety: Students must not press the points of their devices hard into the skin.
Expected results
Students should discover that fingertips are the most sensitive area and the outside
upper arm the least.
Equipment: blindfold, ruler, touch tester made from a U-shaped piece of wire (e.g.
unbent paper clip) OR a pair of compasses without the very sharp points OR two
cocktail sticks pushed into sticky putty/tack or cork (e.g. a wine cork) or taped to a
vernier calliper or micrometer (NB: The U-shaped piece of wire can give students
problems in getting the points to stay exactly the same distance apart. Equally, sticky
putty is not very good at holding the cocktail sticks a set distance apart, but it is easier
to get the cocktail sticks into the sticky putty than it is into cork. If you can, borrow
micrometers or vernier callipers from the design and technology department; better
touch testers can be made by taping cocktail sticks to one of these measuring devices.
Certain hair clips also work well.)

2. Senses research
Challenge students to find out about other senses and receptor cells that other animals
possess but which humans do not. They could present their work by creating a
superhero that has these extra senses, or a leaflet for a zoo. Skills sheets RC1–4 look at
research and how to present research, and may be useful.
Support: Give students this list of senses to find out about: Jacobson’s organ in some
snakes; bats and echolocation; electrosensing receptors in sharks.
Stretch: Ask students to extend their research by picking one sense and finding out how
it helps the animal to survive.
Equipment: Internet/library access
Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB2g The nervous system
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the Checkpoint.
Point out to students that the word ‘neurone’ can also be spelt (and pronounced)
‘neuron’. Encourage students to talk about ‘impulses’ rather than ‘messages’ or ‘signals’.
Discuss the distinction between a dendron of a neurone and an axon, and point out that
not all neurones have dendrons (which is covered further in the next topic). Make sure
students understand the difference between a dendron and dendrites.
The ALDS video SB2g Senses explains what stimuli are and the sorts of stimuli that
humans respond to. It goes on to look at how impulses are transmitted around the body
and what happens when those impulse pathways are blocked. Note that the video also
looks at neurotransmitters, and this section of the video could be omitted now and
saved for use in the next topic.
Support: Draw a flow chart on the board to help explain the transmission of impulses
from receptor cells to the brain. This will also help students to answer question S1.
Stretch: Challenge students to prepare a table to show a list of stimuli that humans
respond to and the sense organs that detect them. Students could then do some further
research to discover the names of the receptor cells present in the sense organs that
detect the stimuli, and add this information to their tables.
Equipment
Optional: Internet/library access

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB2g The nervous
system in the Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident about
answering them. Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity. Students
who demonstrate good understanding should move on to the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SB2g.2. Question 1 on the sheet provides help and scaffolding
for answering question S1.
Once pairs have completed their answers they should join with another pair to discuss
their responses and refine them. Allow access to the Word Sheet so that students can
remind themselves of the key words and their meanings. Highlight important words
that should be used to answer question S1 (including impulse, receptor cell, brain,
spinal cord, [sensory] neurone) and work with students to put those terms in the order
in which an impulse would flow. Add words around the terms to create phrases or
sentences that describe the role of each part in the overall process. Then box these and
link with arrows to form a flow chart. Remind students that neurones are found
bundled together in nerves.
As an alternative or extension, look at the Progression questions in the Student Book
again, asking each student to write one bullet point to include for each question. Ask
students to work together in small groups to combine their bullet points and build up a
definitive list of points for each question. Ask groups at random to read out their lists,
and then correct misconceptions as they arise and identify ideas that are missing. The
corrected bullet lists might then be used as the basis for answering a long-answer-style
question, with students making use of Skills Sheet ET4.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Once pairs
have arrived at an answer, they should join with another pair to discuss their responses
and refine their ideas. Students then order the phrases found in question 1 on
Worksheet SB2g.3. They then add to or amend their original answer to question E1.
Students can now answer the questions on the rest of the sheet collaboratively. If there
is time, encourage students to turn the phrases in question 1 on the sheet into a
paragraph. Skills Sheet ET4 may be useful.

4. Reflect
Ask students to answer the exam-style question at the end of SB2g The nervous system.
Encourage students to work together in groups to list the key words needed to answer
the question and then to arrange the key words in the order in which they will be used.
Each student should then answer the question individually before sharing their answers
with others in their group, looking for ways in which language has been used to provide
a clear and logical answer (e.g. the use of prepositions to show place and order).

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB2g.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Give students access to the Word Sheet.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB2g.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic. It includes a description of the different sorts of receptor cells found in
skin. Students are not expected to learn or recall any of this additional information; it is
used as a context only.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question.
 SB2f Brain and spinal cord
problems
Investigating the nervous system
Objectives
B2.11B H Explain how the difficulties of accessing brain tissue inside the skull can be
overcome by using CT scanning and PET scanning to investigate brain function..
B2.12B H Explain some of the limitations in treating damage and disease in the brain
and other parts of the nervous system, including spinal injuries and brain tumours.
Maths requirements
1c Use ratios, fractions and percentages.
3c Substitute numerical values into algebraic equations using appropriate units for
physical quantities.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet. Alternatively ask students to answer the Progression
questions in the Student Book and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a
baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starter
1. Scanning the brain
Many CT (computed tomography) or CAT scan images are available on the Internet.
Download some and ask students to suggest how the scans were made. Establish the
idea that these were made by taking multiple X-rays and using a computer to put the X-
ray images together to create detailed images of the inside of the body. Then ask
students to identify some of the structures shown in the scans. Include at least one brain
scan so that students can identify the cerebral cortex, medulla oblongata, cerebellum
and spinal cord (and so revise material from the last topic).
Support: Help students to visualise how scan slices are taken in a scanner by relating
the images shown to an anatomical model of the body/brain.
Stretch: This activity can be extended by also showing students PET (positron emission
tomography) scans and using them in the same way. Point out that CT scans are used
more to identify anatomical structures, and PET scans are used more to identify the
activity of different parts of the body (and use a radioactive tracer).
Equipment optional: anatomical models of the body and/or brain

Exploring Tasks
1. Modelling X-rays using cyanotypes
The cyanotype process is the basis of ‘blueprints’ and the forerunner of silver-based
photography. It is recommended that you make cyanotype (‘sunprint’) paper for
students to use, rather than students making it themselves; it can be messy to make
cyanotype paper, and the substances stain clothing. However, a protocol for students
can be found on the Royal Society of Chemistry’s LearnChemistry website. The process
for making cyanotype paper for the students is as follows.
Wearing disposable gloves, mix equal quantities of potassium hexacyanoferrate(III)
solution and ammonium iron(III) citrate solution. Paint the resulting solution on sheets
of plain A4 or watercolour paper (avoid glossy papers) so that the paper is covered.
Hang the papers up to dry (the reaction does not work if the paper is damp). This
should all be carried out in a dimly lit area, away from sources of UV. Dry papers should
be kept in the dark until needed.
It is recommended that a brain section outline is photocopied onto acetate for students
to use; a suitable one can be found on Worksheet SB2f.1. The acetates can be kept for
reuse. Wearing disposable gloves, students place an acetate over a piece of cyanotype
paper and then think about how they could produce a ‘scan image’ of a brain tumour.
This could be accomplished using a piece of sticky putty or a shape cut out of paper and
placed on the acetate. Once students have prepared their items, the papers can be left
next to a window or taken outside. Students should see a blue colour developing. After
leaving the papers for three to four minutes outside on a sunny day (or about five to
seven minutes by a window), students should remove the acetate and any objects from
the paper and wash the paper in water. The paper can then be hung up to dry, and
should produce the reverse image of the brain from the acetate.
Explain to students that this models what happens in an X-ray. The X-ray radiation
causes the chemicals in the film to turn black (although modern X-ray machines use CCD
sensors). Bone and other materials with higher densities absorb the X-ray radiation and
stop it reaching the film, which remains white. The same happens with the cyanotype.
Encourage students to write a paragraph to explain how the cyanotype models what
happens in an X-ray, and to include a sentence that links X-rays with CT scans.
Important: Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) is an irritant. Ensure that students wear
disposable gloves and eye protection when handling cyanotype paper.
Support: Give students access to photo B from the Student Book to compare with their
cyanotypes.
Stretch: Challenge students to find out about how CT scans and PET scans are used
together (PET scans often use X-rays alongside the radioactive tracer) or about the
chemistry of the cyanotype process.
Equipment: cyanotype (‘sunprint’) paper (bought, or prepared using: 10 g potassium
hexacyanoferrate(III) dissolved in 100 cm3 distilled water, 18 g ammonium iron(III)
citrate dissolved in 100 cm3 distilled water, large paintbrush, eye protection, pieces of
plain A4 or watercolour paper (avoid glossy papers)), acetate sheets photocopied with
brain outlines, sticky putty, bulldog clips, string (to hang wet papers on), eye protection

2. Brain tumours
Worksheet SB2f.2 illustrates a set of CT scan slices. Go through photo B in the Student
Book, reminding students how the slices in a CT scan are interpreted. It is useful if you
can support this by showing other CT imagery of other parts of the body. (Plenty of
examples can be downloaded from the Internet.)
Extend the work by asking students to look at the scale bar and use it to estimate the
dimensions of the cerebral hemispheres and the tumour, without measuring.
Support: Work through the sheet, question by question, highlighting each key term as
you do so. Check students’ understanding of the key terms before taking suggestions
from students on how to tackle the question..
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question.

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB2f Brain and spinal cord problems
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
It should be noted that the Student Book deals only with PET scanning of the brain, for
which radiolabelled glucose is most commonly used as the tracer. This molecule
contains a fluorine isotope that decays by positron emission. The positron collides with
a nearby electron, producing gamma rays, and it is these that the scanner detects. Other
tissues in other parts of the body can be targeted using different tracer molecules other
than those based on glucose. This level of detail is not required in biology but does form
part of the single physics specification (see SP6j Radioactivity in medicine).
Point out to students that one of the side-effects of chemotherapy is loss of hair. This is
because the drugs kill cells that are actively dividing – a feature of the cells that produce
hair.
The video SB2f Brain and spinal cord problems examines what happens if the spinal cord
is severed, and why those effects occur. There is also a look at why paramedics use
backboards and neck braces at the scene of an accident, and at the possible treatment
options for severe spinal injury.
Support: Help students to visualise how scan slices are taken in a scanner by relating
photos B and C in the Student Book to an anatomical model of the brain.
Stretch: Challenge students to find out about some more methods of scanning the brain
and their specific uses (e.g. MRI, fMRI, SPECT).
Equipment Optional: anatomical model of the brain

2. Limitations of treating brain tumours

A jelly brain provides a useful model to demonstrate different ways of treating brain
tumours and some of the limitations of each.
This is more fun if you can find a brain-shaped jelly mould in which to create the model.
Suspend a ball of sticky putty from a thin piece of string or cotton thread so that the
putty is in the middle of the mould (this models the brain tumour). Mix a gelatine
solution according to the packet instructions but adding 10 per cent less water. Lightly
oil the inside of the mould with vegetable oil. Pour the gelatine solution into the mould
and let it set. Do not remove the jelly from the mould at this stage.
With the mould on a flat board or plate, tell students that the mould represents a skull,
and that in the brain inside there is a tumour. Challenge students to say how they would
find out where the tumour is, and ensure that they know that this is done using
scanning. Then ask for possible treatment options and ensure that students can list
chemotherapy, radiotherapy and brain surgery as possible options.
Lift the mould off the jelly. (Some jelly moulds are difficult to remove the jelly from;
soaking the mould in warm water for several minutes before turning it out will help.)
Show students the position of the ‘tumour’. Remind students about chemotherapy, and
add a little vegetable oil to the top of the jelly. Explain to students that the oil models the
limitations of some chemotherapy drugs for the brain, in that they cannot get out of the
capillaries and into the brain. Also explain that the drugs that do get into the brain may
affect healthy cells as well as the cancerous cells, although they are designed only to be
taken up by and to kill actively dividing cells.
A laser pointer can be used effectively to model radiotherapy. Point out to students that
radiotherapy is often not used on tumours deep in the brain, because the X-ray beam
has to go through so much healthy tissue, which may be damaged.
Finally, you could attempt the surgery! Discuss with students the best way to enter the
brain to get to the tumour (the way that involves disturbing the least tissue).
Important: Ensure that students do not eat gelatine. The laser pointed should be a Class
II laser of less than 1 mW. See CLEAPSS sheet PS52 for more on lasers.
Support: Remind students that the brain is constructed of billions of interconnected
neurones (nerve cells).
Stretch: Challenge students to look at the brains of other animals (models, real brains or
images) and identify the different parts, in order to create a list of similarities and
differences between those brains and human brains.
Equipment optional: cooking gelatine, jelly mould (preferably brain shaped), flat
board or plate, lump of sticky putty, thin string or cotton thread, vegetable oil, laser
pointer, knife and forceps (for surgery)
Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB2f Brain and spinal
cord problems in the Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident
about answering them. Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity.
Students who demonstrate good understanding should move onto the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SB2f.3. Question 1 on the sheet provides help and scaffolding
for answering question S1. Once pairs have completed their answers they should join
with another pair to discuss their responses and refine them.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to work in groups to make a drawing of a
brain and tumour, and to add labels to illustrate different treatment options and their
limitations.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Once pairs
have arrived at an answer, they should join with another pair to discuss their responses
and refine their ideas.

4. Reflect
Ask students to look at the exam-style question at the end of SB2f Brain and spinal cord
problems in the Student Book. Working together, they should work on an ideal answer
that they think will be worth full marks. Ask random pairs what they think the marks
are for and then go through the answer.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB2f.4 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Before students complete the sheet, go through the questions and ask student
to identify words that they are unsure of and words that are key to understanding the
questions.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB2f.5 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question. Note that this question
requires some independent research.
 SB2e The brain
Functions of the brain
Objectives
B2.10B Describe the structures and functions of the brain including the cerebellum,
cerebral hemispheres and medulla oblongata.

Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to complete the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet. Alternatively ask students to answer the Progression
questions in the Student Book and to score their confidence levels. This gives students a
baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starter
1. Thinking about the brain
Ask students to each write down four things that our brains allow us to do. Answers
should then be contributed to the class and a summary list of between five and 10
things agreed upon. Then ask students how the brain does all this. Introduce the idea
that the brain processes messages from other parts of the body and sends out messages
to them, coordinating the activities of the body. Establish that the brain is composed of
nerve cells, and that different parts of the brain have different functions.

Exploring Tasks
1. Thinking caps
This activity encourages students to explore the functions of the different parts of the
cerebral hemispheres. While students are not expected to remember the locations of the
different cerebral hemisphere functions, they will be expected to recall the functions.
A ‘thinking cap’ can be made using papier mâché or a white swimming cap or pale-
coloured disposable surgery/scrub/catering/snood cap/hat. Using suitable markers,
students mark out the different areas of the brain with their functions so that when the
cap is worn these areas appear in their correct positions. Students could copy from
diagram C in the Student Book or research some of the functions of the areas of the
cerebral cortex themselves. Snood caps allow the cerebellum to be included (some of
the shorter cap types may not).
If you want students to make papier mâché models, they should use a mixture of two
parts wallpaper paste and one part water, into which they dip 2 cm wide lengths of
torn/cut newspaper. They should remove the excess paste from each strip with their
fingers before applying the strips to an inflated party balloon. Between three and four
layers of newspaper strips should be sufficient. A final layer of plain paper allows the
models to be written on directly, or they can be painted white. The model will take
about 24 hours before being dry enough to mark up.
Important: Beware of a slip hazard caused by glue used for papier mâché. Use non-
fungicidal wall paper paste.
Support: Give students access to diagram C from the Student Book.
Stretch: Challenge students to do some additional research to find out which scientists
discovered what the different parts of the cerebral hemispheres do.
Equipment: white swimming caps or pale-coloured disposable
surgery/scrub/catering/snood caps/hats or equipment for making papier mâché
models, suitable markers or paints to use on the chosen headwear For papier mâché:
non-fungicidal wallpaper paste, strips of newspaper (approximately 2 cm wide), party
balloon

Explaining Tasks
1. Student Book SB2e The brain
Work through the Student Book pages, answering the questions up to the checkpoint.
The interactive SB2e The brain illustrates the positions and names of the main parts of
the brain and describes their functions. Challenge students to sketch the brain and label
the drawing before showing them the animation and then allowing them to amend their
drawings.
Support: Help students to develop some fun ways of remembering the parts of the brain
and what they do. For example: the cerebellum could be remembered by imagining
someone balancing on a bell (it is involved in balance); for the cortex imagine the brain
wearing a Texan cowboy hat; the medulla oblongata is involved in breathing and heart
rate and so could be remembered by imagining winning athletics medals being hung on
it.
Stretch: Explain to students that the two different cerebral hemispheres have different
functions. Apart from controlling movement in opposite sides of the body, as described
in the Student Book, in most people the right hemisphere is used for motion, facial
recognition and musical appreciation, and the left hemisphere is important for
mathematical ability, language and reasoning. Challenge students to find out how the
brains of people who are left- and right-handed are different (people who have the
areas for speech and language in the right hemisphere are left-handed and vice versa).
2. Looking at brains
If a model brain is available, show students the different parts mentioned in the Student
Book and illustrate the position of the rod that went through Phineas Gage’s brain.
There are also various free smartphone/tablet apps that show 3D renderings of brains.
You may also be able to source animal brains from a local butcher to show students.
These could be displayed and/or dissected. Or consider setting up some slide sections of
brains under a microscope for students to have a look at and appreciate the dense
interconnections between the different cells.
There are various recipes on the Internet for making a substance that has the same
consistency as brain material – commonly 360 cm3 instant potato, 600 cm3 hot water
and 480 cm3 clean sand mixed together in a clear plastic bag with a zip top. This should
give something approximating to the size, mass, colour and consistency of an adult
human brain.
Important: Ensure that students who do not want to see a dissection have alternative
activities to do, and that animals that may cause cultural sensitivities are avoided.
Follow school policy/CLEAPSS guidelines for any dissection. See CLEAPSS Dissection
Starter Guide G267.
Support: Remind students that the brain is constructed of billions of interconnected
neurones (nerve cells)..
Stretch: Challenge students to look at the brains of other animals (models, real brains or
images) and identify the different parts, in order to create a list of similarities and
differences between those brains and human brains.
Equipment: Variety of equipment, which could include: anatomical brain model, animal
brains (sourced from a local butcher), pre-prepared or commercial microscope slides of
brain tissue, microscope, microscope video camera and screen, brain apps (for
smartphones/tablets), 360 cm3 instant potato powder, 480 cm3 clean sand, large
sealable (clear, colourless) plastic bag

Checkpoint
1. Checkpoint
Ask students to complete the Assessment and Feedback sections of the Progression
Check sheet for this topic. Or revisit the Progression questions on SB2e The brain in the
Student Book and assess whether students feel more confident about answering them.
Less confident students should use the ‘Strengthen’ activity. Students who demonstrate
good understanding should move onto the ‘Extend’ activity.

2. Strengthen
Ask students to work in pairs to answer question S1 in the Student Book and/or the
questions on Worksheet SB2e.2. Question 1 on the sheet provides help and scaffolding
for answering question S1. Once pairs have completed their answers they should join
with another pair to discuss their responses and refine them.
As an alternative or extension, ask students to work in groups to make a drawing of a
brain and label its main parts and their functions.

3. Extend
Ask students to work in pairs to discuss question E1 in the Student Book. Once pairs
have an answer, they should join with another pair to discuss their responses and refine
their ideas.

4. Reflect
Ask students to look at the exam-style question at the end of SB2e The brain in the
Student Book. Working together, they should work on an ideal answer that they think
will be worth full marks. Ask random pairs what they think the marks are for and then
go through the answer.

Homework Tasks
Homework Tasks 1
Worksheet SB2e.3 is suitable for homework and contains straightforward questions
about this topic.
Support: Before students complete the worksheet, go through the questions and ask
students to identify words that they are unsure of and words that are key to
understanding the questions.

Homework Tasks 2
Worksheet SB2e.4 is suitable for homework and contains more challenging questions
about this topic.
Stretch: Ask students to complete the Extra challenge question. Note that this question
asks about the pituitary gland and hypothalamus, which are covered in SB7 Animal
Coordination, Control and Homeostasis in the Student Book. Students may need to do
some independent research at this stage.

SB2d Stem cells

The function of stem cells in plants and animals, and their use in medicine.
Objectives
B2.8 Describe the function of embryonic stem cells, stem cells in animals and meristems
in plants.
B2.9 Discuss the potential benefits and risks associated with the use of stem cells in
medicine.
Learning Outcomes
Baseline Assessment
Quick Quiz and Progression Check
Before starting, consider using rapid-fire quick questions to check and secure basic
knowledge and understanding from recent lessons (examples are given in the Quick
Quiz below). The quiz can be done as a whole class and should take no more than a
couple of minutes.
You can also ask students to answer the Progression questions at the top of the
Progression Check sheet and to score their confidence levels. This gives students their
own baseline with which to measure their own learning during the lesson.

Starter
2. Introduction to stem