Chapter Two

Electrical and Thermal

Conduction in Solids:
Mainly Classical Concepts

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 1

Topics to be covered in this chapter :

1. Classical theory: The Drude model [drift velocity, ohms law, unipolar
conductivity]
2. Temperature dependence of resistivity: Ideal pure metals, Matthiessen’s
rule and the temperature coefficient of resistivity (α)
3. Thermal Conductivity: Wiedemann–Franz–Lorenz law, Thermal
resistance Example 2.21
4. The Hall effect and Hall Devices

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 2

 Mathematical Problems
“Principle of Electronic Materials and Devices ”- S. O. Kasap 4th Ed.

Chapter Example from Book Exercise from Book

Electrical and Thermal Conduction in 2.2,2.6,2.8,2.9,2.18,2.21 2.1,2.15,2.30(a)
Solids: Mainly Classical Concepts 2.10(3rd ed).

All problems of the slides

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 3

 Electrical conduction in solid

• Electrical conduction: Electrical conduction involves the motion of charges in a material under the
influence of an applied electric field.

• Conduction electrons: In metals, due to the nature of metallic bonding, the valence electrons from the
atoms form a sea of electrons that are free to move within the metal and are therefore called conduction
electrons . It can be accelerated by an applied electric field.

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 4

Classical theory:
The Drude model
q
J=
At
1
vdx = [vx1 + vx 2 + vx 3 + ... + vxn ]
N
q enAvdx t
Jx = = = envdx
At At
J x (t ) = envdx

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 5

The valence electrons in the
electron gas are conduction
electrons.

it will drift a finite distance in the x direction. The

electron accelerates along the x direction under the
action of the force eEx, and then it suddenly collides
with a vibrating atom and loses the gained velocity.

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 6

Ohms Law derivation • τ is the mean free time, or the mean time between
collisions (also known as the mean scattering time).
For some electrons, (t − ti) will be greater than τ, and
for others, it will be shorter. Averaging (t − ti) for N
electrons will be the same as τ.
• Its reciprocal 1∕τ represents the mean frequency of
collisions or scattering events; that is, 1∕τ is the mean
probability per unit time that the electron will be
scattered also The mean free path is where u is the
mean speed. l= d

Ohms Law

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 7

Problem 01

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 8

 Cond..

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 9

Problem 02
cm 2V −1s −1
gmmol −1 gmcm−3

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 10

 Motion of conduction electron in a metal

▪ Due to crystal defects, vacancies,

dislocations, impurities, etc. Cu crystal
will not be stationery and conduction
electrons exhibits the scattering
mechanism.

▪ due to the thermal energy, the atoms will

vibrate about their lattice sites
(equilibrium positions).

▪ The electron accelerates along the x

direction under the action of the force and
then it suddenly collides with a vibrating
atom and loses the gained velocity.
Therefore, there is an average velocity in
the x direction
EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 11
Drude Model

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 12

Simple harmonic motion
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M4WQs_U1nmU

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 13

 TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTIVITY:
IDEAL PURE METALS
S =  a2


• When the conduction electrons are only scattered by =u a
thermal vibrations of the metal ions, then τ in the mobility
e
expression d = refers to the mean time between
me u
scattering events by this process. The resulting conductivity
and resistivity are denoted by σT and ρT, where the subscript
T represents “thermal vibration scattering.”
• To find the temperature dependence of σ, we first consider
the temperature dependence of the mean free time τ, since Electron
this determines the drift mobility. An electron moving with
1
a mean speed u is scattered when its path crosses the cross
=
sectional area S of a scattering centre, as depicted in Figure. SuN s
Since τ is the mean time taken for one scattering process, the
mean free path ℓ of the electron between scattering processes is
uτ.
If Ns is the concentration of scattering centers, then in the volume

Sℓ, there is one scattering center, that is, ( Su ) N = 1
s
Thus, the mean free time is given by

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 14

Temperature Dependence of Resistivity: Ideal Pure Metals

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 15

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTIVITY:
IDEAL PURE METALS

Because the atomic vibrations are random, the atom

covers a cross-sectional area , where a is the 1
Ma 2
amplitude of the vibrations. If the electron’s path 4
crosses , it gets scattered.
Therefore, the mean time between scattering events
1
τ is inversely proportional to the area that kT
1 2
scatters the electron, that is, 2
a 1 1
S =  a2 Ma 2 2  kT
4 2


=u a

u
T = AT
lattice-scattering-limited
conductivity

Electron

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 16

 MATTHIESSEN’S RULE AND THE TEMPERATURE
COEFFICIENT OF RESISTIVITY (α)

One way of looking at the scattering process from an impurity

is to consider the scattering cross section.
What actually scatters the electron is a local, unexpected
change in the potential energy PE of the electron as it
approaches the impurity, because the force experienced
by the electron is given by
d ( PE )
F =−
dx
Two types of scattering :
1. , for scattering from thermal vibrations only,
2. for scattering from impurities only.
We define as the mean time between scattering events
arising from thermal vibrations alone
as the mean time between scattering events arising from
collisions with impurities alone.

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 17

MATTHIESSEN’S RULE AND THE TEMPERATURE
COEFFICIENT OF RESISTIVITY (α)

Since in unit time, is the net probability of scattering The effective (or overall) resistivity ρ of the material is
simply
1 1 1
is the probability of scattering from lattice vibrations alone = = +
end enL enI
is the probability of scattering from impurities alone

then within the realm of elementary probability theory for  = T +  I

independent events 1 1 1
= + 1 1
  I T e T = I =
d =
me enL enI
1 1 1
= +
d I L

lattice-scattering-limited drift mobility

Impurity scattering-limited drift mobility.

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 18

MATTHIESSEN’S RULE AND THE TEMPERATURE
COEFFICIENT OF RESISTIVITY (α)

 = T +  I
1
T =
1 I =
enL
Matthiessen’s rule gives the overall enI
resistivity of a metal as the sum of
individual resistivities due to scattering there is an additional resistivity,
from thermal vibrations, impurities, 1
the resistivity due to and crystal defects. If the resistivity due I =
scattering by thermal to scattering from thermal vibrations is enI
vibrations of the host denoted ρT and the resistivities due to
atoms. scattering from crystal defects and which arises from the scattering of the
For those near-perfect pure impurities can be lumped into a single electrons from the impurities And this
metal crystals, this is the resistivity term called the residual is not temperaute dependent
dominating contribution resistivity ρR, then  =  + 
Temperature dependent T I
as 1
T 
T

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 19

THE TEMPERATURE
COEFFICIENT OF RESISTIVITY (α)

 = T +  R Temperature coefficient of resistivity (TCR) α0

1  P 
0 =
residual 0  T T =T0
resistivity the fractional change in the resistivity
per unit temperature increase at the
reference temperature T0
  AT + B where ρ0 is the resistivity at the
where A and B are temperature-independent constants reference temperature T0

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 20

Mathematical problem

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 21

Solution

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 22

Resistivity of different metals
Table 2.1 Resistivity, thermal coefficient of resistivity 0 at 273K (0 °C) for various metals. The
resistivity index n in   Tn or some of the metals is also shown.
Metal 0 (n m) 0 (1 /K) n Comment

Aluminum, Al 25.0 1/233

Antimony, Sb 38 1/196
Copper, Cu 15.7 1/232 1.15
Gold, Au 22.8 1/251
Indium, In 78.0 1/196
Platinum, Pt 98 1/255 0.94

Silver, Ag 14.6 1/244 1.11

Tantalum, Ta 117 1/294 0.93
Tin, Sn 110 1/217 1.11
Tungsten, W 50 1/202 1.20
Iron, Fe 84.0 1/152 1.80 Magnetic metal; 273 < T < 1043K

Nickel, Ni 59.0 1/125 1.72 Magnetic metal; 273 < T < 627K

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 23

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 24
THE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTIVITY (α)
100
T
10
 (n m)
1
.5
T
Resistivity (nm)

3
0.1
.5
  T5
0.01 2
.5   T5
0.001
1
.5  = R
 = R
0.0001

0.00001
0
1 10 100 1000 10000 0 20 40 60 80 10
Temperature (K) T (K)

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 25

Assignment

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 26

Assignment Solution

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 27

 HOT COLD
THERMAL CONDUCTION HEAT

Thermal conductivity (κ) is a property of a

material that quantifies the ease with which
heat flows along the material from higher to
lower temperature regions. Since heat flow is
due to a temperature gradient, κ is the rate of
heat flow across a unit area per unit
temperature gradient. Electron Gas Vibrating Cu+ ions

When a metal piece is heated at one end, the amplitude of the

atomic vibrations, and thus the average kinetic energy of the
electrons, in this region increases, as depicted in Figure 2.18.
Electrons gain energy from energetic atomic vibrations when
the two collide. By virtue of their increased random motion,
these energetic electrons then transfer the extra energy to the
colder regions by colliding with the atomic vibrations there.
Thus, electrons act as “energy carriers.”

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 28

 T
HOT COLD
dQ
dt
HEAT A

x

Fig. 2.19: Heat flow in a metal rod heated at one end. Consider the
rate of heat flow, dQ/dt, across a thin section  x of the rod. The rate
of heat flow is proportional to the temperature gradient  T/ x and the
cross sectional area A.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 29

 450
Ag

Thermal conductivity,  (W K-1 m-1)

400
Ag-3Cu Cu
Ag-20Cu
300 
= T CWFL Au

Al
200
Be
W
Mg
Mo
100 Ni Brass (Cu-30Zn)
Bronze (95Cu-5Sn)
Steel (1080)
Pd-40Ag
0 Hg
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
6 -1 -1
Electrical conductivity,  10  m

Fig. 2.20: Thermal conductivity,  vs. electrical conductivity  for

various metals (elements and alloys) at 20 °C. The solid line
represents the WFL law with CWFL  2.44108 W  K-2.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 30

 50000
Thermal conductivity,  (W K-1 m-1)

10000 Copper

1000 Aluminum

100 Brass (70Cu-30Zn)

Al-14%Mg

10
1 10 100 1000
Temperature (K)

Fig. 2.21: Thermal conductivity vs. temperature for two pure metals
(Cu and Al) and two alloys (brass and Al-14%Mg). Data extracted from Equilibrium
Thermophysical Properties of Matter, Vol. 1: Thermal Conductivity,
Metallic Elements and Alloys, Y.S. Touloukian et. al (Plenum, New
York, 1970).
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
Hot Cold
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

Energetic atomic vibrations

Fig. 2.22: Conduction of heat in insulators involves the

generation and propogation of atomic vibrations through the
bonds that couple the atoms. (An intuitive figure.)

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 31

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 32

 Assignment

A brass disk of electrical resistivity 50 nΩ m conducts heat from a

heat source to a heat sink at a rate of 10 W. Assume its diameter is 20
mm and its thickness is 30 mm, Estimate the temperature drop
across the disk by neglecting the heat losses from the surface.

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 33

 Assignment
▪ Using the concept of ohms law, show that,
Rate of charge flow,

▪ Why thermal conductivity is constant

above 100K?

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 34

 T Q = T/
Hot
T
Cold
Q Q Q
A

L

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.23: Conduction of heat through a component in (a)

can be modeled as a thermal resistance  shown in (b) where
Q = T/.

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 35

 Insulators Semiconductors Conductors
Many ceramics
Superconductors
Alumina
Diamond Inorganic Glasses
Mica Metals
Polypropylene
Soda silica glass Degenerately
PVDF
PET Borosilicate Pure SnO2 Doped Si Alloys
Amorphous Intrinsic Si
SiO2 Intrinsic GaAs Te Graphite NiCr Ag
As2Se3

10-18 10-15 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3100 103 106 109 1012
Conductivity (m)-1

Figure 2.24: Range of conductivites exhibited by various materials

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 36

 • Hall Effect
• Hall Voltage
• Hall Effect application

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 37

 Jy = 0 Bz
y
+ +
eEy Ey x
Jx Jx z
Ex
vhx vex
evhxBz eEy evexBz

+ + + + A
Bz

V
Fig. 2.26: Hall effect for ambipolar conduction as in a
semiconductor where there are both electrons and holes. The
magnetic field Bz is out from the plane of the paper. Both electrons
and holes are deflected toward the bottom surface of the conductor
and consequently the Hall voltage depends on the relative mobilities
and concentrations of electrons and holes.(E is the electric field.)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 38

 q = +e q = -e
v v

B B
B
F = qvB F = qvB

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.16 A moving charge experiences a Lorentz force in a magnetic

field. (a) A positive charge moving in the x direction experiences a
force downwards. (b) A negative charge moving in the -x direction
also experiences a force downwards.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 39

 Hall effect
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iPU_pzrg4UE

Jy = 0
▪ Hall effect is a consequence of a charged Bz
y
carrier moving in the presence of VH V
+ + + + +
perpendicular electric and magnetic eEH x
z
fields. Jx Ex Jx
vdx
▪ When a conductor is placed in a
evdxBz
EH

magnetic field which is perpendicular to

A
the current, the charge carriers in the
conductor deflected by the magnetic Bz
field, giving rise to an electric field is V
perpendicular to both the current and +
magnetic field. This phenomenon is
called as Hall effect. Fig. 2.15: Illustration of the Hall effect. The z-direction is out from the
plane of paper. The externally applied magnetic field is along the z-
direction.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 40

 Lorentz force

▪ When a charge (q) moving with

velocity (v) in the magnetic field (B),
the charge experiences a force in a
magnetic field that is called Lorentz
force.

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 41

 Hall voltage

Lorentz force acting on each

electron,
In the steady state
condition,

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 42

 Application

IL
Wattmeter
IL
Since the Hall voltage depends on the product of two
quantities, the current density Jx and the transverse
Load applied magnetic field Bz, we see that the effect naturally
Source VL RL multiplies two independently variable quantities.
Therefore, it provides a means of carrying out a
multiplication process. One obvious application is
VL measuring the power dissipated in a load, where the load
IL
current and voltage are multiplied. There are many
IL
C C instances when it is necessary to measure magnetic fields,
V VH and the Hall effect is ideally suited to such applications.
Bz
Commercial Hall-effect magnetometers can measure
w magnetic fields as low as 10 nT, which should be compared
R
to the earth’s magnetic field of ∼50 μT. Depending on the
Ix = VL/R
VL application, manufacturers use different semiconductors to
obtain the desired sensitivity. Hall-effect semiconductor
Fig. 2.17: Wattmeter based on the Hall effect. Load voltage and load devices are generally inexpensive, small, and reliable.
current have L as subscript. C denotes the current coils. for setting Typical commercial, linear Hall-effect sensor devices are
up a magnetic field through the Hall effect sample (semiconductor)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap (© McGraw-Hill, 2002) capable of providing a Hall voltage of ∼10 mV per mT of
http://Materials.Usask.Ca
applied magnetic field.

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 43

Homework

EEE 3113 SPRING 2024 44