INDIVIDUAL INFLUENCES ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

Module – IV ( Part – 2 )
INDIVIDUAL INFLUENCES ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

A. Learning : Elements of Consumer Learning , Marketing Applications of Behavioral

Learning Theories, Classical Conditioning - Pavlovian Model, Neo -Pavlovian Model,
Instrumental Conditioning.
B. Attitude: Basics of attitude, the nature of attitude, Models of attitude and Marketing
Implication, (Tri- component model of attitude, Multi attribute attitude models, Elaboration
Likelihood Model).
C. Persuasive Communication : Communications strategy, Target Audience, Media
Strategy, Message strategies, Message structure and Presentation.

LEARNING
I. MEANING / DEFINITION OF CONSUMER LEARNING

The process by which individuals acquire the purchase and consumption knowledge and
experience that they apply to future related behavior.

Marketers must teach consumers

 Where to buy
 How to use
 How to maintain
 How to dispose of products

Learning Theories

 Behavioral Theories: behavioral theory is based on observable behaviors (responses) that occur as
the result of exposure to stimuli.
 Cognitive Theories: Learning is based on mental information processing, it is also often in
response to problem-solving.

II. ELEMENTS OF CONSUMER LEARNING

A. MOTIVATION : “It is the processes that lead people to behave as they do”: It occurs when a
need arises that a consumer wishes to satisfy. Motivation is based on needs and goals. It acts as a spur
of learning. Uncovering consumer motives is one of the prime tasks of marketers, who then try to
teach motivated consumer segments why and how their products will fulfill the consumer‟s needs.

B. CUES : “It is a stimulus that suggests a specific way to satisfy a silent motive” : If motives serve
to stimulate learning, cues are the stimuli that give direction to these motives. In the marketplace,
price, styling, packaging, advertising and store displays all serve as cues to help consumers fulfill their
needs in product-specific ways. Cues serve to direct consumer drives when they are consistent with
consumer expectations. Marketers must be careful to provide cues that do not upset those
expectations.

C. RESPONSE : “Response means how individuals react to a drive or cue or how they behave”:
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Learning can occur even when responses are not overt. The automobile manufacturer that provides
consistent cues to a consumer may not always succeed in stimulating a purchase. A response is not
tied to a need in a one-to-one fashion. If the manufacturer succeeds in forming a favorable image of a
particular automobile model in the consumer‟s mind, when the consumer is ready to buy, it is likely
that he or she will consider that make or model.

D. REINFORCEMENT : “A positive or negative outcome that influences the likelihood that a

specific behavior will be repeated in the future in response to a particular cue or stimulus”: It
increases the likelihood that a specific response will occur in the future as the result of particular cues
or stimuli. Through positive reinforcement, learning has taken place.

III. LEARNING THEORIES

Two general categories of learning theory

1. Behavioural learning theory

2. Cognitive learning theory Pavlovian
Conditioning
Classical
Conditioning Theory Neo- Pavlovian
Conditioning
Reinforcement
Behavioral Instrumental of Behavior
Learning Conditioning
Extinction &
Learning Theories Modelling/ Forgetting
Observational

Cognitive
Learning

A. BEHAVIORAL THEORIES : Behavioural learning is sometimes referred to as stimulus-response

learning because it is based on the premise that observable responses to specific external stimuli
signal that learning has taken place.
 Behavioural learning is not so much concerned with the process of learning as it is with the inputs
and outcomes of learning.
 Two forms of behavioural learning with great relevance to marketing are

1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING : A behavioural learning theory according to which a stimulus is

paired with another stimulus that elicits a known response that serves to produce the same response
when used alone”. Early classical conditioning theorists regarded all organisms as relatively entities
that could be taught certain behaviours through repetition or conditioning. The word conditioning
mean a kind of “knee-jerk” or automatic response to a situation built up through repeated exposure.
E.g., If you get a headache every time you think of visiting a doctor. Pavlov‟s demonstration of
conditioned learning in his studies with dogs is also a good example of it.

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An unconditioned stimulus might consists of a well-known brand symbol (such as Neutrogena name)
that implies demonstration of dermatologists‟ endorsement and pure. This previously acquired
consumer perception of Neutrogena is the unconditioned response.
Conditioned stimuli might consist of new products bearing the well-known symbol (such as the items
depicted in new products bearing the well-known symbol and the conditioned response would be
trying these products because of the belief that they embody the same attributes with which the
Neutrogena name is associated.
a. PAVLOVIAN MODEL
 Pavlov demonstrated what he meant by conditioned learning in his studies with dogs.
 Genetically, dogs are always hungry and highly motivated to eat
 In his experiment, Pavlov sounded a bell and then immediately applied a meat paste to the dog‟s
tongues, which caused them to salivate learning (conditioning) occurred when, after a sufficient
number of repetitions of the bell sound followed almost immediately by the food, the bell sound
alone caused the dogs to salivate.
 The dogs associated the bell sound (conditioned stimulus) with the meat paste (unconditioned
stimulus) and, after a number of pairings, gave the same unconditioned response (salivation) to the
bell alone as they did to the meat paste.
 The unconditioned response to the meat paste became the conditioned response to the bell.

b. NEO-PAVLOVIAN CONDITIONING

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Under neo-pavlovian theory, the consumer can be viewed as an information seeker who uses logical and
perceptual relations among events, along with his or her own perceptions, to form a sophisticated
representation of the world.
Optimal conditioning – the creation of a strong association between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and
the unconditioned stimulus (US) is known as neo-pavlovian model.

STRATEGIC APPLICATIONS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

The three basic concepts derive from classical conditioning are:

 Repetition : Repetition increases strength of associations and slows forgetting but over time may result
in advertising wear out. Repetition is the basis for the idea that three exposures to an ad are necessary
for the ad to be effective. Some marketers just focus on three exposures of advertisement.
1) Product Awareness
2) Showing of Relevance of the product
3) Remainder of products‟ benefits.
Other marketers focus on at least 11 to 12 repetitions to increase the likelihood that consumer will
actually receive the three exposures basic to the so-called three hit theory. The effectiveness of
repetition is somewhat dependent upon the amount of competitive advertising to which the consumer is
exposed.
 Stimulus Generalization : “It is the inability to perceive differences between slightly dissimilar
stimuli”. It is defined as making of same response with slightly different stimuli-not much learning takes
place. Stimulus generalization explains why some “me too” products succeed in the marketplace.
Consumer confuse them with the original product they have been advertised. It also explains why
manufacturers of private-label brands try to make their packaging closely resemble the national brand
leaders.
1. Product Line, Form, and Category Extensions
2. Family Branding
3. Licensing
 Stimulus Discrimination : “The ability to select a specific stimulus from among similar stimuli
because of perceived differences”. Stimulus discrimination is the opposite of stimulus generalization
and results in the selection of a specified stimulus from among similar stimuli. The consumer‟s ability to
discriminate among similar stimuli is the basis of positioning strategy that seeks to establish a unique
image for a brand in the consumer‟s mind.
1. Positioning
2. Product Differentiation

2. INSTRUMENTAL OR OPERANT CONDITIONING:

A behavioural theory of learning based on a trial-and-error process, with habits forced as the result of
positive experiences (reinforcement) resulting from certain responses or behaviours”.
 It requires a link between a stimulus and a response.
 In Instrumental Conditioning, the stimulus that results in the most satisfactory response is the one that is
learned.
 In consumer behavior terms, it suggests that consumers learn by trial and error process in whic h some
purchase behaviours results in more favourable outcomes (i.e., rewards) than other purchase behaviours.
A favourable experience is “instrumental” in teaching the individual to repeat a specific behavior.
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 Occurs as the individual learns to perform behaviours that produce positive outcomes and avoid
behaviours that yield negative outcomes.
 This learning process is most closely associated with psychologist B.F. Skinner, who demonstrated the
effects of instrumental conditioning by training pigeons to dance and play Ping- Pong.
 Operant conditioning is the process in which the frequency of occurrence of a behavior is modified by
the consequences of the behavior. That is, the consequences of a purchase will affect the probability of a
re-purchase.

a. REINFORCEMENT OF BEHAVIOR

1) Positive Reinforcement : “Positive outcomes that strengthen the likelihood of a specific response”.
2) Negative Reinforcement : “Unpleasant or negative outcomes that serve to encourage a specific
behaviour”.

b. FORGETTING AND EXTINCTION

When a learned response is no longer reinforced, it diminishes to the point of extinction that is to the
point at which the link between the stimulus and the expected reward is eliminated. If a consumer is no
longer is satisfied with the service a retail store provides, the link between the stimulus (store) and the
response (expected satisfaction) is no longer reinforced, i.e. consumer will not return to the store.
 There is a difference, however, between extinction and forgetting.
 Forgetting is often related to the passage of time; this is known as the process of decay.
 Marketers can overcome forgetting through repetition.

STRATEGIC/MARKETING APPLICATIONS OF INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING

Marketers effectively utilize the concepts of consumer instrumental learning when they provide positive
reinforcement by assuring customer instrumental learning when they provide positive reinforcement by
assuring customer satisfaction with the product, the service, and the total buying experience.

 Customer Satisfaction (Reinforcement):

The objective of all marketing efforts should be to maximize customer satisfaction.

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Marketers must be certain to provide the best possible product for the money and to avoid raising
consumer expectations for product (or services) performance beyond what the product can deliver.
Aside from the experience of using the product itself, consumers can receive reinforcement from other
elements in the purchase situation, such as the environment in which the transaction or service takes
place, the attention and service provided by employees, and the amenities provided.
E.g.: most frequent shopper programs are based on enhancing positive reinforcement and encouraging
continued patronage. The more a consumer uses the service, the greater the rewards.

 Relationship Marketing : Relationship marketing develops a closed personalized relationship with

customers-is another form of non product reinforcement.

 Reinforcement Schedules : Marketers have found that product quality must be consistently high and
provide customer satisfaction with each use for desired consumer rewards do not have to be offered each
time the transaction takes place; even an occasional reward provides reinforcement and encourages
consumer patronage.
 Total or Continuous Reinforcement : An example of total or continuous reinforcement schedule
is the free after-dinner drink or fruit plate always served to patrons at certain restaurants. The basic
product or service rendered is expected to provide total satisfaction (reinforcement) each time it is
used.
 Systematic (Fixed Ratio) Reinforcement: A fixed ratio reinforcement schedule provides
reinforcement every nth time the product or service is purchased. (Say every third time). For
example, a retailer may send a credit voucher to account holders every three months based on a
percentage of the previous quarter‟s purchases.
 Random or Variable Ratio Reinforcement: This schedule rewards consumers on a random basis
or an average frequency basis (such as every third or tenth transaction). Variable ratios tend to
engender high rates of desired behaviour and are somewhat resistant to extinction-perhaps because,
for many consumers, hope springs eternal. Other examples of variable ratio require certain
consumer behaviours for eligibility.
 Shaping: “It is the reinforcement for incremental steps toward the desired behavior.”
Reinforcement performed before the desired consumer behaviour actually takes place is called
shaping.
 Massed versus Distributed Learning: -Timing has an important influence on consumer learning.
Should a learning schedule be spread out over a period of time (distributed learning), or should it be
“bunched up” all at once (massed learning)?.

3. MODELING OR OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING :

“It is a process by which individuals observe the behaviour of others, and consequences of such
behaviour. It is also known as modelling or vicarious learning”.
 Occurs when people watch the actions of others and note reinforcements received for their
behaviours.
 Learning occurs as a result of vicarious, rather than direct, experience.
 Learning theorists have noted that a considerable amount of learning takes place in the absence of
direct reinforcement, either positive or negative, through a process called by psychologists modelling
or observational learning (also called vicarious learning).

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MODELLING:
It is the process through which individuals learn behaviour by observing the behaviour of others and the
consequences of such behaviour. Their role models are usually people they admire because of such traits
as appearance, accomplishments, skill, and even social class.

Consumer models with which the target audience can identify are shown achieving positive outcomes to
common problem situations through the use of the advertised product.

For instance, children learn much of their social behaviour and consumer behaviour by observing their
older siblings or their parents. Sometimes ads depict negative consequences for certain types of
behaviour. This is particularly true of public policy ads, which may show the negative consequences of
smoking, driving too fast, taking drugs etc.

B. INFORMATION PROCESSING & COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY :

Holds that the kind of learning most characteristic of human beings is problem solving, which
enables individuals to gain some control over their environment. A considerable amount of learning
takes place as a result of consumer thinking and problem solving. Sudden learning is also a reality.
When confronted with a problem, we sometimes see the solution instantly. We are likely to search
for information on which to base decision possible for our purposes. Learning based on mental
activity is called “cognitive learning”. It holds that the kind of learning most characteristics of
human beings is problem solving, which enables individuals to gain some control over their
environment.
 Cognitive learning theory involves complex mental processing of information.
 The coverage of cognitive learning begins with a discussion of the human memory – the key tool
for information processing.

INFORMATION PROCESSING :
A cognitive theory of human learning patterned after computer information processing that focuses on
how information is stored in human memory and how it is retrieved.
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 Information processing is related to both the consumer‟s cognitive ability and the complexity of the
information to be processed. Consumer processes product information by attributes, brands,
comparisons between brands, or a combination of these factors.
 Consumers also differ in terms of imagery-that is, in their ability to form mental images- and these
differences influence their ability to recall information. Individual differences in imagery processing
can be measured with tests of imagery vividness (the ability to evoke clear images), processing style
(preference for and frequency of visual versus verbal processing), and daydream (fantasy) content
and frequency.

HOW CONSUMER STORE, RETAIN, AND RETRIEVE INFORMATION

Central importance to the processing of information is the human memory. A basic research concern of
most cognitive scientists is discovering how information gets stored in memory, how it is retained, and
how it is retrieved.
1. Structure of Memory: Because information processing is kept temporarily before further processing:
a sensory store, a short term store, and a long-term store.
2. Sensory Stage: All data come to us through our senses; however, the senses do not transmit whole
images as a camera does. Instead, each sense receives a fragmented piece of information (such as the
smell, colour, shape, and feel of a flower) and transmits it to the brain in parallel, where the
perceptions of a single instant are synchronized and perceived as a single image, in a single moment of
time. The image of a sensory input lasts for a just a second or two in the mind‟s sensory store. If it is
not processed, it is lost immediately.
3. Sensory Memory : “It is a temporary storage of information from our senses”.
4. Short-Term Store: (Knowing Memory) : It is a temporary storage of info while being processed
which holds about 7 (plus or minus 2) chunks of information at a time (Miller‟s Law). It has a limited
capacity that may lead to information overload.
It is the stage of real memory in which information is processed and held for just brief period. If
information in the short-term store undergoes the process known as “Rehearsal” (i.e., the silent, mental
repetition of information), it is then transferred to the long-term store. The transfer process takes from
2 to 10 seconds. If information is not rehearsed and transferred, it is lost in about 30 seconds or less.
The amount of information that can be held in short-term storage is limited to about four or five items.

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5. Long-Term Store: It can retain information for a long period of time and transfer from STM to LTM
which is facilitated by chunking, rehearsal, recirculation, and elaboration. E.g., Pictures are more
memorable than words. The long-term store retains information for relatively extended periods of
time. Although it is possible to forget something within a few minutes after the information has
reached long-term storage to last for days, weeks, or even years.
6. Rehearsal and Encoding: The amount of information available for delivery from short-term storage
to log-term storage depends on the amount of rehearsal if it is given. Failure to rehearse an input, either
by repeating it or by relating it to other data, can result in fading and eventual loss of the information.
Information can also be lost because of competition for attention.
7. Encoding: It is the process by which we select a word or visual image to represent a perceived object.
When consumers are presented with too much information (called information overload), they may
encounter difficulty in encoding and storing it all.
8. Retention: Information does not just sit in long-term storage waiting to be retrieved. Instead,
information is constantly organized and reorganized as new links between chunks of information are
forged. In fact, many information-processing theorists view the long-term store as a network consisting
of nodes (i.e., concepts), with links between and among them. As individuals gain more knowledge
about a subject, they expand their network of relationships and sometimes their search for additional
information. This process is called as activation, which involves relating new data to old to make the
material more meaningful. The total package of associations brought to mind when a cue is activated is
called a schema. Consumers recode what they have already encoded to include larger amounts of
information (chunking). Information is stored in long-term memory in two ways: episodically (by the
order in which it is acquired) and semantically (according to significant concepts).
9. Retrieval: “Retrieval is the process by which we recover information from long term storage”. In this
process, the person accesses the desired information. Marketers maintain that consumers tend to
remember the product‟s benefits rather than its attributes, suggesting that advertising messages are
most effective when they link the product‟s attributes with the benefits that consumers seek from the
product. The greater the number of competitive ads in a product category, the lower the recall of brand
claims in specific ad. This is known as inference effect.
3. CONSUMER INVOLVEMENT AND PASSIVE LEARING THEORY
“It is a theory of consumer learning which postulates that consumers engage in a range of information
processing activity from extensive to limited problem solving, depending on the relevance of the
purchase”. Involvement theory developed from a stream of research called hemispheral lateralization,
or split brain theory.

Hemispheral lateralization or split brain : originated in 1960s, according to this theory human brain
is divided into two distinct cerebral hemispheres that operate together but specialize in the kinds of
cognitions they process.
 The left hemisphere is the central of human language, it is the linear side of the brain and primarily
responsible for reading, speaking, and information processing. Put another way, the left side of the brain
is rational, active, and realistic.
 The right hemisphere of the brain is the home spatial perception and nonverbal concepts, and the source
of imagination and pleasure. Put another way, the right side is emotional, metaphoric (symbolic),
impulsive (spontaneous) and intuitive (sensitive).

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 Consumer involvement is focused on the degree of personal relevance that the consumer holds for the
product. For instance, high-involvement purchases are those that are very important to the consumer.
Low involvement purchases are purchases that are not very important to the consumers.

IV . INVOLVEMENT THEORY AND MEDIA STRATEGY

Building on the notion of hemisphere lateralization, a pioneer consumer researcher theorized that
individuals passively process and store right-brain (nonverbal, pictorial) information-that is, without
active involvement. E.g., T.V is primarily holistic processing of images viewed on the screen), and TV
itself was therefore considered a low-involvement medium. This research concluded that passive
learning occurs through repeated exposures to TV commercial (i.e., low-involvement information
processing) and produces changes in consumer behaviour (e.g., product purchases) prior to changes in
the consumer‟s attitude towards the product.
The right-brain processing theory stresses the importance of the visual component of advertising,
including the creative use of symbols. Under this theory, highly visual TV commercials; packaging, and
in-store displays generated familiarity with the brand and induce purchase behavior. Pictorial cues are
more effective at generating recall and familiarity with the product, whereas verbal cues (which trigger
left-brain processing) generate cognitive activity that encourages consumers to evaluate the advantages
and disadvantages of the product. Some individuals are integrated processors (they readily engage both
hemispheres during information processing).

V. INVOLVEMENT THEORY AND CONSUMER RELEVANCE

From the conceptualization of high and low involvement media, involvement theory next focused on the
consumer‟s involvement theory with products and purchases. It was briefly hypothesized that there are
high and low involvement consumers; then, that there are high and low involvement purchases. These
two approaches led to the notion that a consumer‟s level of involvement depends on the degree of
personal relevance that the product holds for that consumer. Under this definition, high-involvement
purchases are those that are very important to the consumer (e.g., in terms of perceived risk) and thus
provoke extensive problem solving (information processing). Highly involved consumers find fewer
brands acceptable (they are called narrow categorizers); uninvolved consumers find fewer brands be
receptive to a greater number of advertising messages regarding the purchase and will consider more
brands (they are broad categorize).

VI. THE ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL (ELM)

“It is a theory that suggests that a person‟s level of involvement during message processing is a critical
factor in determining which route to persuasion is likely to be effective”. The elaboration likelihood
model suggests that a person‟s level of involvement during message processing is a critical factor in
determining which route to persuasion is likely to be effective.
For example, as the message becomes more personally relevant (i.e., as involvement increases), people
are more willing to expand the cognitive effort required to process the message arguments.

VII. CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL ROUTES TO PERSUASION

 “It is a theory that proposes that highly involved consumers are best reached through ads that focus on
the specific attributes of the product (the central route) while uninvolved consumers can be attracted
through peripheral advertising cues such as the model or the setting (the peripheral route)”.

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 For low-involvement purchases, the peripheral route to persuasion is likely to be more effective. In this
instance, because the consumer is less motivated to exert cognitive effort, learning is more likely to
occur through repetition, the passive processing of visual cues, and holistic perceptions.

VIII. MEASURES OF INVOLVEMENT

Involvement theory evolved from the notion of high and low involvement media, to high and low
involvement consumers, to high and low involvement products and purchases to appropriate methods of
persuasion in situations of high and low product relevance. There is a great variation in the
conceptualization and measurement of involvement itself. Involvement can be defined and
conceptualize in a variety of ways, including ego involvement, commitment, communication
involvement, purchase importance, extent of information search, persons, products, situations, and
purchase decisions. It makes more sense to develop an environmental profile rather than to measure a
single involvement level.

IX. MARKETING APPLICATIONS OF INVOLVEMENT

People process information extensively when the purchase is of high personal relevance and engage in
limited information processing when the purchase is of low personal relevance. Uninvolved consumers
appear to be susceptible to different kinds of persuasions than highly involved consumers.

X. OUTCOMES AND MEASURES OF CONSUMER LEARNING

Many marketers, the dual goals of consumer learning are increased market share and brand-loyal
consumers. These goals are interdependent: Brand-loyal customers provide the basis for a stable and
growing market share, and brands with larger market shares have proportionately larger groups of loyal
buyers. Following are some measures of consumer learning
1. Recognition and Recall Measures: Recognition and recall tests are conducted to determine whether
consumers remember seeing an ad, the extent to which they have read it or seen it and can recall their
purchase intentions. Recognitions tests are based on aided recall, whereas recall tests use unaided recall.
In recognition tests, the consumer is shown an ad and asked whether he or she remembers seeing it and
can remember any of its salient points.
 Starch Readership Service
 Starch Readership Service Sample
 Cognitive Response to Advertising
 Attitudinal and Behavioural Measures of Brand Loyalty
2. Brand loyalty is the ultimate desired outcome of consumer learning. However, there is no single
definition of this concept. Marketers agree that brand loyalty consists of both attitudes and actual
behaviours toward a brand and that both must be measured.
 Attitudinal measures
 Behavioural measures
 Behavioural scientists
 Cognitive researchers
3. Brand Loyalty : Is the ultimate desired outcome of consumer learning. However, there is no single
definition of this concept. Marketers agree that brand loyalty consists of both attitudes and actual
behaviours toward a brand and that both must be measured. Cognitive, Affective, Conative and Action.

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4. Brand Equity: The term brand equity refers to the value inherent in a well-known brand name. This
value stems from the consumer‟s perception of the brand‟s superiority and the social esteem that using it
provides and the customer‟s trust and identification with the brand. The most valuable assets are brand
names. Well-known brand names are often referred as mega brands.

ATTITUDE
I. MEANING / DEFINITION OF ATTITUDE
An attitude is an enduring organization of motivational, emotional, perceptual, and cognitive process
with respect to some aspect of our environment. It is a learned predisposition to respond in a
consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object.
Thus, an attitude is the way we think, feel, and act toward some aspect of our environment such as a
retail store, television program, or product. In another words, an attitude is how positive or negative,
favourable or unfavourable, or pro or con a person feels toward an object. This definition views attitude
as a feeling or an evaluative reaction to object.
Attitude may also be defined as “an enduring organization of motivational, emotional, perceptual,
and cognitive process with respect to some aspect of the individual’s world “. This views attitude as
being made up of three components: the cognitive or knowledge component, the affective or emotional
component and the cognitive or behavioural tendency component.

II. FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE

Attitudes serve four key functions for individuals :
1. Knowledge function : Some attitudes serve primarily as a means of organizing beliefs about objects or
activities such as brands and shopping. These attitudes may be accurate or inaccurate with respect to
“objective” reality, but the attitude will often determine subsequent behaviours rather than “reality”.
2. Value-expressive function : Other attitudes are formed and serve to express an individual‟s central
values and self-concept. Thus, consumers who value nature and the environment are likely to develop
attitudes about products and activities that are consistent with that value. These consumers are likely to
express support for environment protection initiatives, to recycle, and to purchase and use “green
products.
3. Utilitarian function : This function is based on operant conditioning. We tend to form favourable
attitudes toward objects and activities that are rewarding and negative attitudes toward those that are not.
Marketers frequently promise rewards in advertising and conduct extensive product testing to be sure
the products are indeed rewarding.

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4. Ego-defensive function : Attitudes are often formed and used to defend our egos and images against
threats and shortcomings. Products promoted as very macho may be viewed favourably by men who are
insecure in their masculinity. Or, individuals who feel threatened in social situations may form
favourable attitudes toward products and brands that promise success or at least safety in such
situations.

III. NATURE / CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDE

Attitudes have several important characteristics or properties; namely, they have an object; direction,
intensity, and degree; have structure, and are learned.
1. Attitudes Have an Object: By definition, attitudes must have an object. That is, they must have a focal
point whether it is an abstract concept, such as “ethical behavior”. Or a tangible item, such as a
motorcycle. The object can be a physical thing, such as a product, or it can be an action, such as buying
a refuse bin. In addition, the object can be either one item, such as a person, or a collection of items such
as a social group; it also can be either specific.
2. Attitudes Have Direction, Degree and Intensity : An attitude expresses how a person feels toward an
object. It expresses direction-the person is either favourable or unfavourable toward, or for or against the
object; degree- how much the person either likes or dislikes the object; and intensity-the level of
sureness or confidence of expression about the object, or how strongly a person feels about his or her
conviction.
3. Attitude Have Structure: Attitudes display organization, which means that they have internal
consistency and possess inter attitudinal centrality. They also tend to be stale, to have varying degrees of
salience, and to be generalizable. The structure of human attitudes may be viewed as a complex set
erected in a type of circular pattern. At the centre of this structure are the individual‟s important values
and self-concept.
4. Attitude Are Learned Predisposition: They develop from our personal experiences with reality, as
well as from information from friends, salespeople, and news media. They are also derived from both
direct and indirect experiences in life.
5. Attitude have consistency : Attitudes are not necessarily permanent : they can change.
6. Attitude occur within a Situation : Attitude occur within and are affected by the situation.
7. Linkages in attitude formation : As a mental predisposition favourable /unfavourable situation about
the objects.

IV. STRUCTURE OF ATTITUDES MODELS

The following section examines several important attitude models
A. The tri-component attitude model
B. Multi-attribute attitude model
C. Trying – to – consume model
D. Attitude – toward – the – ad model

A. TRICOMPONENT ATTITUDE MODEL

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According to the tri-component attitude model, attitudes consist of three major components : a
cognitive component, an affective component, and a co-native component.

1. The Cognitive Component : The first part of the tri-component attitude model consists of a person‟s
cognitions that is, the knowledge of perceptions that are acquired by a combination of direct experience
with the attitude object and related information from various sources. This knowledge and resulting
perceptions commonly take the form of beliefs; that is, the consumer believers that the attitude object
possesses various attributes and that specific behaviour will lead to specific outcomes.
2. The Affective Component: A consumer‟s emotions or feelings about a particular product or brand
constitute the affective component of an attitude. These emotions and feelings are frequently treated by
consumer researchers as primarily evaluative in nature; that is, they capture an individual‟s direct or
global assessment of the attitude object (i.e. the extent to which the individual‟ rates the attitude object
as “favourable” or “unfavourable,” “good” or “bad”).
3. The Co-native Component : Conation, the final component of the tricomponent attitude model, is
concerned with the likelihood or tendency that an individual will undertake a specific action or behave
in a particular way with regard to the attitude object. According to some interpretations, the co-native
component may include the actual behaviour itself. In marketing and consumer research, the co-native
component is frequently treated as an expression of the consumer‟s intension to buy. Buyer intention
scales are used to assess the likelihood of a consumer purchasing a product or behaving in a certain way.

B. MULTI-ATTRIBUTE ATTITUDE MODELS

Multi-attribute attitude models portray consumer‟s attitudes with regard to an attitude object (e.g. a
product, a service, or a cause or an issue) as a function of consumers‟ perception and assessment of the
key attributes or beliefs held with regard to the particular attitude object. The components of this type of
attitude model include: the attitude-toward object model, the attitude-toward-behaviour model, and the
theory-of reasoned-action model.

1. The Attitude toward object : According to this model, the consumer‟s attitude toward a product or
specific brands of a product is a function of the presence (or absence) and evaluation of certain product-
specific beliefs and/or attributes. In other words, consumers generally have favourable attitudes toward
those brands that they believe have an adequate level of attributes that they evaluate as positive, and
they have unfavourable attitudes toward those brands they feel do not have an adequate level of desired
attributes or have too many negative or undesired attributes.
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2. The Attitude-Toward-Behavior Model: The attitude-toward-behaviours model is the individual‟s

attitude toward acting with respect to an object rather than the attitude toward the object itself. The
appeal of the attitude-toward-behaviour model is that is seems to correspond somewhat more closely to
actual behaviour than does the attitude –toward object model.
3. Theory of Reasoned Action Model : The theory of reasoned action represents a comprehensive
integration of attitude components into a structure that is designed to lead to both better explanation and
better predictions of behaviour. Like the basic tri-component attitude model, the theory-of reasoned –
action model incorporates a cognitive component, an affective component, and a co-native component:
however, there are arranged in a pattern different from that of the tri-component model.

C. THEORY OF TRYING TO CONSUME MODEL

The theory is designed to account for the many cases in which the action or outcome is uncertain but
instead reflects the consumer‟s attempts to consume. In trying to consume, there are often personal
impediments (a consumer is trying to find just the tie to go with a newly purchased suit for under Rs.
1000) or environmental impediments (only the first 50 in line will be able to purchase this Rs. 5000
colour ink jet printer for the special Saturday 9 am to 10 am price of Rs. 3500) that might prevent the
desired action or outcome for occurring. The key point is that in this case of trying, the outcome is not
and cannot be assumed to be certain.

D. ATTITUDE TOWARD THE AD MODEL

As the model depicts, the consumer forms various feelings (affects) and judgements (cognition) as the
result of exposure to an Ad. These feelings and judgements in turn affect the consumer‟s attitude toward
the ad and beliefs about the brand secured from exposure to the ad. Finally, the consumer‟s attitude
toward the ad and beliefs about the brand influence his or her attitude toward the brand. The study found
a positive relationship between attitudes toward the advertisement and purchase intention for each of the
advertised products.

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V. ATTITUDE CHANGE STRATEGIES

Attitude change based on the tri-component model

1. Changing the cognitive components : A common and effective approach to changing attitudes is to
focus on the cognitive component. Four basic marketing strategies are used for altering the cognitive
structure of a consumer‟s attitude.
 Change beliefs – this strategy involves shifting beliefs about the performance of the brand on one
or more attributes. Thus, changing one belief about a brand may result in other beliefs changing to
remain consistent with the changed belief.
 Shift importance – marketers often try to convince consumers that those attributes on which their
brands are relatively strong are the most important.
 Add beliefs – another approach to changing the cognitive component of an attitude is to add new
beliefs to the consumer‟s belief structure.
 Change ideal – the final component to change the cognitive component is to change the
perception of the ideal brand or situation. In terms of minimal packaging, non-polluting
manufacturing, extensive use of recycled materials etc.

2. Changing the affective components : It is increasingly common for a firm to attempt to influence
consumers‟ liking of its brand without directly influencing either beliefs or behaviour. Increased
liking will tend to lead to increased positive beliefs, which could lead to purchase behaviour should a
need for the product category arises.

Marketers use 3 basic approaches

 Classical conditioning – In this approach, a stimulus the audiences like such as music, is
consistently paired with the brand name. Over time, some of the positive affect associated with the
music will transfer to the brand.
 Affect toward the Ad or website – Liking the advertisement generally increases the tendency to
like the product. Positive affect toward the ad or website may increase liking of the brand through
classical conditioning, or it may high involvement. Ads that arouse negative affect or emotions
such as fear, guilt or sorrow can also enhance attitude change.
 Mere exposure – Brand preference may also be increased by mere exposure. That is, simply
presenting a brand to an individual on a large number of occasions might make the individual‟s
attitude toward the brand more positive.

3. Changing the behavioral components : Behaviour may precede the development of cognition and
affect. Or it may occur in contrast to the cognitive and affective components.
Ex: - A consumer may dislike the taste of diet soft drinks and believe that artificial sweeteners are
unhealthy. However, rather than appear rude, the same consumer may accept a diet drink when
offered by a friend.

VI. OTHER ATTITUDE CHANGE STRATEGIES

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It is important to recognize that much of what has been said about attitude formation is also basically
true of attitude change. I.e. attitude changes are learned, they are influenced by personal experience and
other sources of information.
The following are the attitude change strategies

1. Changing the basic motivational function : An effective strategy for changing consumer attitudes
toward a product or brand is to make particular needs prominent. According to this approach, attitudes
can be classified in terms of four functions:
 The utilitarian function – We hold certain brand attitudes partly because of a brand‟s utility. When a
product has been useful or helped us in the past, our attitude toward it tends to be favorable. For
instance, high priced brands need to make consumers aware of the application of the product whenever
possible.
 The Ego-defensive function – most people want to protect their self-image from inner feelings of doubt
– they want to replace their uncertainty with a sense of security and personal confidence.
 The value – Expressive function – Attitudes are an expression or reflection of the consumer‟s general
values, lifestyle, and outlook. If a consumer segment generally holds a positive attitude toward owning
the latest designer jeans, then their attitudes toward new brands of designer jeans are likely to reflect that
orientation.
 The knowledge function – Individuals generally have a strong need to know and understand the people
and things they encounter. Communication should ensure that consumers are able to effectively
comprehend product-related information and benefits. The knowledge function is very important for
new – concept durables.

2. Associating the product with a special group, event or cause : Attitudes are related, at least in part,
to certain groups, social events, or causes. It is possible to alter attitudes toward companies and their
products, services and brands by pointing out their relationships to particular social groups, events or
causes.
3. Resolving two conflicting attitudes : Attitude – change strategies can sometimes resolve actual or
potential conflict between two attitudes, specifically, if consumers can be made to see that their negative
attitude toward a product, specific brand, or its attributes.
4. Altering components of the multi attribute model : These models have implications for attitude –
change strategies; specifically they provide us with additional insights as to how to bring about attitude
change.
 Changing the relative evaluation of attributes – The overall market for many product categories is
often set out so that different consumer segments are offered different brands with different features or
benefits. In general, when a product category is naturally divided according to distinct product features
or benefits that appeal to a particular segment of consumers, marketers usually have an opportunity to
persuade consumers to “cross over”, that is, to persuade consumers who prefer one version of product to
shift their favorable attitudes toward another version of the product.
 Changing brand beliefs – Strategy for changing attitudes concentrates on changing beliefs or
perception about the brand itself. This is by far the most common form of advertising appeal.
Advertising constantly are reminding us that their product has more or is better or best in terms of some
important product attributes.

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 Adding an attribute – It consists of adding an attribute. This can be accomplished either by adding an
attribute that previously has been ignored or one that represents an improvement or technological
innovation.
 Changing the overall brand rating – Attempting to alter consumer‟s overall assessment of the brand
directly, without attempting to improve or change their evaluation of any single brand attribute. Such a
strategy frequently relies on some form of global statement that
 This is the largest selling brand
 The one all others try to imitate
 The brand apart from all its competitors
 Changing beliefs about competitor’s brands - It involves changing consumer beliefs about the
attributes of competitive brands or product categories. For instance, an advertisement for Eclipse
chewing gum makes a dramatic assertion of product superiority over other gums by claiming that “most
other gums just make bad breadth”. Such comparative advertisement gives visibility to a competing
brand and their claims.

VII. THE ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL (ELM)

The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of persuasion is a model of how attitudes are formed and
changed that was developed by Richard E. Petty and John Cacioppo in the early 1980s. Central to this
model is the "elaboration continuum", which ranges from low elaboration (low thought) to high
elaboration (high thought).
The Elaboration Likelihood Model states that there are two routes through which persuasive messages
are processed: the central route, which provides complete information and is straightforward, and the
peripheral route, which uses means like catchy tunes, colours, and celebrity endorsements.

1. The Central Route : Messages sent via the central route of persuasion must be straight-forward and
complete. The central route consists of “thoughtful consideration of the arguments (ideas, content) in the
message”. The receiver carefully scrutinizes the message and evaluates the subject matter of the idea.
Messages sent through this route must possess a high level of receiver involvement, that is, the receiver
must actually care about and be related to the subject. Because it is of importance to them, the message
will be evaluated thoroughly. Central route messages must be strong. The message is going to be
dissected and analyzed from every angle, so it had better have some substance to it.

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2. The Peripheral Route : The peripheral route of persuasion is successful for messages with low
receiver involvement, low receiver motivation, and weak messages. Unlike the central route persuasion,
messages sent via the peripheral route are not processed cognitively. Rather, the peripheral route states
that if a person is unable to elaborate on a message extensively, then she may still be persuaded by
factors that have nothing to do with the actual content of the message itself. Catchy tunes, bright
colours, and celebrity endorsements are all ways of peripheral persuasion. Peripheral route messages
focus on practically everything but the message itself. “The message will attempt to grab attention by
making the receiver think about something that she is already familiar with and has positive thoughts
about. However, peripheral persuasion is not as strong nor as long lasting as central persuasion.
Although it can produce a positive change in behaviour, “for it to become a more lasting change the
message should be repeated over a period of time”.
Conclusion : It is suggested that attitudes formed under high elaboration, the central route, are stronger
than those formed under low elaboration. This means that this level of persuasion is stable over time and
is less susceptible to decay or any type of counter-persuasion. Attitudes formed under low elaboration,
the peripheral route, are more likely to cause a short term attitude change.

PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION
I. COMMUNICATION STRATEGY

Basic communication model

1. The source as the message initiator : A company‟s marketing communications are designed to make
the consumer aware of the product or service, induce purchase or commitment, create a positive attitude
toward the product etc. In marketing communications, informal and formal source.
 Impersonal and interpersonal communications : Impersonal communications are organizations that
develop and transmit appropriate messages through their marketing departments, advertising, and
spokespersons. The targets specific audiences or several audiences that the organization is trying to
inform influence or persuade.
 The sender of interpersonal communications can be either informal or formal source. The key factor in
communication is source credibility – the extent to which the receiver trusts and believes the sources
sending the message.
2. Source credibility

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Reference groups – Are groups that serve as frames of reference for individuals in their consumption
decision because they are perceived as credible sources. Reference groups influencing broadly defined
values or behaviour are called normative reference group.
Ex- child‟s normative reference group is the immediate family. Referencing groups serving as
benchmarks for specific or narrowly defined attitudes are called comparative reference group.
Ex- they might be the upper level executives at one‟s place of employment whose lifestyle,
clothing are admired.
 Opinion leadership – It is the process by which one person informally influences the actions or
attitudes of others, who may be opinion seekers or receivers.
 Word of mouth – Informal two way interaction is termed as word of mouth. Although the term word of
mouth implies personal, or face-to-face, consumers rely on word of mouth in selecting restaurants,
travel destination, movies books etc. word of mouth occurs online in
 Social networks
 Brand communities
 Consumer message boards and weblogs
 Viral marketing etc
 Formal sources – spokespersons and endorses : The effect of time on source credibility – sleeper
effect When information is transferred from the short term memory to the long term memory, over time,
it is separated from the context in which it was learned.
Ex- Although you know that the India‟s capital is Delhi, you probably do not remember how you
learned this piece of information. This concept is known as source amnesia or sleeper effect.
3. Vendor credibility : The reputation of the retailer who sells the products has a major influence on
message Credibility. The consumer‟s previous experience with the product or the vendor has a major
impact on the credibility of the message.
4. Medium credibility : The reputation of the medium that carries the advertisement also enhances the
credibility of the message. The reputation of the medium for honesty and objectivity also affects the
believability of the advertisement. One report said that, there is a drastic increase in the number of
people who do not believe what is reported by mass media channels.

II TARGET AUDIENCE
1. The receivers as the target audience
 The initiator of the message first must decide to whom the message should be sent and what
meaning it should convey.
 The receiver of formal marketing communications is generally a targeted prospects or customers.
 Intermediary and unintended audiences are also likely to receive marketer‟s communications.
 The sender must encode the message in such a way that its meaning is interpreted by the target
audience in precisely the intended way.
 The receivers decode the messages they receive on the basis of the following factors.
2. Personal characteristics and motives
 The receiver‟s opportunity and ability to process the message, and the receiver‟s motivation.
 A person‟s demographics and lifestyle determine how a message is interpreted.
3. Opinion leaders as thought leaders
 Consumers get used to advertisements and obtain WOM opinion on brands and products categories
from opinion leaders who may be from their circle of friends. A consumer associates a significant

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degree of credibility with a opinion leader when the former thinks of the latter as a consumer who
has the knowledge and experience about a product category.
4. Involvement and congruency
 A person‟s level of involvement plays a key role in how much attention is paid to the message and
how carefully it is decoded. Thus, involvement is an important consideration in the design and
content of persuasive communications.
5. Mood
 Mood plays a significant role in how a message is decoded, perceived, recalled, and acted upon.
 Marketers of many image-centered products such as perfume, fashion, and liquor have found that
appeals focused on emotions and feelings associated with these products are more effective than
rational appeals depicting the products‟ benefits.
 Generally positive mood is likely to enhance the consumer‟s reaction to any ads.
6. Barriers to communication
 Selective exposure to messages - They read ads carefully for products they are interested in and
tend to ignore advertisements that have no interest or relevance to them.
 Psychological noise – in the form of competing advertising messages or distracting thoughts, can
impact the reception of a promotional message. A viewer faced with the clutter of nine successive
commercial messages during a program break may actually receive and retain almost nothing of
what he has seen.
III. MEDIA STRATEGY
The media as the channels for transmitting messages
The media or communications channel can be impersonal or interpersonal (formal or informal). Today
there are two types of media: -
 Mass media – print, broadcast
 New media (alternative or non traditional media)

1. Targeting consumers through mass media

 Companies that have many diverse audiences sometimes develop a communications strategy that
consists of an overall communications message to all their audiences,
 In addition, to maintain positive communications with all of their publics, most large organizations
use public relations to broadcast favorable information about the company.
 The major limitations of traditional advertising media along the dimensions of targeting precision,
the ability to construct and send a persuasive message, degree of psychological noise, feedback, and
relative cost.
2. Targeting consumers through new (non traditional) media
New media are more dynamic than traditional media. The message transmitted via new media are:
 Addressable – they can be customized and addressed to a particular receiver
 Interactive – the receiver can interact with the sender during its transmission
 Response measurable – a receiver‟s response can be measured more precisely
The different new media’s are as follows:
A. Out-to-home and on-the –go media
 It consists of new promotional tools as well as some older means that were significantly updated with
new technology.

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 This media target mobile customers in more innovative, captivating, and interactive ways than mass
media. The media group includes: -
 Captive advertising screens placed in buildings (hotels, taxi, office building etc)
 Digital billboards and displays etc.
 Ambient advertising
B. Online and mobile media
 This category is also called consumer-generated media and mobile advertising and it includes all ads
reaching the consumer online and on any mobile communication devices such as personal digital
assistances.
C. Interactive TV
 Interactive TV combines TV programming and the interactivity of the web, in the form of two way
communication between subscriber and provider of cable.
Ex: - viewer of TOP CHEF Programme can vote on contestants, immediately see the results etc.
3. Media and message congruence
Messages directed to individuals or mass depend on the media and also narrowcast or wider cast
messages depend on whether marketers adopt traditional or non traditional media. The following are the
two concepts can be understood about media and message congruence:
 Addressable advertising
 Branded entertainment

IV. MESSAGE STRATEGIES

A. Designing persuasive messages
 A message can be verbal or nonverbal or combination of two.
 The message is the thought, idea, attitude, image, or other information that the sender wishes to convey
to the intended audiences.
 The sponsor, who may an individual or organization
 The objective of a persuasive message include creating awareness of a service, promoting sales of a
product, encouraging certain practices, attracting retailers, reducing post purchase dissonance, creating
favourable image etc.
B. Behaviour theories and persuasive message
 In an emerging market like India, a combination of behaviour theories is likely to be useful for
marketers to create persuasive messages.
 One such behavioural theory is the prospect theory deals with the pleasure based on changing conditions
as compared to the existing conditions of consumers.
 Several durables like cars, two wheelers get financed by banks that advertise on the prospect theory
principle.
 Even motivational theories are considered as behavioural theories studied in last module.

V. MESSAGE STRUCTURE AND PRESENTATION

Some of the decisions that marketer must make in designing a message include the use of
1. Resonance – Is wordplay, often consisting of a humorous double meaning, and usually accompanied by
a relevant picture. By using resonance in ads, marketers hope to increase the chances that consumer will
notice their ads, remember them, and view them favorably.

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2. Positive or negative Message framing – Marketers usually adopt either the following message frames.
Marketers stress the benefits to be gained by using a specific product (positive message framing) or the
benefits to be lost by not using the product (negative message framing).
3. One-sided or two-sided messages – Some marketers stress only positive factors about their products
pretend that competition does not exist, it is known as one sided messages. Some marketers express
product features in relation to a competing brand or by not claiming that the product is a universal cure,
it is known as two sided messages.
4. Order effects – Communications researchers have found that the order in which a message is presented
affects audience receptivity. Order is important in listing product benefits within an ad. If audience
interest is low, the most important point should be made first to attract attention. However, if interest is
high, it is not necessary to pique curiosity.

VI. ADVERTISING APPEALS

1. Comparative advertising : Comparative advertising is a widely used marketing strategy in which a
marketer claims product superiority for its brand over one or more explicitly named or implicitly
identified competitors, either on an overall basis or on selected product attributes. Comparative
advertising is useful for product positioning, for target market selection, and for brand-positioning
strategies.
2. Fear : Fear is an emotional response to some actual or perceived threat or danger. Advertisers use fear
appeals in some situations to evoke the desired emotional response and motivate audience to take steps
to remove the threat. Some people humorously call these as „slice-of-death‟ ads. Toothpaste, deodorants,
helmets, anti- dandruff shampoos, life insurance and a large number of other products and services use
fear appeals.
3. Humor (Funniness) : Humor generates feelings of amusement and pleasure and, for this reason, it has
the potential for the feeling to become associated with the brand and affect consumer attitudes towards the
brand and probably its image. Humor can also affect information processing by attracting attention,
improving brand name recall, creating pleasant mood and reducing the chances of counter-arguing.
4. Abrasive advertising (agony commercials) : How effective can unpleasant or annoying ads are? The
memory of an unpleasant commercial that antagonizes listeners or viewers may dissipate over time,
leaving only the brand name in the minds of consumers. All of us have at one time or another been repelled
by so-called agony commercials, which depict in diagrammatic detail the internal and intestinal effects of
heartburn, indigestion, clogged sinus cavities, hammer induced headaches, and the like. Pharmaceutical
companies often run such commercials with great success that are not visible and thus elicit little sympathy from
family and friends.
5. Sex in advertising : Using sex content in ads
6. Audience participation : Including audience in ads , their reaction and responses
7. Timely advertising : Ads are given at particular time
8. Celebrities : Using celebrities in the ads.

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