PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES TOWARDS HEALTH AND

FITNESS I

UNIT IV:
MOVEMENT ENHANCEMENT
The Human Movement
Our Skeletal System
Could you imagine body without bones?

It would have no shape and could not stand upright; vital organs would be almost
totally unprotected, and motor movement would be impossible. Without our skeletal
muscles our bodies would have no framework, our delicate organs would be unprotected,
and we would be unable to move.

Bone, or osseous tissue, is a hard, dense connective tissue that forms most of the
adult skeleton, the support structure of the body. The skeletal system is the body system
composed of bones and cartilage and performs the following critical functions for the
human body:

● Protects
Our delicate organs need protection:
- The skull protects the brain
- The vertebral column protects the spinal cord
- The rib cage protects the heart and lungs.

● Supports
Our body need a framework:
- The skeleton gives shape to our bodies
- It holds our vital organs in place
- It enables us to achieve a good posture.

● Moves
Our muscles use our bones to cause movement:
- The skeleton provides attachment for the muscles
- The skeleton is jointed, which allows a wide range of movement
- Different joints allow different types of movement.

● Produces blood
- Red and white blood cells are produced in the bone marrow of the ribs,
humerus, vertebrae and femur.
Classification of Bones

The 206 bones that compose the adult skeleton are divided into five categories
based on their shapes. Their shapes and their functions are related such that each
categorical shape of bone has a distinct function.
1. Long Bones. It is a long bone is one that is cylindrical in shape, being longer than
it is wide. Long bones are found in the arms (humerus, ulna, radius) and legs
(femur, tibia, fibula), as well as in the fingers (metacarpals, phalanges) and toes
(metatarsals, phalanges). We use them in the main movements of our body. Long
bones task as levers; they move when muscles contract.

2. Short Bones. It is short bone is one that is cube-like in shape, being

approximately equal in length, width, and thickness. The only short bones in the
human skeleton are in the carpals of the wrists and the tarsals of the ankles. We
use them in fine movements of our body. Short bones can provide stability and
support as well as some limited motion.
3. Flat Bones. A flat bone is typically thin, it is also often curved. Examples include
the cranial (skull) bones, the scapulae (shoulder blades), the sternum
(breastbone), and the ribs. We use them to protect the organs of our body. Flat
bones serve as points of attachment for muscles and often protect internal organs.

4. Irregular Bones. It is an irregular bone is one that does not have any easily
characterized shape and therefore does not fit any other classification. These
bones tend to have more complex shapes, like the vertebrae that support the
spinal cord and protect it from compressive forces. We use them to give our body
protection and shape. Many facial bones, particularly the ones containing sinuses,
are classified as irregular bones.

5. Sesamoid Bones. It is a sesamoid bone is a small, round bone that, as the name
suggests, is shaped like a sesame seed. These bones form in tendons (the sheaths
of tissue that connect bones to muscles) where a great deal of pressure is
generated in a joint. These bones protect tendons by helping them overcome
compressive forces. These vary in number and placement from person to person
 but are typically found in tendons associated with the feet, hands, and knees. The
patellae (singular=patella) are the only sesamoid bones found in common with
every person. Table 1 reviews bone classifications with their associated features,
functions, and examples.

Table 1. BONE CLASSIFICATION

Bone Features Function(s) Examples

classification
Long Cylinder-like shape, Leverage Femur, tibia, fibula,
longer than it is metatarsals,
wide humerus, ulna,
radius,
metacarpals,
phalanges
Short Cube-like shape, Provide stability, Carpals, tarsals
approximately support, while
equal in length, allowing for some
width, and motion
thickness
Flat Thin and curved Points of Sternum, ribs,
attachment for scapulae, cranial
muscles; protectors bones
of internal organs
Irregular Complex shape Protect internal Vertebrae, facial
organs bones
Sesamoid Small and round; Protect tendons Patellae
embedded in from compressive
tendons forces
What are the main parts of our skeleton?
Our skeleton is divided into two parts: axial skeleton and the appendicular
skeleton.

Appendicular Skeleton Axial Skeleton

Shoulder girdle Skull
Made up of two clavicles and two Made up of 28 bones
scapulas There are also 14 bones in the
Is only linked by muscles to our face and six in the ear
vertebral column, this gives us Fused together in early childhood
great flexibility in our arms and Protects the brain, eyes and ears
shoulder. However, it limits the Balance mechanisms found in the
force we can use ears
Parts of the Skeletal System
Arms Sternum
Humerus, radius and ulna A large flat bone at the front of
There are eight carpal bones in the the ribcage
wrist Helps to make the ribs cage
Five metacarpal bones in the hand stronger.
14 phalanges in each hand
Ribs
Hip girdle Made up of 12 pairs joined to the
Made up of two halves, each vertebral column
formed by three bones, which are Seven pairs are joined to the
fused together on each side sternum
Forms a very stable joint with the Three pairs are joined to the
vertebral column and passes the seventh rib (false ribs)
weight of the body to the legs Two ribs are unattached (floating
Supports the lower abdomen and ribs)
provides a strong joint for the The ribcage protects our lungs
femur and heart
The female pelvis is wider and
shallower than the male pelvis. This
is to make childbearing easier, but
it does make running less efficient

Legs
Femur, tibia and fibula
There are seven tarsals in each
foot
Five metatarsals in the foot
14 phalanges in each foot
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How do we move?
The skeleton has many joints. A joint, also called an articulation, is any place where
adjacent bones or bone and cartilage come together (articulate with each other) to form
a connection. There are two classification of joints: structurally and functionally.
Structural classifications of joints take into account whether the adjacent bones are
strongly anchored to each other by fibrous connective tissue or cartilage, or whether the
adjacent bones articulate with each other within a fluid-filled space called a joint cavity.
Functional classifications describe the degree of movement available between the
bones, ranging from immobile, to slightly mobile, to freely moveable joints. The amount
of movement available at a particular joint of the body is related to the functional
requirements for that joint. Thus, immobile or slightly moveable joints serve to protect
internal organs, give stability to the body, and allow for limited body movement. In
contrast, freely moveable joints allow for much more extensive movements of the body
and limbs.

Immovable joints. A formulation of two bones that have

been fused together. Such joints are capable of movement by
muscular force. For all practical purposes, they could as well
not exist, except that they do serve a protective function.
Slight movement might occur in the joints, resulting in a
cushioning effect when external force is applied. For example,
if a blow is struck on the head, the immovable joints of the
cranium will permit slight movement.

Slightly Movable Joints. These joints are not firmly fixed

as are immovable joints, but the structure of bones and
connective tissues in and around the joints restricts the range
of motion to only a few degrees. Examples of slightly movable
joints are those located in the spine. It is also found between
the sacrum and ilia, and at the front and back attachments of
the ribs.

Free Movable Joints. These joints have a comparatively

large of movement and are of prime importance in motor
performances. They are located in the upper and lower
extremities. Examples of freely movable joints are the
shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, and knee joints.
Joints and Sports
When we make skilled sporting movements, our different joints work smoothly
together. In order to work well, they must be capable of a full range of movement. To
give stability to the joint, the muscles and ligaments surrounding each joint must be
strong enough.

The demands of sport place severe stress on our joints. We must warm up
thoroughly before activity and we should cool down afterwards.

Joints can be injured as a result of impact, internal forces or a mixture of both.

Common examples include sprained ankle, torn knee ligaments and dislocated shoulder.

Planes of the Body

The mid-sagittal (sagitta is Latin for “arrow”) (or median) plane is a vertical plane
extending in an anteroposterior direction dividing the body into right and left parts;
effectively the forward and backward plane. (A sagittal plane is any plane parallel to the
median plane).

The coronal (or frontal) plane is a vertical plane at right angles to the sagittal plane
that divides the body into anterior and posterior portions; effectively the side movement
plane.

The transverse (or horizontal) plane is a horizontal cross-section, dividing the body
into upper and lower sections, and lies at right angles to the other two planes; effectively
the rotational movement plane.

Coronal Mid-sagittal Transverse

(Frontal) Plane Plane Plane
Kinds of Joint Movements
The following are descriptions of all the movements that occur in the body joints. The
descriptions are based on the assumption that the body is in the standard anatomical
position, that is, the erect position with the palms forward.

1. Flexion (bending) is movement of a segment of the body causing a decrease in

the angle at the point, such as bending the arm at the elbow or the leg at the
knee. The trunk and neck can flex forward.

2. Lateral Flexion is bending sideways, and it can occur to both the right and the
left. The trunk and neck can also flex sideways.

3. Horizontal Flexion is a body segment flexes through the horizontal plane. For
example, the arm moves through horizontal flexion at the shoulder joint in
throwing the discuss or in the sidearm pitch.

4. Dorsiflex (Dorsal Flex) is when the ankle is flexed, causing the top of the foot to
draw closer to the tibia.

5. Plantar Flexion (actually extension) is the opposite movement at the ankle.

6. Extension (Straightening) is movement in the opposite direction of flexion which

causes an increase in the angle at the joint, such as straightening the elbow or the
knee.

7. Horizontal Extension (Horizontal Abduction) occurs when the body segment

extends through the horizontal plane. In putting the shot, the opposite arms move
through the horizontal extension.

8. Hyperextension is extension of a body segment to a position beyond its normal

extended position, such as arching the back or extending the leg at the hip beyond
its vertical position. (Movement is limited by the strong anterior cruciate ligament.)

9. Abduction is movement of a body segment in the lateral plane away from the
midline of the body, such as raising the leg or the arm sideways.

10. Adduction is movement of a body segment toward the midline, as moving the
arm from the outward horizontal position downward to the vertical position.
11. Rotation is movement of a segment around its own longitudinal axis. A body
segment may be rotated inward (medially) or outward (laterally). The scapula may
be rotated upward or downward and the spine may rotate to the right or the left.

12. Pronation is rotation of the hand and forearm downward, resulting in a “palm-
down” position.

13. Supination is rotation of the hand and forearm upward, resulting in a “palm-up”
position.

14. Inversion is rotating of the foot turning the sole inward.

15. Eversion is rotation of the foot turning the sole outward.

16. Circumduction is a circular or cone-like movement of a body segment, such as

swinging the arm in a circular movement about the shoulder joint. The kind of
movement is also possible in the wrist, trunk, neck, hip, shoulder girdle, and ankle
joints.

17. Elevation is when the shoulder is lifted upward as in shrugging the shoulders.

18. Depression is when lowering of the shoulder girdle.

19. Protraction (abduction) is movement of the shoulder girdle away from the
midline of the body, resulting in broadening of the shoulder.

20. Retraction (adduction) is movement of the shoulder girdle toward the midline of
the body, resulting in narrowing of the shoulders. The clavicle is capable of some
rotation at the sternum and accompanies scapular upward and downward rotation.
Skeletal System and Sports

The whole skeletal system (including bones, joints, ligaments, cartilage and
tendons) contribute to sports performance. Bones protect the body's organs which may
have otherwise been damaged, due to contact and force which is involved in most sport.
The function of the skeleton in sport is also to provide rigidity and structure to the body,
as well as providing strength to the body.

Movement is completely necessary in sport, as well as daily life. The skeletal

systems contribution in sport includes the allowance of movement in many different
directions, involving different groups of bones to do so. Bones also provide leverage which
is essential in sport, and they also act as a structure for muscles. Joints aid in movement
as well as contributing to sport, as joints allow for movement and the range of flexibility
between bones.

Mostly, sport and exercise which is practiced at a young age, aids in the prevention
of osteoporosis (a condition where bones become less dense, and frail) at a later stage
in life. This condition puts people at a greater risk of breaks and fractures to bones, as
weakening of the bones makes them more susceptible to damage. Exercise not only
strengthens your muscular system, but it also helps to maintain bone strength and
density. This process happens as bones detect the forces which come about during sport
and exercise. Because they are living organs, they respond to this stimulus by adapting
and creating more cells.

Exercise can benefits the growth of the skeleton in young people. Exercise can
increase bone width, bone density and therefore bone strength. But it has no effect on
bone length.

Though participating in sport and exercise, ligaments may also benefit. Ligaments
will stretch more than they would when remaining inactive when exercising. They become
slightly stretched which enables more extension and increased flexibility in sport and
everyday life in over time.
 But, over-training or over-exercising can often have negative impacts on the
skeletal system. If your vitamin D and calcium levels do not serve the amount of work
your skeletal system is managing, it is likely to lose bone density, and therefore make the
bones more prone to breaks.
Our Muscular System
All our movements happen as a result of the shortening (contracting) and
lengthening (extending) of muscles. Our muscles can:
● Enable us to move our body parts
● Give us our own individual shape
● Protect and keep in place our abdominal organs
● Enable us to maintain a good posture
● Help in the circulation of our blood
● Generate body heat when they contract.

There are over 600 skeletal muscles in the body – 150 in the head and neck.

What are the types of muscle tissue?

Muscle is the tissue that allows us for active movement of our body or materials
within our body. There are three types of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle,
and smooth muscle. Most of our body’s skeletal muscle produces movement by acting on
the skeleton.

Skeletal muscles

Skeletal or voluntary muscles work as we instruct them. They are under our
control. They make our bodies move. We use them for everyday and sporting activities
such as walking, running and jumping.

Smooth muscles

Smooth or involuntary muscles work automatically. They are not under our
conscious control. They work our internal organs such as the stomach, gut and bladder.

Cardiac muscle

Cardiac or heart muscle is a very special type of involuntary muscle. It is found

only in the heart. It contracts regularly, continuously and without tiring. It works
automatically but is under constant nervous and chemical control.
Major Muscles Group of the Human Body

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How do our muscles work?
Our muscles can work in different ways. There are three main types of muscular
contraction:
● Isotonic and concentric
● Isotonic and eccentric
● Isometric

The term ‘muscle contraction’ refers to the development of tension within the
muscle. There are three main types:

• In isometric, or static, contraction, the muscle develops tension with no

change in overall muscle length, as when holding a dumbbell stationary in a biceps
curl.

• In concentric contraction, the muscle shortens as tension is developed, as

when a dumbbell is raised in a biceps curl.

• In eccentric contraction, the muscle develops tension while it lengthens, as

in the lowering movement in a biceps curl.
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Both concentric and eccentric contractions can, theoretically, be at constant

tension (isotonic) or constant speed (isokinetic). However, most contractions normally
involve neither constant tension nor constant speed.

What happens to our muscular system as we exercise?

● There is an increased flow of blood to the working muscles
● Muscles take up more of the oxygen from the blood
● The muscles contract more often and more quickly
● More of the muscle fibers contract
● There is a rise in temperature in the muscles
● Our stores of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine phosphate (CP) in
the muscles are used up
● Waste products such as carbon dioxide and lactic acid build up in the
muscles
● These waste products may lead to tiredness and cramp (muscle fatigue)
● Our stores of muscle glucose are used up
● Our ability to carry on will be affected
● Overuse of muscles can lead to soreness and strains

Roles of Muscles
Our muscle can only contract or relax, and under normal conditions contraction
results only from a series of nerve impulses. Our muscle may contract fully or partially,
with maximum force or less. Our muscle may contract isometrically or isotonically, singly
(in rare instances) or as a member of a group. Because muscles can contract in these
different ways, they have the ability to act in different roles and to change quickly from
one role to another.

Agonist (Mover). A muscle is a mover when its concentric concentration

contributes to the desired movement of a segment of the body. For instance, in flexion
at the elbow, the biceps brachii is a mover.
 Antagonist A muscle is antagonistic to a movement when it must relax to allow
the movement to occur. Antagonist muscles cause actions opposite those caused by the
agonist muscles. For instance, the triceps brachii is antagonistic to flexion at the elbow.

Agonist and Antagonist Skeletal Muscle Pairs

Agonist Antagonist Movement
Biceps brachii: in the Triceps brachii: in the The biceps brachii flexes
anterior compartment of posterior compartment of the forearm, whereas the
the arm the arm triceps brachii extends it.

Hamstrings: group of three Quadriceps femoris: group The hamstrings flex the leg,
muscles in the posterior of four muscles in the whereas the quadriceps
compartment of the thigh anterior compartment of femoris extend it.
the thigh
Flexor digitorum Extensor digitorum: in the The flexor digitorum
superficialis and flexor posterior compartment of superficialis and flexor
digitorum profundus: in the the forearm digitorum profundus flex
anterior compartment of the fingers and the hand at
the forearm the wrist, whereas the
extensor digitorum extends
the fingers and the hand at
the wrist.

Stabilizer (Fixator) In order for a segment of the body to move, the body part on
which the segment moves must possess the right amount of stability. For instance, when
the arm moves at the shoulder joint, the shoulder girdle must be held firm by the
contraction of certain muscles which attach to it.

Neutralizer A muscle plays the role of neutralizer when it equalizes or nullifies

one or more actions of another muscle. To neutralizer each other, two muscles must
cause opposite movements. For instance, the pectoralis major and the latissimus dorsi
muscles are both movers in adduction of the humerus; in addition, the pectoralis major
flexes the humerus while the latissimus dorsi extends it. When the two muscles neutralize
each other’s functions of flexion and extension, the result is pure adduction.
Bones and Muscles
Name: ______________________________________ Date: _______________
Course/Year/Section: __________________________ Score: ______________

Directions: Write in the box the bones and muscles involve in the performance of the following
movements.

MOVEMENTS BONES MUSCLES

1. Arm flex

2. walking

3. knee bend

4. hand raising

5. hip swaying
The Muscular System
Name: ___________________________________________ Date: __________
Course/Year/Section: ______________________________ Score: __________

Direction: Name the muscle to its location in the human body.