1.
IPv4 Fragmentation for 2000 Bytes of User Data
To calculate how many IPv4 fragments are needed to transfer 2000 bytes of user data, we
need to account for the following:
- Maximum Ethernet Payload: Typically, the maximum payload in a standard Ethernet frame
is 1500 bytes.
- IPv4 Header: The IPv4 header size is 20 bytes.
- UDP Header: The UDP header size is 8 bytes.
Thus, the maximum payload for the data in each IPv4 packet is:
\[ 1500 \, \text{bytes} - 20 \, \text{bytes (IPv4 header)} - 8 \, \text{bytes (UDP header)} =
1472 \, \text{bytes of user data per packet} \]
Now, splitting the 2000 bytes of user data:
- First Fragment: The first fragment will carry 1472 bytes of data.
- Remaining Data: After the first fragment, there are \( 2000 - 1472 = 528 \) bytes left.
- Second Fragment: The second fragment will carry 528 bytes of data.
Thus, two fragments are needed to transmit the 2000 bytes of user data. The first fragment
will carry 1472 bytes, and the second fragment will carry the remaining 528 bytes.
2. Problems with RPC (Remote Procedure Call)
RPC is a powerful concept, but it comes with several challenges:
1. Network Latency: RPC calls are often synchronous, which means the client waits for the
response from the server. In high-latency networks, this can result in performance
bottlenecks.
2. Error Handling: RPC is prone to errors, such as network failures or the server being
unavailable. Handling these errors (timeouts, retries) complicates the design of robust
systems.
3. Scalability Issues: As RPC systems grow, they may face scalability challenges due to the
overhead of maintaining connections, synchronizing state, and ensuring consistency across
distributed nodes.
3. Why is Timestamping Needed in RTP for Real-Time Applications?
In Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP), timestamping is essential for synchronizing audio,
video, and other media streams. Timestamps:
- Ensure proper timing: They help reconstruct the media stream in the correct timing order at
the receiver, allowing for smooth playback.
- Support jitter buffer management: RTP timestamps allow the receiver to handle variations
in network delay (jitter) by adjusting the playback order of incoming packets.
- Enable synchronization with other streams: If a real-time application is handling multiple
media streams (e.g., audio and video), timestamping helps to synchronize these streams for
seamless communication.
4. Why Does UDP Exist?
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) exists to provide a lightweight, connectionless
communication method for applications that do not require the overhead of reliability and
ordering guarantees provided by TCP. UDP offers several benefits:
- Lower Overhead: Without the need for connection setup or maintaining state, UDP allows
faster and more efficient data transmission.
- Suitable for Real-Time Applications: UDP is ideal for real-time protocols (e.g., video
streaming, VoIP) where timely delivery is more critical than reliable delivery.
- Flexibility: UDP allows applications to handle error correction and data integrity according
to their needs, making it adaptable for a wide range of use cases.
Allowing user processes to send raw IP packets would bypass key features (like error
checking, flow control, and congestion management) that UDP provides, making it harder for
applications to deal with network issues directly.
5. How QUIC Reduces RTTs in Secure Web Connections
QUIC (Quick UDP Internet Connections) eliminates a couple of RTTs typically needed in a
secure web connection by introducing the following features:
1. 0-RTT Data: QUIC allows clients to send data to the server in the first round trip before
the handshake is complete, reducing the initial connection delay. This is possible because
QUIC can use a previously established connection's encryption parameters.
2. Combined Handshake for TLS and Transport: In traditional HTTPS, the TLS handshake
occurs after the TCP handshake, resulting in at least 1 RTT for establishing the secure
connection. QUIC integrates the transport layer (UDP) and TLS, so the handshake happens
concurrently, cutting down on the time needed to establish a secure connection.
This leads to a faster connection setup for secure communication, especially noticeable in
scenarios involving multiple requests or frequent reconnects.
References
- Popovici, A., & Laurent, R. (2017). QUIC: A UDP-based Multiplexed and Secure
Transport. IEEE Communications Magazine, 55(5), 91-97.
- Iyengar, J., & McAllister, S. (2021). QUIC: A New HTTP Transport for the Modern Web.
Communications of the ACM, 64(4), 46-53.
